Maternal early life experiences and parenting: the mediating role of cortisol and executive function

Examining the relationship between psychosocial adversity and inhibitory control: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of children growing up in extreme poverty

Exposure to psychosocial adversity (PA) is associated with poor behavioral, physical, and mental health outcomes in adulthood. As these outcomes are related to alterations in developmental processes, growing evidence suggests that deficits in executive functions-inhibitory control in particular-may in part explain this relationship. However, literature examining the development of inhibitory control has been based on children in higher-resource environments, and little is known how low-resource settings might exacerbate the link between inhibitory control and health outcomes. In this context, we collected functional magnetic resonance imaging data during a Go/No-Go inhibitory control task and PA variables for 68 children aged 5 to 7 years living in Dhaka, Bangladesh, an area with a high prevalence of PA. The children's mothers completed behavioral questionnaires to assess the children's PA and their own PA. Whole-brain activation underlying inhibitory control was examined using the No-Go versus Go contrast, and associations with PA variables were assessed using whole-brain regressions. Childhood neglect was associated with weaker activation in the right posterior cingulate, whereas greater family conflict, economic stress, and maternal PA factors were associated with greater activation in the left medial frontal gyrus, right superior and middle frontal gyri, and left cingulate gyrus. These data suggest that neural networks supporting inhibitory control processes may vary as a function of exposure to different types of PA, particularly between those related to threat and deprivation. Furthermore, increased activation in children with greater PA may serve as a compensatory mechanism, allowing them to maintain similar behavioral task performance.

Examining the relationship between psychosocial adversity and inhibitory control: an fMRI study of children growing up in extreme poverty

Exposure to psychosocial adversity (PA) is associated with poor behavioral, physical, and mental health outcomes in adulthood. As these outcomes are related to alterations in developmental processes, growing evidence suggests that deficits in executive functions-inhibitory control in particular-may, in part, explain this relationship. However, literature examining the development of inhibitory control has been based on children in higher resource environments, and little is known how low resource settings might exacerbate the link between inhibitory control and health outcomes. In this context, we collected fMRI data during a Go/No-Go inhibitory control task and PA variables for 68 children 5 to 7 years of age living in Dhaka, Bangladesh, an area with a high prevalence of PA. The children's mothers completed behavioral questionnaires to assess the child's PA and their own PA. Whole-brain activation underlying inhibitory control was examined using the No-Go versus Go contrast, and associations with PA variables were assessed using whole-brain regressions. Childhood neglect was associated with weaker activation in the right posterior cingulate, whereas greater family conflict, economic stress, and maternal PA factors were associated with greater activation in the left medial frontal gyrus, right superior and middle frontal gyri, and left cingulate gyrus. These data suggest that neural networks supporting inhibitory control processes may vary as a function of exposure to different types of PA, particularly between those related to threat and deprivation. Furthermore, increased activation in children with greater PA may serve as a compensatory mechanism, allowing them to maintain similar behavioral task performance.

The association between maternal and child posttraumatic stress symptoms among families living in southern Israel: The buffering role of maternal executive functions

Posttraumatic stress disorder is a prolonged stress and anxiety response that occurs after exposure to a traumatic event. Research shows that both parental and child posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are correlated but parental executive functions (EFs) could buffer this link. EFs refers to a group of high-level cognitive processes that enable self-regulation of thoughts and actions to achieve goal-directed behaviours and can be of importance for both positive parenting interactions and effective coping skills for PTSS. Our study aimed to (1) examine the link between maternal and child PTSS and the moderating role of varying degrees of exposure to severe security threats context, and (2) to identify the moderating role of maternal EFs in this interaction, among families living in southern Israel. Our sample included 131 mothers in their second pregnancy and their firstborn children. Mothers performed computerised tasks to assess their EFs and they reported on their own and their child's PTSS. Results revealed a positive correlation between maternal PTSS and child PTSS. However, the link between maternal and child PTSS was moderated by maternal working memory updating abilities and threat context severity. Among mothers with lower updating capacities, the association between maternal and child symptoms was stronger under higher threat contexts; conversely, among mothers with higher maternal updating abilities, threat context did not modulate the link between maternal and child PTSS, suggesting a stress-buffering effect. Our study contributes to the growing literature on the significant role of parental EFs in the context of parent-child interactions.

Stress and emotion recognition predict the relationship between a history of maltreatment and sensitive parenting behaviors: A moderated-moderation

Our study proposes to examine how stress and emotion recognition interact with a history of maltreatment to influence sensitive parenting behaviors. A sample of 58 mothers and their children aged between 2 and 5 years old were recruited. Parents' history of maltreatment was measured using the Child Trauma Questionnaire. An emotion recognition task was performed. Mothers identified the dominant emotion in morphed facial emotion expressions in children. Mothers and children interacted for 15 minutes. Salivary cortisol levels of mothers were collected before and after the interaction. Maternal sensitive behaviors were coded during the interaction using the Coding Interactive Behavior scheme. Results indicate that the severity of childhood maltreatment is related to less sensitive behaviors for mothers with average to good abilities in emotion recognition and lower to average increases in cortisol levels following an interaction with their children. For mothers with higher cortisol levels, there is no association between a history of maltreatment and sensitive behaviors, indicating that higher stress reactivity could act as a protective factor. Our study highlights the complex interaction between individual characteristics and environmental factors when it comes to parenting. These results argue for targeted interventions that address personal trauma.

Maternal History of Adversity and Subsequent Mother-Child Interactions at Early Ages: A Systematic Review

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can negatively impact physical, emotional, cognitive, and social development, consequently affecting the next generation. The aim of the present study was to systematically review evidence from empirical studies on the association between maternal history of adversity in childhood (maltreatment and household dysfunction) and subsequent mother-child interactions at an early age. A search was performed in the PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Scopus, LILACS, and SciELO databases to identify studies, including measures of maternal childhood adversities and mother-child interaction, published between 2016 and 2022. Twenty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. The results showed that in 90% of the studies, maternal childhood adversities negatively impacted subsequent mother-child interactions in early childhood, reducing maternal displays of affection, emotional availability, sensitivity, mother-child communication, and bonding. Biological factors (e.g., genetic and hormonal) and maternal emotional recognition moderated these associations. In addition, biological factors (i.e., neurobiological and hormonal) and psychosocial factors (e.g., depression, executive functioning, and violence) acted as mediators. Preventive interventions should be implemented to break out of the intergenerational cycle of violence that impacts mother-child interactions.

EEG coherence before and after giving birth

During pregnancy and the postpartum period, changes in brain volume and in motivational, sensory, cognitive, and emotional processes have been described. However, to date, longitudinal modifications of brain function have been understudied. To explore regional cortical coupling, in pregnancy and at 3 months postpartum, we analyzed resting-state electroencephalographic (EEG) coherence in the delta, theta, alpha1, alpha2, beta1, and beta2 frequency bands across frontal and parietal regions of the maternal brain (Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4, P3, and P4). We found that from pregnancy to the postpartum period, mothers showed less intrahemispheric EEG coherence between the frontal and parietal regions in the alpha1 and alpha2 bands, as well as greater interhemispheric EEG coherence between frontopolar regions in the beta2 band. These changes suggest decreased inhibition of neural circuits. These neurophysiological changes may represent an adaptive process characteristic of motherhood.

Parental working memory buffers associations between COVID-19 hardships and child mental health

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has impaired young children's mental health, underscoring the need for research on protective factors. Using a cross-sectional design, we examined whether parental working memory (WM) buffered relations between COVID-19 hardships (home-life, economic, and quarantine) and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Female parents (N = 339; 83.19% White/Caucasian, 8.85% Black/African American, 3.54% Asian, 1.47% Native American, and 2.36% mixed race; 7.67% Hispanic/Latinx ethnicity) of children 2-5-years-old reported COVID-19 hardships and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms and completed a backward digit span task to measure WM. All types of COVID-19 hardships were positively related to child internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Higher parental WM weakened positive relations between all types of hardships and child internalizing symptoms, and between home-life and economic hardships and externalizing symptoms. Results suggest that parental WM, a malleable target for intervention, may buffer associations between the detrimental effects of COVID-19 and young children's mental health.

Maternal Childhood Maltreatment History and Child Behavior Problems: Developmental Patterns and Mediation via Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Parenting Behavior

Maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment (CM) is associated with offspring behavioral problems; however, little work has examined these associations longitudinally across child development. This study examined the effects of maternal history of CM on trajectories of child internalizing and externalizing behavior measured from toddlerhood to preschool, and the role of maternal depressive symptoms and parenting behavior as potential mediators. Participants included 115 mother-child dyads recruited from a hospital maternity ward. Maternal CM was measured at 3-months postpartum. At 18, 36, and 60 months, maternal depressive symptoms and child behavior were assessed via maternal report and parenting behavior was assessed through direct observation. Findings indicated that children of mothers exposed to CM demonstrated poorer trajectories of problem behavior across early childhood. Maternal depressive symptoms mediated the relation between CM and children's internalizing problems. Findings highlight the importance of screening for maternal depressive symptoms and early intervention for maternal and child mental health.

Hormonal and behavioral responses to an infant simulator in women with and without children

We investigated the impact of maternal status on hormonal reactivity and behavioral responses to an infant simulator in 117 women (54 primiparous, 63 nulliparous). The amount of affectionate touch and motherese were analyzed as behavioral measures of caregiving. Saliva was collected before and 10 min after interaction with the infant simulator to analyze oxytocin, testosterone, cortisol, and estradiol levels. Nulliparous women also provided information about their fertility motivation. Linear mixed models indicated that greater use of affectionate touch was associated with lower overall testosterone levels. Cortisol decreased in response to the interaction in both groups. In the primiparous group, the amount of affectionate touch associated inversely with cortisol levels, whereas in the nulliparous group such association was not found. Oxytocin or estradiol reactivity to the simulator did not differ between the groups, nor were these hormones associated with behavior. Higher fertility motivation in nulliparous women was related to more motherese, and lower testosterone levels. Our results indicate that the simulator elicits hormonal reactivity both in mothers and nonmothers, but the patterns of associations between caregiving behavior and hormonal levels may be partially different. These results encourage using the infant simulator to explore hormonal processes related to the transition to parenthood.

Cortisol Reactivity and Observed Parenting among Mothers of Children with and without ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Neurobiological models suggest links between maternal cortisol reactivity and parenting; however, no studies have examined cortisol reactivity and parenting in mothers of school-age children with ADHD.

METHOD

We examined the relationship between observed parenting and maternal cortisol reactivity in two laboratory contexts: the Trier Social Stress Task (TSST) and parenting-child interaction (PCI). Mothers of children with (N = 24) and without (N = 36) ADHD participated.

RESULTS

During the TSST, greater cortisol output and increase were associated with decreased positive and increased negative parenting. However, during the PCI, cortisol output was associated with increased self-reported and observed positive parenting, and decreased observed negative parenting. Cortisol change during the PCI was associated with decreased observed positive parenting and increased self-reported negative parenting. Among mothers of children with ADHD, cortisol output during the PCI was negatively associated with negative, inconsistent parenting. Change in cortisol predicted more inconsistent discipline and corporal punishment.

CONCLUSION

Findings contribute to an integrative biological, psychological, and cognitive process model of parenting in families of children with ADHD.

Patterns of Maternal Childhood Maltreatment and Disrupted Interaction Between Mothers and Their 4-Month-Old Infants

Maternal childhood maltreatment (MCM) is associated with parenting disruptions which may contribute to the intergenerational transmission of negative health and social outcomes. Most prior work has used variable-centered approaches to assess MCM. Complementary person-centered approaches can identify groups of participants characterized by similar patterns of maltreatment. The current study assessed both types and patterns of MCM in relation to disrupted parenting among 179 mothers and their 4-month-olds. In variable-centered analyses, physical abuse was related to negative-intrusive maternal behavior and physical neglect to role-confused behavior. Person-centered analyses derived three classes of MCM, which differed in disrupted parenting. For example, mothers who experienced multiple types of maltreatment displayed more withdrawal than mothers in both other classes. Results document the differential effects of particular types and patterns of MCM on aspects of parenting and reveal that mother's history of maltreatment can affect the quality of mother-child interaction as early as 4 months of age.

Exploring the role of endocrine factors in sensitive parenting in men

Parental sensitivity has been studied extensively in parenting research. Recently, there has been increasing attention to endocrine factors that may be related to parental sensitivity, such as oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, and cortisol. Although hormones do not act in isolation, few studies integrated multiple hormones and examined their combined associations with parental sensitivity. The current study aimed to explore the hormonal correlates of paternal sensitivity by examining in 79 first-time fathers of young infants (2-4 months old) (1) the separate and combined associations of basal oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, and cortisol levels with sensitivity, and (2) the associations between paternal sensitivity and oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, and cortisol reactivity following father-infant interactions. We additionally explored whether interactions between the various basal hormone levels could predict paternal sensitivity. Saliva for the quantification of fathers' hormone levels was sampled before and after an interaction with their infant to determine basal levels and reactivity. Results revealed no significant associations between sensitivity and basal hormone levels or reactivity. However, results indicated that cortisol and testosterone interacted in their effects on paternal sensitive parenting. Namely, fathers with low basal cortisol levels showed more sensitivity with increasing T levels, but fathers with high cortisol levels were less sensitive with increasing T levels. However, it should be noted that the latter slope was not significantly different from zero. These findings suggest that variations in parental sensitivity might be better explained by interactions between hormones than by single hormone levels.

Parenting behaviors of mothers with posttraumatic stress: The roles of cortisol reactivity and negative emotion

Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with negative family outcomes, including parenting challenges, little is known about the biological and emotional processes that might underlie this association. The present project addressed this gap by examining associations between maternal PTSD and parenting behaviors in a lab setting. We expected that PTSD would be associated with more ineffective parenting behaviors and that negative emotion and cortisol reactivity would mediate this relation. A total of 78 mothers and their toddler-aged children completed a task designed to elicit parental responses to typical instances of child misbehavior. Salivary cortisol was collected from mothers prior and subsequent to the lab paradigm and mothers provided ratings of their experienced emotion while viewing a video of the interaction. Contrary to hypotheses, cortisol reactivity did not mediate associations between PTSD and parenting. However, findings suggest that PTSD is associated with greater permissive parenting behaviors, and mothers with even subthreshold symptoms of PTSD may experience more negative emotion during challenging parent-child interactions that ultimately interferes with parenting. Mothers with PTSD may benefit from interventions that focus on modifying the intensity of their negative emotions in the context of child misbehavior to more effectively set limits in everyday discipline encounters. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Does maternal inhibitory control mediate effects of a parenting intervention on maternal sensitive discipline? Evidence from a randomized-controlled trial

The quality of parenting greatly impacts child development, highlighting the importance of support programs that effectively improve parenting. Studies on successful intervention programs define their efficacy by gains in parenting and/or child development. However, much remains unknown about the internal processes that explain how parenting interventions bring about their effects. The aims of the current randomized-controlled study were to test whether the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) improved maternal inhibitory control (1) and whether inhibitory control mediated any effects of VIPP-SD on maternal sensitive discipline (2). In total, 66 mothers of whom a random 33% received the VIPP-SD and the others a "dummy" intervention participated in pre- and post-intervention assessments. Sensitive discipline was observed during a semi-structured limit-setting situation and inhibitory control was measured using a stop-signal task. Contrary to expectations, inhibitory control improved over time in the control group and sensitive discipline did not show the expected increase in the intervention group. Results did not support mediation. We suggest that the intervention may have induced cognitive restructuring of parenting schemas, delaying improvements in post-intervention inhibitory control and sensitive discipline. Factors that may be involved in parents' susceptibility to interventions require attention in future work.

Child maltreatment affects fathers’ response to infant crying, not mediated by cortisol or testosterone

Parents' ability to appropriately respond to infant crying is essential for parental care and has been found to relate to parents' own childhood experiences. Additionally, childhood experiences can affect endocrine factors, which may subsequently affect behavior. In the current study, preregistered on https://osf.io/hwgtu, we examined in expectant and new fathers (N = 152) associations between experiences of maltreatment in their own childhood, hair cortisol and testosterone concentrations and their ability to modulate handgrip force when exposed to infant crying. Cortisol and testosterone were quantified from the 1 cm of hair most proximal to the scalp using Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Participants were asked to squeeze a handgrip dynamometer at full and half strength while listening to infant cries and control sounds. Results indicated that fathers who experienced more childhood maltreatment used more excessive handgrip force during infant cry sounds. Hair cortisol and testosterone were not related to either experienced childhood maltreatment or handgrip strength modulation. These findings confirm that fathers’ early experiences of maltreatment reduce their ability to modulate their behavioral responses during infant cries, but suggest that hair cortisol and testosterone concentrations do not identify the underlying mechanism of this association.

•

Childhood maltreatment relates to fathers' behavioural responses to infant crying.

•

Childhood maltreatment is unrelated to fathers' hair cortisol and testosterone.

•

Cortisol and testosterone are unrelated to behavioural responses to infant cries.

Stressed out and fed up: The effect of stress on maternal feeding behaviors and the moderating role of executive function

Stress is associated with a range of unhealthy eating habits, yet few studies have examined how stress may influence the intergenerational transmission of eating habits from parents to their children. Specifically, there is a lack of data regarding the role of stress on feeding practices. Moreover, most work investigating the associations between parental stress and their feeding behaviors has been correlational, limiting our understanding of causality. In the current study, we used an experimental design, induced high and low stress in mothers using a standard laboratory stressor, and observed mother-child interactions during a snack break. We also examined the potential role of maternal executive functioning (EF) for buffering the effects of stress on maternal feeding behaviors. Levels of maternal stress were manipulated with the Trier Social Stress Task (TSST) in a community sample (N = 80 dyads, Child M_age = 41.89 months, female = 43). We measured maternal EF with a series of computerized tasks. Maternal feeding behaviors were coded for controlling behaviors, which included pressuring and restricting behaviors. Results indicate a main effect of stress on controlling feeding behaviors, such that mothers in the high-stress condition exhibited higher levels of controlling behaviors. The effect of stress on controlling feeding behaviors was ameliorated among mothers with higher levels of EF after controlling for child age and income. Results provide causal evidence for the role of stress on feeding behaviors and suggest EF as a factor to be considered in the treatment and prevention of diet-related illnesses.

Pregnancy-related hormones and COMT genotype: Associations with maternal working memory

Women experience different degrees of subjective cognitive changes during pregnancy. The exact mechanism underlying these changes is unknown, although endocrine alterations and genetics may be contributing factors. We investigated whether multiple pregnancy-related hormones were associated with working memory function assessed with the Digit Span Test (DST) in late pregnancy. Moreover, we examined whether the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) genotype, previously related to working memory, was an effect modifier in this association. In this population-based panel study, we recorded psychiatric history, medication use, socio-demographic characteristics, and psychological well-being, gathered blood and saliva samples, and administered the DST at gestational weeks 35-39 (N = 216). We conducted multivariate linear regressions with DST as outcome, with different hormones and COMT genotype, adjusting for covariates including maternal age, BMI, education, depressive symptoms, and parity. We repeated these analyses excluding women with elevated depressive symptoms. Higher DST total scores were associated with increased free estradiol concentrations (B = 0.01, p = 0.03; B = 0.01, p = 0.02) in all participants and in participants without depressive symptoms, respectively, whereas DST forward was positively associated with free estradiol only in women without depressive symptoms (B = 0.01, p = 0.04). Lower total testosterone concentrations (B = -0.03, p = 0.01) enhanced DST backward performance in non-depressed women. Maternal higher education was significantly associated with the DST subscales in all participants. No significant differences emerged when considering the COMT genotype. Our results suggest differential associations of free estradiol and total testosterone levels with working memory function in late pregnancy.

Fathering behavior, attachment, and engagement in childcare predict testosterone and cortisol

The present study examined testosterone (T) and cortisol (Cort) in fathers engaged with caregiving. We collected saliva samples in the mornings and evenings of two consecutive days in 150 fathers of 1- to 5-year-old children. Fathers completed questionnaires on socioeconomic status, family structure and life, sleep characteristics and body mass index (BMI), and reported on their engagement in childcare. Fathers used smartphone-based experience sampling throughout 1 week to sample ongoing activities with their children, including times of supervision, joint play, rough-and-tumble play, and cuddling episodes. External observers rated father-child attachment during a home visit. We began by testing for widely characterized covariates of T and excluded seasonal variations and known predictors associated with lowered T, such as older fathers and those with multiple and young children, lower BMI, shorter sleep duration, and sexual activity before sampling. Most interestingly, however, fathers' engagement in childcare and attachment to the child appeared more pronounced the greater the diurnal decline in T. Cuddling predicted a similar negative association, whereas joint play and rough-and-tumble play (RTP) showed enhancing effects on declining T. Interestingly, all fathering behaviors (except RTP) were positively related to lower Cort. In contrast, supervision was ineffective on both Cort and T.

A biopsychosocial perspective on maternal parenting in the first two years of infant life

Guided by a biopsychosocial perspective of mothering, this study investigated the interplay among biological (maternal cortisol reactivity), psychological (maternal depressive symptoms), and social (infant emotion and regulation) factors in contributing to early changes in maternal parenting. Participants were 1292 low-income, mother-infant pairs, assessed when the infants were 6-months (T1), 15-months (T2), and 24-months old (T3). Maternal parenting was observed at all assessment points. At T1, infant emotion expression and orienting towards mothers were observed, when maternal cortisol reactivity was assessed. Mothers reported their depressive symptoms at T1. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two parenting factors across time points: positive engagement and negative intrusiveness. Second-order latent growth curve models revealed interactions among maternal cortisol reactivity, depressive symptoms, and child negative emotion/orienting at T1 in predicting intercepts and slopes of two parenting factors. T1 maternal cortisol reactivity was associated with a higher positive engagement intercept for infants having high negative emotion at T1, but a lower positive engagement intercept for infants with low negative emotion at T1, under low T1 maternal depressive symptoms. T1 maternal cortisol reactivity was also related to a lower negative intrusiveness intercept for infants showing high orienting at T1. Longitudinally, maternal cortisol reactivity at T1 predicted a faster decline in positive engagement when infants showed high negative emotion at T1, but a slower decline when infants were less negative at T1. This study reveals a bivalent adaptation process in maternal sensitivity and enhances the current understanding of how biopsychosocial factors contribute to maternal parenting in low-income families.

The role of interindividual licking received and dopamine genotype on later-life licking provisioning in female rat offspring

INTRODUCTION

Rat mothers exhibit natural variations in care that propagate between generations of female offspring. However, there is limited information on genetic variation that could influence this propagation.

METHODS

We assessed early-life maternal care received by individual female rat offspring, later-life maternal care provisioning, and dopaminergic activity in the maternal brain in relation to naturally occurring genetic polymorphisms linked to the dopaminergic system. We also conducted a systematic analysis of other genetic variants potentially related to maternal behavior in our Long-Evans rat population.

RESULTS

While we did not find a direct relationship between early-life licking received and later-life licking provisioning, this relationship was indirectly affected by dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens and dependent on variation in the dopamine receptor 2 gene (rs107017253). More specifically, female rat offspring with the A/G genotype showed a positive relationship between average licking received and dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens of the maternal brain; there was no relationship with female rat offspring with the A/A genotype. The higher dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens corresponded with higher maternal licking provisioning from postnatal days 2-9. We also discovered and validated several new variants that were predicted by our systematic analysis.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that genetic variation influences the relationship between early-life maternal care received and the dopaminergic system of the maternal brain, which can indirectly influence later-life maternal care provisioning.

Adverse and Protective Childhood Experiences and Parenting Attitudes: the Role of Cumulative Protection in Understanding Resilience

Theory and research indicate that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are linked to negative parenting attitudes and behaviors. We posit that protective and compensatory experiences (PACEs) in childhood buffer the negative effects of ACEs on later parenting. To test this premise, the present study examined associations between ACEs, PACEs, and attitudes towards nurturing and harsh parenting in an ethnically diverse sample of parents with children of various ages (N = 109; 65% mothers, 35% fathers; M age = 38). Parents completed a widely used parenting attitudes questionnaire and the ACEs and PACEs surveys. PACEs were negatively correlated with ACEs and positively correlated with nurturing parenting attitudes and parent income and education levels. Linear regression models indicate that higher PACEs, ACEs, and family income and less harsh parenting attitudes predict nurturing parenting attitudes. In contrast, higher ACEs and less nurturing attitudes were correlated with harsh parenting attitudes. As expected, moderation analyses indicated that the association between ACEs and harsh parenting attitudes was conditional upon the level of PACEs. When PACE scores were low (M - 1 SD), but not when PACE scores were average or high (M + 1 SD), ACEs were associated with harsh parenting attitudes, suggesting a buffering effect of PACEs on negative parenting attitudes. These findings support the importance of including protective as well as adverse childhood experiences when assessing the role of childhood experiences on parenting attitudes and practices. Implications of these findings for researchers and practitioners are discussed, as well as new directions for PACEs research using a cumulative protection approach.

Maternal adverse childhood experiences, executive function & emotional availability in mother-child dyads

BACKGROUND

Maternal adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with difficulties in parent-child relationships; however, current research has primarily used cross-sectional designs. Parent and child behavior may be differentially affected by ACEs as children develop and caregiving demands change. Furthermore, diminished executive function (EF) is associated with both ACEs and parenting difficulties and may be a mechanism underlying the intergenerational effects of ACEs.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined longitudinal associations between maternal ACEs, maternal EF, and patterns of change in maternal and child emotional availability (EA).

PARTICIPANTS

Mother-child dyads (N = 114) participated in five assessments over a 5-year period.

METHODS

Maternal ACEs were measured retrospectively at 3 months, maternal EF was assessed at 8 months, and mother-child interactions were videotaped at 18, 36 and 60 months postpartum. Multilevel modelling was used to model growth curves.

RESULTS

Maternal EA did not significantly change, while child EA increased from 18 to 60 months postpartum. Maternal ACEs were negatively associated with maternal and child EA at 18 months postpartum; this effect was not significant at 60 months postpartum. In contrast, there was a persistent, positive effect of maternal EF on EA trajectories. Maternal EF did not mediate the association between ACEs and EA. There were also significant within-dyad associations between maternal and child EA.

CONCLUSIONS

The effects of maternal ACEs on parenting are not necessarily persistent. Findings also support sustained relations between maternal EF and mother-child interactions across early childhood, suggesting the utility of EF as an intervention target.

Early life maltreatment and depression: Mediating effect of maternal hair cortisol concentration on child abuse potential

INTRODUCTION

Maternal early life maltreatment (ELM) and history of depression can bear a risk for adverse development in the child. One neurobiological pathway for the transmission of both maternal ELM and remitted depression (MDD) might be altered maternal cortisol levels. In the present study, we examine (1) main and interacting effects of maternal ELM and remitted MDD on hair cortisol concentration (HCC) in mothers, whether (2) maternal HCC explains the association between maternal ELM or remitted MDD and maternal child abuse potential, and (3) whether maternal child abuse potential as well as maternal HCC are associated with maternal report of child well-being.

METHODS

The current study involved 127 mother-child dyads. Maternal history of ELM and psychopathology were assessed via the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.) and Childhood Experience and Care (CECA) interview. The Child Abuse Potential Inventory (CAPI) was used to assess maternal child abuse and neglect potential. We applied the Kidscreen-27 parent report to study child well-being. To assess HCC, hair strands were taken from the mothers. To test the research questions, a two-factorial analysis of covariance, mediation analysis using ordinary least squares regressions with bootstrapping, and Pearson correlations were calculated.

RESULTS

Mothers with ELM had significantly increased HCC. There was no effect of remitted MDD on HCC, nor an interaction effect of both factors. HCC was a significant mediator of the association between maternal ELM and maternal child abuse potential. Maternal child abuse potential as well as HCC were significantly associated with reduced child well-being.

DISCUSSION

Our data suggest that adverse experiences in childhood are associated with altered HPA-axis functioning reflected in increased levels of HCC. HPA-axis activity is not altered in mothers with remitted MDD. From a clinical point of view, one might speculate that the partially mediating effect of maternal HCC could indicate a starting point in the prevention of the intergenerational cycle of abuse.

Mothers' and fathers' self-regulation capacity, dysfunctional attributions and hostile parenting during early adolescence: A process-oriented approach

The parent-child relationship undergoes substantial reorganization over the transition to adolescence. Navigating this change is a challenge for parents because teens desire more behavioral autonomy as well as input in decision-making processes. Although it has been demonstrated that changes in parental socialization approaches facilitates adolescent adjustment, very little work has been devoted to understanding the underlying mechanisms supporting parents' abilities to adjust caregiving during this period. Guided by self-regulation models of parenting, the present study examined how parental physiological and cognitive regulatory capacities were associated with hostile and insensitive parent conflict behavior over time. From a process-oriented perspective, we tested the explanatory role of parents' dysfunctional child-oriented attributions in this association. A sample of 193 fathers, mothers, and their early adolescent (ages 12-14) participated in laboratory-based research assessments spaced approximately 1 year apart. Parental physiological regulation was measured using square root of the mean of successive differences during a conflict task; cognitive regulation was indicated by set-shifting capacity. Results showed that parental difficulties in vagal regulation during parent-adolescent conflict were associated with increased hostile conflict behavior over time; however, greater set-shifting capacity moderated this association for fathers only. In turn, father's dysfunctional attributions regarding adolescent behavior mediated the moderating effect. The results highlight how models of self-regulation and social cognition may explain the determinants of hostile parenting with differential implications for fathers during adolescence.

Mothering revisited: A role for cortisol?

This selective review first describes the involvement of the maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis during pregnancy and the postpartum period, and the relation between peripartum HPA axis function and maternal behavior, stress reactivity and emotional dysregulation in human mothers. To provide experimental background to this correlational work, where helpful, animal studies are also described. It then explores the association between HPA axis function in mothers and their infants, under ongoing non-stressful conditions and during stressful challenges, the moderating role of mothers' sensitivity and behavior in the mother-child co-regulation and the effects of more traumatic risk factors on these relations. The overarching theme being explored is that the HPA axis - albeit a system designed to function during periods of high stress and challenge - also functions to promote adaptation to more normative processes, shown in the new mother who experiences both high cortisol and enhanced attraction and attention to and recognition of, their infants and their cues. Hence the same HPA system shows positive relations with behavior at some time points and inverse ones at others. However, the literature is not uniform and results vary widely depending on the number, timing, place, and type of samplings and assessments, and, of course, the population being studied and, in the present context, the state, the stage, and the stress levels of mother and infant.

Neural processing of infant and adult face emotion and maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment

Face processing in mothers is linked to mother–infant social communication, which is critical for parenting and in turn for child development. Neuroimaging studies of child maltreatment-exposed (CME) mothers are sparse compared to studies of mothers with postpartum depression, which have suggested blunted amygdala reactivity to infant stimuli. We expected to see a similar pattern in CME mothers. Based on broader studies in trauma-exposed populations, we anticipated increased amygdala reactivity to negative adult face stimuli in a comparison task in CME mothers given heightened evaluation of potential threat. We examined Neuroimaging studies of mothers with childhood maltreatment exposure (CME) (18–37 years old), who performed infant (N = 45) and/or adult (N = 46) face processing tasks. CME mothers exhibited blunted bilateral amygdala reactivity to infant faces. There was no between-group difference in amygdala reactivity to adult faces. In infant and adult face processing tasks regardless of CME, superior temporal gyrus activation was increased for negative-valence stimuli. Our preliminary findings suggest that childhood maltreatment alters maternal processing of infant social cues, a critical skill impacting infant socioemotional development.

Adverse childhood experiences among early care and education teachers: Prevalence and associations with observed quality of classroom social and emotional climate

This study examines the prevalence of self-reported adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) among a sample of 349 early care and education teachers. Seventy-three percent of the sample reported experiencing at least one ACE and 22% reported experiencing 4 or more ACEs. Live observational assessments of the quality of the social and emotional climate in teacher's classrooms were conducted for a subsample of 58 teachers. Within this subsample, reporting a higher number of ACEs was associated with facilitating a lower quality social and emotional classroom climate. Individual ACEs were also examined. Teachers who reported experiencing incarceration of a family member, physical abuse, or emotional abuse were observed to facilitate a lower quality social and emotional classroom climate. This study provides preliminary insight into the prevalence of ACEs among members of the early care and education workforce. Further, it extends previous work examining the multi-generational impacts of ACEs within families by showing that ACEs may influence the care that is provided to children in childcare settings.

Positive Maternal Mental Health, Parenting, and Child Development

While maternal mental health is an important influence on child development, the existing literature focuses primarily on negative aspects of maternal mental health, particularly symptoms of depression, anxiety, or states of distress. We provide a review of the evidence on the potential importance of positive mental health for both mother and child. The evidence suggests that positive mental health is a distinct construct that is associated with improved birth outcomes and potentially with specific forms of parenting that promote both academic achievement and socioemotional function. We review studies that provide a plausible biological basis for the link between positive mental health and parenting, focusing on oxytocin-dopamine interactions. We caution that the evidence is largely preliminary and suggest directions for future research, noting the importance of identifying the operative dimensions of positive maternal mental health in relation to specific outcomes. We suggest that the inclusion of positive maternal mental health provides the potential for a more comprehensive understanding of parental influences on child development.

Once and Again : History of Rearing Experiences and Psychosocial Parenting Resources at Six Months in Primiparous Mothers

Animal and human studies suggest that parenting style is transmitted from one generation to the next. The hypotheses of this study were that (1) a mother's rearing experiences (G1) would predict her own parenting resources (G2) and (2) current maternal mood, motivation to care for her offspring, and relationship with her parents would underlie this association. In a subsample of 201 first-time mothers participating in the longitudinal Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment project, we assessed a mother's own childhood maltreatment and rearing experiences (G1) using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and the Parental Bonding Instrument. At 6 months postpartum, mothers completed questionnaires on parenting stress (G2), symptoms of depression, maternal motivation, and current relationship with their own parents. The sample consisted of mostly high socioeconomic status mothers recruited from Montréal (n = 135) or Hamilton (n = 66), Canada, with an age range from 18 to 43 years (M = 29.41, SD = 4.85 years). More severe maltreatment and less supportive rearing by the mother's parents (G1) predicted increased parenting stress at 6 months (G2). These associations were mediated through distinct psychosocial pathways: maltreatment (G1) on parenting stress (G2) through symptoms of depression (Z = 2.297; p = .022); maternal rearing (G1) on parenting stress (G2) through maternal motivation (Z = -2.155; p = .031) and symptoms of depression (Z = -1.842; p = .065); and paternal rearing (G1) on parenting stress (G2) through current relationship with the father (Z = -2.617; p = .009). Maternal rearing experiences predict a mother's own parenting resources though distinct psychosocial pathways, including depressed mood, maternal motivation, and social support.

The contribution of maternal executive functions and active coping to dyadic affective dynamics: Children with autism spectrum disorder and their mothers

Parenting is a cognitive, emotional, and behavioral endeavor, where parents' control capacities, including executive functions and active control coping, help parents to guide and regulate interactions with their children; yet limited research investigates how these capacities are associated with parent-child affective regulation processes during parent-child interactions. This study examined whether maternal executive functions (sustained attention, interference inhibitory control, working memory) and active engaged coping were related to dyadic affective flexibility and positive mutual affective interactions between mothers and their young children with autism spectrum disorders (N = 40). Dyadic flexibility and mutual positive affect were measured using dynamic systems-based modeling of second-by-second affective patterns during a mother-child interaction. The results showed that higher levels of maternal sustained attention and inhibitory control were related to increased dyadic affective flexibility. In addition, higher levels of maternal sustained attention and higher use of engaged coping were related to dyadic mutual positive affect. The findings highlight the importance of maternal cognitive control capacity in promoting adaptive parent-child dyadic regulatory processes.

The association between executive functioning and parental stress and psychological distress is mediated by parental reflective functioning in mothers with substance use disorder

Mothers with a substance use disorder (SUD) have been found to exhibit heightened experience of stress and deficits in executive functioning (EF) and in parental reflective functioning (PRF). Although experiences of stress, EF and PRF are important for caregiving capacities; no studies have explored associations between the phenomena in mothers with SUD. This study aimed to examine the association between EF (working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility) and different forms of stress (parental stress, general life stress, and psychological distress) in 43 mothers with SUD with infants. We further aimed to investigate whether PRF had a mediating function between EF and the experience of stress. The mothers completed self-report questionnaires regarding experiences of different types of stress, and we also used neuropsychological tests to assess EF and a semistructured interview to assess PRF. Results identified problems in EF were associated with higher parental stress and psychological distress but not with general life stress. Cognitive flexibility contributed uniquely to variance in parental stress, whereas working memory was a unique contributor to variance in psychological distress. PRF had a mediating function between EF and parental stress and between EF and psychological distress. Findings highlight the importance of considering individual differences in PRF when targeting EF in interventions trying to reduce the experience of parental stress and psychological distress in mothers with SUD.

Inter-individual maternal care received and genotype interactions affect dopaminergic phenotypes in female rat offspring

Rat mothers exhibit natural variations in care and can shape offspring adult behaviour and their maternal care by affecting the dopaminergic system. We explored whether genotype and gene × environment interactions are involved in these processes in nulliparous female offspring. We assessed maternal licking/grooming toward individual female pups during the first week postpartum and dopamine-related behaviour of the offspring in adulthood. Behaviours explored included strategy shifting, impulsive action and sucrose preference. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the dopamine receptor 2, dopamine transporter and catechol-O-methyltransferase genes were examined in relation to offspring behaviour and baseline dopamine turnover in select brain regions. Dopamine receptor 2 (RS107017253) variation moderated, or interacted with, the relationship between early-life licking received and behaviour. Specifically, offspring with the A/A genotype showed a significant correlation between early-life licking received and behaviour. Offspring with the A/G and G/G genotypes did not show this relationship. Dopamine transporter gene variation affected offspring behaviour regardless of early-life licking received. Our findings suggest that genotype can directly affect dopamine-related behaviours and alter the sensitivity of offspring to the maternal environment. This could be informative on how maternal care is transmitted between generations of female offspring.

Hair cortisol in the perinatal period mediates associations between maternal adversity and disrupted maternal interaction in early infancy

Existing literature points to the possibility that cortisol could be one link between maternal adversity and poorer parenting quality, but most studies have examined salivary cortisol concentrations rather than hair cortisol concentrations. The current study examined hair cortisol concentration (HCC) during the third trimester of pregnancy as a mediator between maternal adversity indicators (childhood abuse, severe mental illness, symptomatic functioning) and maternal caregiving behavior at 4 months postpartum. Forty-four women participated in the study: 30 with severe mental disorders, and 14 nonclinical controls. HCC was assessed during the third trimester of pregnancy (HCC-P) and at 4 months postpartum (HCC-4M). Sexual, physical, and emotional abuse were assessed by the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study Questionnaire. Maternal disrupted interaction was reliably coded from mother-infant video interactions during a Still-Face Procedure. Mediation models indicated that maternal HCC-P and HCC-4M mediated associations between maternal psychopathology (severe mental illness, symptomatic functioning) and maternal disrupted interaction at 4 months. Maternal HCC at 4 months also mediated associations between experienced childhood abuse and overall disrupted interaction. Our findings indicate that HCC may be a potential early biomarker for future caregiving challenges among mothers with severe mental illness and histories of childhood abuse.

In a father's mind: paternal reflective functioning, sensitive parenting, and protection against socioeconomic risk

This study utilized attachment theory as a framework for understanding how fathers' reflective functioning (RF) and social emotional (SE) and autonomy (AU) supportive behaviors relate to children's emotion regulation (ER) beyond effects of mothers' RF. Moreover, the study explored how fathers' RF may be a protective factor against risks associated with low income. Fathers (n = 77) and their toddlers participated. Fathers' RF was coded from narrative accounts of parenting and mothers' RF was assessed by questionnaire. Fathers' SE and AU supportive behaviors were coded from observations of father-child interactions; toddlers' ER was assessed as distress on a challenging task. Results show that, after accounting for mothers' RF, fathers' RF was directly associated with SE supportive behaviors; RF moderated the association between income and AU supportive behaviors. Fathers' SE and AU supportive behaviors were associated with children's distress. Fathers' RF plays a central role in parenting and in children's ER.

Maternal history of childhood maltreatment and later parenting behavior: A meta-analysis

Exposure to maltreatment during childhood (CM) can have deleterious effects throughout the life span of an individual. A parent's history of child maltreatment can also impact his or her own parenting behavior. Theoretically, parents who experienced maltreatment as children may have fewer resources to cope with the challenges of childrearing and may adopt more problematic parenting behaviors. However, empirical studies examining the association between CM and later parenting behavior have yielded mixed results. The aim of this study is to conduct a meta-analysis of studies that have examined the association between exposure to CM and the subsequent parenting outcomes of mothers of 0- to 6-year-old children. A secondary aim is to examine the potential impact of both conceptual and methodological moderators. A total of 32 studies (27 samples, 41 effect sizes, 17,932 participants) were retained for analysis. Results revealed that there is a small but statistically significant association between maternal exposure to CM and parenting behavior (r = –.13, p < .05). Moderator analyses revealed that effect sizes were larger when parenting measures involved relationship-based or negative, potentially abusive behaviors, when samples had a greater number of boys compared to girls, and when studies were older versus more recent. Results are discussed as they relate to the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment and abuse.

Maternal depression alters stress and immune biomarkers in mother and child

BACKGROUND

Exposure to maternal depression bears long-term negative consequences for children's well-being. Yet, no study has tested the joint contribution of maternal and child's hypothalamic pituitary axis and immune systems in mediating the effects of maternal depression on child psychopathology.

METHODS

We followed a birth cohort over-represented for maternal depression from birth to 10 years (N = 125). At 10 years, mother and child's cortisol (CT) and secretory immunoglobulin A (s-IgA), biomarkers of the stress and immune systems, were assayed, mother-child interaction observed, mothers and children underwent psychiatric diagnosis, and children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms reported.

RESULTS

Depressed mothers had higher CT and s-IgA levels and displayed more negative parenting, characterized by negative affect, intrusion, and criticism. Children of depressed mothers exhibited more Axis-I disorders, higher s-IgA levels, and greater social withdrawal. Structural equation modeling charted four paths by which maternal depression impacted child externalizing and internalizing symptoms: (a) increasing maternal CT, which linked with higher child CT and behavior problems; (b) augmenting maternal and child's immune response, which were associated with child symptoms; (c) enhancing negative parenting that predicted child social withdrawal and symptoms; and (d), via a combined endocrine-immune pathway suppressing symptom formation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings, the first to test stress and immune biomarkers in depressed mothers and their children in relation to social behavior, describe mechanisms of endocrine synchrony in shaping children's stress response and immunity, advocate the need to follow the long-term effects of maternal depression on children's health throughout life, and highlight maternal depression as an important public health concern.

What's going on in my baby's mind? Mothers' executive functions contribute to individual differences in maternal mentalization during mother-infant interactions

Maternal mentalization refers to a mother's capacity to understand mental-states of herself and her child and to regard her child as a psychological agent. In mother-infant interactions, this capacity is commonly conceptualized as maternal mind-mindedness, which can be divided into two dimensions: appropriate and nonattuned interpretations of the infants' mental-states. Appropriate mind-mindedness refers to interpretations that seem to be compatible with the infant's behaviors, whereas nonattuned mind-mindedness refers to noncompatible interpretations. The aim of this study was to investigate the cognitive mechanisms that contribute to mind-mindedness. Specifically, we investigated the role of executive functions in appropriate and nonattuned mind-mindedness, and the moderating roles of two infant-related factors, prematurity (as a stressful context) and child temperament (as a context of unpredictability and negative emotionality). To this end, mother-infant free play interactions were coded for mind-mindedness in a sample of 102 mothers and their 6-month-old infants (61 preterm, 41 full-term). When children were 66-months old, mothers completed cognitive tasks that assessed working memory updating, resistance to interference, response inhibition, and shifting. Appropriate mind-mindedness was positively associated with updating, and this link was stronger when infant temperament was rated as more difficult. Furthermore, among mothers of full-term infants, mothers' resistance to interference was negatively associated with nonattuned mind-mindedness. This link was not evident in the stressful context of premature birth. Mothers' response inhibition and shifting were not associated with either of the mind-mindedness dimensions. Implications on understanding variability in maternal mentalization during mother-infant interactions and the roles of executive functions in parenting are discussed.

Prenatal and postnatal cortisol and testosterone are related to parental caregiving quality in fathers, but not in mothers

Testosterone and cortisol have both been implicated in human parenting behavior. We investigated the relations between observed quality of caregiving during parent-child interactions and pre- and postnatal testosterone and cortisol levels, in both mothers (N = 88) and fathers (N = 57). Testosterone and cortisol were measured before and after interaction with an infant simulator (prenatal) and with their own child (postnatal) to index basal levels as well as steroid reactivity to the interaction. Our findings are that in fathers, interactions between cortisol and testosterone are related to quality of caregiving both pre- and postnatally. Prenatally there was a stronger negative relation between T and quality of caregiving in fathers with lower cortisol levels, and postnatally there was a stronger negative relation between cortisol and quality of caregiving in fathers high in testosterone levels. Furthermore, prenatal cortisol levels were related to paternal quality of caregiving during interaction with their own child. In mothers, no associations between quality of caregiving and our endocrine measures were observed. We interpret our findings in the context of hyperreactive physiological responses observed in parents at risk for insensitive caregiving, and in light of the dual-hormone hypothesis. The current findings contribute to the growing literature on the endocrine antecedents of human caregiving behavior.

Association between maternal childhood maltreatment and mother-infant attachment disorganization: Moderation by maternal oxytocin receptor gene and cortisol secretion

This study examined maternal oxytocin receptor (OXTR, rs53576) genotype and cortisol secretion as moderators of the relation between maternal childhood maltreatment history and disorganized mother-infant attachment in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP). A community sample of 314 mother-infant dyads completed the SSP at infant age 17 months. Self-reported maltreatment history more strongly predicted mother-infant attachment disorganization score and disorganized classification for mothers with more plasticity alleles of OXTR (G), relative to mothers with fewer plasticity alleles. Maltreatment history also more strongly predicted mother-infant attachment disorganization score and classification for mothers with higher SSP cortisol secretion, relative to mothers with lower SSP cortisol secretion. Findings indicate that maltreatment history is related to disorganization in the next generation, but that this relation depends on maternal genetic characteristics and cortisol.

Emotional Availability, Neuropsychological Functioning, and Psychopathology: The Context of Parental Substance Use Disorder

Parental Substance Use Disorder (SUD) constitutes a high-risk condition for parent-child interactions and child development. Empirical evidence indicates high rates of psychopathology and neuropsychological impairments in individuals with SUD. Despite research indicating that parenting skills are related to psychological well-being and cognitive/neuropsychological functioning, prior studies have not examined the associations between these areas of parental functioning and the quality of parent-child interactions in the context of SUD. Aim(s). The present study adopts an integrated perspective to investigate the way in which maternal neuropsychological functioning and psychopathology are associated with mother-child emotional availability (EA), in the context of parental Substance Use Disorder. Methods. Twenty-nine mothers with SUD were assessed in interaction with their children, as well as with respect to their neuropsychological functioning and psychopathology. Results. In this group, high rates of maternal neuropsychological impairments and psychopathology, as well as generally low levels of EA, were uncovered. Regression analyses showed that maternal neuropsychological functioning was significantly associated with mother-child EA, specifically sensitivity; the role of maternal psychopathology, however, was only marginally significant. Conclusion. In the context of SUD, maternal neuropsychological impairments are significantly associated with mother-child EA. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

Postpartum psychiatric disorders

Pregnancy is a complex and vulnerable period that presents a number of challenges to women, including the development of postpartum psychiatric disorders (PPDs). These disorders can include postpartum depression and anxiety, which are relatively common, and the rare but more severe postpartum psychosis. In addition, other PPDs can include obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and eating disorders. The aetiology of PPDs is a complex interaction of psychological, social and biological factors, in addition to genetic and environmental factors. The goals of treating postpartum mental illness are reducing maternal symptoms and supporting maternal-child and family functioning. Women and their families should receive psychoeducation about the illness, including evidence-based discussions about the risks and benefits of each treatment option. Developing effective strategies in global settings that allow the delivery of targeted therapies to women with different clinical phenotypes and severities of PPDs is essential.

Parents' Executive Functioning and Involvement in Their Child's Education: An Integrated Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Parents' involvement in their children's education is integral to academic success. Several education-based organizations have identified recommendations for how parents can best support their children's learning. However, executive functioning (EF), a high-ordered cognitive skill set, contributes to the extent to which parents can follow through with these recommendations.

METHOD

This integrative review of the literature describes how executive function can affect parents' ability to facilitate and actively participate in their child's education and provides strategies for all school staff to strengthen parent-school partnerships when parents have limitations in EF.

RESULTS

EF skills are fluid and influenced by several factors, including parental age, sleep, stress, and mood/affect. Despite possible limitations in parental EF, there are strategies school personnel can employ to strengthen partnership with parents to support their children's academic success.

CONCLUSIONS

As reforms in education call for increased customization and collaboration with families, parental EF is an important consideration for school personnel. Awareness and understanding of how parents' EF affects children's learning will help schools better support parents in supporting their children's academic success.