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Almulla AF, Abbas Abo Algon A, Tunvirachaisakul C, Al-Hakeim HK, Maes M. T helper-1 activation via interleukin-16 is a key phenomenon in the acute phase of severe, first-episode major depressive disorder and suicidal behaviors. J Adv Res 2024; 64:171-181. [PMID: 37967811 PMCID: PMC11464466 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2023.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immune-inflammatory pathways in major depressive disorder are confined to the major dysmood disorder (MDMD) phenotype (Maes et al., 2022). No studies have addressed the immune profile of first episode MDMD (FE-MDMD). METHODS This study investigated the immune profiles of 71 patients with the acute phase of first-episode major depressive disorder (FE-MDMD) and 40 healthy controls. We measured 48 cytokines/chemokines/growth factors, classical M1, alternative M2, T helper (Th)-1, Th-2, and Th-17 phenotypes, immune-inflammatory response system (IRS), compensatory immunoregulatory system (CIRS), and neuro-immunotoxicity profiles. RESULTS FE-MDMD patients show significantly activated M1, M2, Th-1, IRS, CIRS, and neurotoxicity, but not Th-2 or Th-17, profiles compared to controls. FE-MDMD is accompanied by Th-1 polarization, while there are no changes in M1/M2 or IRS/CIRS ratios. The top single indicator of FE-MDMD was by far interleukin (IL)-16, followed at a distance by TRAIL, IL-2R, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-β. The severity of depression and anxiety was strongly associated with IRS (positively) and Th-2 (inversely) profiles, whereas suicidal behavior was associated with M1 activation. Around 56-60% of the variance in depression, anxiety, and suicidal behavior scores was explained by IL-16, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) (both positively), and IL-1 receptor antagonist (inversely). Increased neurotoxicity is mainly driven by IL-16, TNF-α, TRAIL, IL-6, and chemokine (CCL2, CCL11, CXCL1, CXCL10) signaling. Antidepressant-treated patients show an increased IRS/CIRS ratio as compared with drug-naïve FE-MDMD patients. CONCLUSIONS FE-MDMD is accompanied by positive regulation of the IRS mainly driven by Th-1 polarization and T cell activation (via binding of IL-16 to CD4), and TNF, chemokine, and growth factor signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas F Almulla
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Medical Laboratory Technology Department, College of Medical Technology, The Islamic University, Najaf, Iraq
| | - Ali Abbas Abo Algon
- Research Group of Organic Synthesis and Catalysis, University of Pannonia, Egyetem u. 10, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Chavit Tunvirachaisakul
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Cognitive Impairment and Dementia Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Michael Maes
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Cognitive Impairment and Dementia Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria; Research Institute, Medical University Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria; Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Korea; Sichuan Provincial Center for Mental Health, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610072, China; Key Laboratory of Psychosomatic Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chengdu, 610072, China.
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Schumacher A, Muha J, Campisi SC, Bradley-Ridout G, Lee ACH, Korczak DJ. The Relationship between Neurobiological Function and Inflammation in Depressed Children and Adolescents: A Scoping Review. Neuropsychobiology 2024; 83:61-72. [PMID: 38574476 PMCID: PMC11210562 DOI: 10.1159/000538060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Neurobiological dysfunction is associated with depression in children and adolescents. While research in adult depression suggests that inflammation may underlie the association between depression and brain alterations, it is unclear if altered levels of inflammatory markers provoke neurobiological dysfunction in early-onset depression. The aim of this scoping review was to provide an overview of existing literature investigating the potential interaction between neurobiological function and inflammation in depressed children and adolescents. METHODS Systematic searches were conducted in six databases. Primary research studies that included measures of both neurobiological functioning and inflammation among children (≤18 years) with a diagnosis of depression were included. RESULTS Four studies (240 participants; mean age 16.0 ± 0.6 years, 62% female) meeting inclusion criteria were identified. Studies primarily examined the inflammatory markers interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, C-reactive protein, and interleukin 1 beta. Exploratory whole brain imaging and analysis as well as region of interest approaches focused on the anterior cingulate cortex, basal ganglia, and white matter tracts were conducted. Most studies found correlations between neurobiological function and inflammatory markers; however, depressive symptoms were not observed to moderate these effects. CONCLUSIONS A small number of highly heterogeneous studies indicate that depression may not modulate the association between altered inflammation and neurobiological dysfunction in children and adolescents. Replication in larger samples using consistent methodological approaches (focus on specific inflammatory markers, examine certain brain areas) is needed to advance the knowledge of potential neuro-immune interactions early in the course of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anett Schumacher
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
| | - Jessica Muha
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Susan C Campisi
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Andy C H Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Daphne J Korczak
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Chi S, Mok YE, Kang J, Gim JA, Han C, Lee MS. Cytokine levels reflect tic symptoms more prominently during mild phases. BMC Neurosci 2023; 24:57. [PMID: 37907857 PMCID: PMC10617191 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-023-00830-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Tic disorder is a neuropsychiatric condition that affects 3% of all children and can have a significant impact on their quality of life. Cytokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, and tumor necrosis factors are involved in the neuroinflammatory circuitry of tic disorders. This study aimed to identify the cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of tic disorders. We enrolled 44 patients with tic disorder and 38 healthy controls. Patients were free of psychotropic medications for at least 3 weeks. Whole blood samples were analyzed using a Luminex® human cytokine multiplex assay kit. Patients were divided into groups with "mild tics" and "above moderate tics" based on Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS) scores for comparison. The final analysis included 35 patients (28 male and 7 female) and 31 controls (20 male and 11 female). In the mild tic group, interleukin (IL)-12 p70 negatively correlated with motor tic scores. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, IL-4, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were positively correlated to phonic tic scores. IL-12 p40 and TNF-α were positively correlated to total tic scores. IL-12 p70 and IL-17a negatively correlated to impairment scores and total YGTSS scores. Tic disorder patients and healthy controls exhibit different cytokine profiles. Only patients with mild symptoms exhibit significant correlations, suggesting that the correlations between cytokine levels and tic symptoms are more relevant during the mild or remission phases. Our results present the importance of IL-1β and TNF-α, among others, but the identification of key cytokines are still necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- SuHyuk Chi
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Guro Hospital, 148, Gurodong-ro, Guro-gu, Seoul, 08308, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Eun Mok
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Guro Hospital, 148, Gurodong-ro, Guro-gu, Seoul, 08308, Republic of Korea
| | - June Kang
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-An Gim
- Medical Science Research Center, Korea University Guro Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Changsu Han
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Guro Hospital, 148, Gurodong-ro, Guro-gu, Seoul, 08308, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon-Soo Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Guro Hospital, 148, Gurodong-ro, Guro-gu, Seoul, 08308, Republic of Korea.
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Wang M, Jin G, Cheng Y, Guan SY, Zheng J, Zhang SX. Genetically predicted circulating levels of cytokines and the risk of depression: a bidirectional Mendelian-randomization study. Front Genet 2023; 14:1242614. [PMID: 37600668 PMCID: PMC10436531 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1242614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective: Inflammatory cytokines disturbance is the main result of immune dysregulation, which is widely described in major depressive disorder (MDD). However, the potential causal relationship between these two factors has not been discovered. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the causal relationship between inflammatory cytokines and MDD risk by using the two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis. Method: Two genetic instruments obtained from publicly available gene profile data were utilized for the analysis. We obtained the genetic variation data of 41 inflammatory cytokines from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) meta-analysis of 8293 individuals of Finnish descent. The MDD data, including 135,458 MDD cases and 344,901 controls, were obtained from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium Database. For the Mendelian randomization (MR) estimation, several methods were employed, namely, MR-Egger regression, inverse-variance weighted (IVW), weighted median, and MR-Pleiotropy RESidual Sum and Outlier (MR-PRESSO) methods. Result: A causal relationship was identified between the genetically proxied levels of Interleukin (IL) -18, IL-1β, and Regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) and the risk of MDD (OR = 0.968, 95%CI = 0.938, 0.998, p = 0.036; OR = 0.875, 95%CI = 0.787, 0.971, p = 0.012; OR = 0.947, 95%CI = 0.902, 0.995, p = 0.03; respectively). However, our Mendelian randomization (MR) estimates provided no causality of MDD on inflammatory cytokines. Conclusion: Our study elucidates the connection between inflammatory cytokines and MDD by using MR analysis, thereby enhancing our comprehension of the potential mechanisms. By identifying these associations, our findings hold substantial implications for the development of more effective treatments aimed at improving patient outcomes. However, further investigation is required to fully comprehend the exact biological mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiti Wang
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Guixiang Jin
- Shanghai Yangpu Mental Health Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Cheng
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shi-Yang Guan
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Jinxin Zheng
- School of Global Health, Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research—Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shun-Xian Zhang
- Clinical Research Center, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Qiu T, Li X, Chen W, He J, Shi L, Zhou C, Zheng A, Lei Z, Tang C, Yu Q, Du L, Guo J. Prospective study on Maresin-1 and cytokine levels in medication-naïve adolescents with first-episode major depressive disorder. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1132791. [PMID: 37009097 PMCID: PMC10050445 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1132791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundInflammation and immune activation may play a role in the pathological mechanism of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Evidence from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of adolescents and adults has shown that MDD is associated with increased plasma pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6). It has been reported that Specialized Pro-resolving Mediators (SPMs) mediate inflammation resolution, and Maresin-1 can activate the process of inflammation and promote inflammation resolution by promoting macrophage phagocytosis. However, no clinical studies have been conducted to evaluate the relationship between the levels of Maresin-1 and cytokine and the severity of MDD symptomatology in adolescents.Methods40 untreated adolescent patients with primary and moderate to severe MDD and 30 healthy participants as the healthy control (HC) group aged between 13 and 18 years old were enrolled. They received clinical and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS-17) evaluation and then, blood samples were collected. Patients in the MDD group were re-evaluated for HDRS-17, and blood samples were taken after a six to eight-week fluoxetine treatment.ResultsThe adolescent patients with MDD had lower serum levels of Maresin-1 and higher serum levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6) compared with the HC group. Fluoxetine treatment alleviated depressive symptoms in MDD adolescent patients, which was reflected by higher serum levels of Maresin-1 and IL-4 and lower HDRS-17 scores, serum levels of IL-6, and IL-1β. Moreover, the serum level of Maresin-1 was negatively correlated with the depression severity scores on the HDRS-17.ConclusionAdolescent patients with primary MDD had lower levels of Maresin-1 and higher levels of IL-6 compared with the HC group, implying that the peripheral level of pro-inflammatory cytokines may be elevated in MDD, resulting in the insufficiency of inflammation resolution. The Maresin-1 and IL-4 levels increased after anti-depressant treatment, whereas IL-6 and IL-1β levels decreased significantly. Moreover, Maresin-1 level negatively correlated with depression severity, suggesting that reduced levels of Maresin-1 promoted the progression of MDD.
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Integrating functional neuroimaging and serum proteins improves the diagnosis of major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 2023; 325:421-428. [PMID: 36642308 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The lack of effective objective diagnostic biomarkers for major depressive disorder (MDD) leads to high misdiagnosis. Compared with healthy controls (HC), abnormal brain functions and protein levels are often observed in MDD. However, it is unclear whether combining these changed multidimensional indicators could help improve the diagnosis of MDD. METHODS Sixty-three MDD and eighty-one HC subjects underwent resting-state fMRI scans, among whom 37 MDD and 45 HC provided blood samples. Amplitudes of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), regional homogeneity (ReHo), and serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cortisol, and multiple cytokines were measured and put into the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) to construct corresponding MDD diagnostic models. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 5-fold cross-validation was calculated to evaluate each model's performance. RESULTS Compared with HC, MDD patients' spontaneous brain activity, serum BDNF, cortisol, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6, and IL-10 levels changed significantly. The combinations of unidimensional multi-indicator had better diagnostic performance than a single one. The model consisted of multidimensional multi-indicator further exhibited conspicuously superior diagnostic efficiency than those constructed with unidimensional multi-indicator, and its AUC, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 5-fold cross-validation were 0.99, 92.0 %, 100.0 %, and 96.3 %, respectively. LIMITATIONS This cross-sectional study consists of relatively small samples and should be replicated in larger samples with follow-up data to optimize the diagnostic model. CONCLUSIONS MDD patients' neuroimaging features and serum protein levels significantly changed. The model revealed by LDA could diagnose MDD with high accuracy, which may serve as an ideal diagnostic biomarker for MDD.
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Zhang X, Zhang Z, Diao W, Zhou C, Song Y, Wang R, Luo X, Liu G. Early-diagnosis of major depressive disorder: From biomarkers to point-of-care testing. Trends Analyt Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2022.116904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Ferencova N, Visnovcova Z, Ondrejka I, Funakova D, Hrtanek I, Kelcikova S, Tonhajzerova I. Evaluation of Inflammatory Response System (IRS) and Compensatory Immune Response System (CIRS) in Adolescent Major Depression. J Inflamm Res 2022; 15:5959-5976. [PMID: 36303711 PMCID: PMC9596279 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s387588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Nowadays, the role of two tightly interconnected systems, the inflammatory response system (IRS) and the compensatory immune response system (CIRS) in depression, is increasingly discussed. Various studies indicate pro-inflammatory activity in adolescent depression; however, there is an almost complete lack of findings about IRS and CIRS balance. Thus, we aimed to assess different IRS and CIRS indices, profiles, and IRS/CIRS ratios in drug-naïve MDD patients at adolescent age, with respect to sex. Patients and Methods One hundred MDD adolescents (40 boys, average age: 15.4±1.2 yrs.) and 60 controls (28 boys, average age: 15.3±1.5 yrs.) were examined. Evaluated parameters were 1. plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), soluble receptor of IL-6 (sIL-6R), soluble receptors of TNF-α (sTNF-R1, sTNF-R2); 2. profiles: IL-6 trans-signaling, M1 macrophage signaling, helper T lymphocytes (Th) 1 profile, regulatory T lymphocytes (Treg)+Th2, allIRS, and allCIRS; 3. IRS vs CIRS activity ratios: TNF-α/TNF-R1, TNF-α/TNF-R2, TNF-α/sTNF-Rs (ie sTNF-R1+sTNF-R2), Th1/Th2, Th1/Treg, Th1/Th2+Treg, M1/Th2, M1/Treg, M1/Treg+Th2, allIRS/allCIRS. Results MDD patients showed increased IL-4, IL-10, TNF-α, sIL-6R, Treg+Th2, allIRS, allCIRS, and TNF-α/sTNF-Rs, and decreased Th1/Th2+Treg. MDD females showed increased IL-10 and TNF-α compared to control females. MDD males showed increased IL-4, IL-10, sIL-6R, Treg+Th2, and TNF-α/TNF-R1 compared to control males. Increased sTNF-R1 was found in MDD males compared to MDD females. Positive correlations were found between CDI score and sIL-6R and IL-10 in the total group and between CDI score and IL-10 in adolescent males. Conclusion Our study for the first time extensively evaluated IRS and CIRS interactions revealing enhanced pro-inflammatory TNF-α signaling and IL-6 trans-signaling in association with increased IL-10- and IL-4-mediated anti-inflammatory activity in first-episode depression at the adolescent age. Moreover, results reflect the sex-specific simultaneous activation of IRS and CIRS pathways in adolescent depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Ferencova
- Biomedical Centre Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, Martin, Slovak Republic
| | - Zuzana Visnovcova
- Biomedical Centre Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, Martin, Slovak Republic
| | - Igor Ondrejka
- Psychiatric Clinic, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, University Hospital Martin, Martin, Slovak Republic
| | - Dana Funakova
- Psychiatric Clinic, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, University Hospital Martin, Martin, Slovak Republic
| | - Igor Hrtanek
- Psychiatric Clinic, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, University Hospital Martin, Martin, Slovak Republic
| | - Simona Kelcikova
- Department of Midwifery, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, Martin, Slovak Republic
| | - Ingrid Tonhajzerova
- Department of Physiology, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, Martin, Slovak Republic,Correspondence: Ingrid Tonhajzerova, Department of Physiology, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mala Hora 4C, Martin, Slovak Republic, Tel +421432633425, Email
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Howe AS, Lynch DA. Cytokine alterations in pediatric internalizing disorders: Systematic review and exploratory multi-variate meta-analysis. Brain Behav Immun Health 2022; 24:100490. [PMID: 35880170 PMCID: PMC9307453 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pediatric internalizing disorders are prevalent and characterized by a maladaptive cognitive, emotional response to a perceived stressor. The hypothesized effect of this response is observable changes in behavior mediated by homeostatic inflammatory cytokines. The aim of this study was to synthesize the literature and analyze the effect of cytokines on pediatric internalizing disorders. Influential moderating variables, including mean body mass index, fasting status at blood collection, participant sex, cytokine type, mean age, percentage of sample medicated, and diagnosis, were also assessed. A systematic literature search was performed in electronic databases (Medline, PubMed, and PsycINFO) from January 1, 1980 to June 15, 2022. Case-control studies of pediatric internalizing disorders, specifically anxiety and depression, were reviewed for their association with peripheral cytokine levels. Meta-analyses were performed using a random effects multi-variate model and effect sizes were calculated using Hedge's g for IL-2, CRP, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, and IL-10. Thirty-three studies were reviewed and 28 studies were included in the meta-analysis (n = 1322 cases and n = 3617 controls). Peripheral cytokine levels were elevated in pediatric internalizing disorders compared to controls (Hedge's g = 0.19, p < 0.001). In the moderator analyses, depression diagnosis (Hedge's g = 0.18, p = 0.009) and non-fasting blood collection (Hedge's g = 0.20, p = 0.006) were significant. The meta-analytic findings are limited by methodological variation between studies, high heterogeneity, and low statistical power. Despite this, the findings suggest that elevated peripheral cytokine levels may play a role in the etiology and/or symptom maintenance of pediatric internalizing disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron S. Howe
- Department of Clinical & Counseling Psychology, Teacher's College, Columbia University, 525 West 120th Street, NY, NY, 10027, USA
| | - David A. Lynch
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University - Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, and New York-Presbyterian, 5 Columbus Circle, New York, NY, 10019, USA
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Li Y, Yue Y, Chen S, Jiang W, Xu Z, Chen G, Zhu Z, Tan L, Yuan Y. Combined serum IL-6, C-reactive protein, and cortisol may distinguish patients with anhedonia in major depressive disorder. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:935031. [PMID: 36090246 PMCID: PMC9449462 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.935031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation and anhedonia in major depressive disorder (MDD) are closely connected, though the exact mechanism is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between cytokines, C-reactive protein (CRP), cortisol, and anhedonia, revealing the potential predictive value in identifying anhedonic MDD. In total, 66 patients with MDD (29 with anhedonia and 37 without anhedonia) and 66 healthy controls (HCs) were included. The severity of depression and anhedonia was evaluated using the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression-24 (HAMD-24) and Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS), respectively. Serum cytokines were measured using flow cytofluorometric kits, while CRP and cortisol were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. We found higher serum levels of interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-6, and cortisol in MDD than in HC where anhedonic MDD was highest. CRP and IL-6 were positively associated with anhedonia, and cortisol levels were related to both anhedonia and depression. A combination of IL-6, CRP, and cortisol had optimal predictive value for distinguishing anhedonic MDD. Anhedonic MDD has unique neuroendocrine-immune characteristics compared with those without anhedonia. The combination of IL-6, CRP, and cortisol might be an early marker to distinguish anhedonic MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghui Li
- Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yingying Yue
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Suzhen Chen
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenhao Jiang
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhi Xu
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zixin Zhu
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Liangliang Tan
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yonggui Yuan
- Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Psychosomatics and Psychiatry, ZhongDa Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
- *Correspondence: Yonggui Yuan
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Clinical Value of Cytokine Assay in Diagnosis and Severity Assessment of Lung Cancer. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2022; 2022:4641600. [PMID: 35982995 PMCID: PMC9381210 DOI: 10.1155/2022/4641600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the clinical value of interleukin 2 (IL-2), interleukin 4 (IL-4), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in diagnosis and severity assessment of lung cancer. Methods In this observational study, 50 physical examination healthy subjects were included in the control group and 100 lung cancer patients were included in the study group. In the study group, 53 cases with pleural effusion were subgrouped to the pleural effusion group (n = 53), while 47 patients were assigned to the nonpleural effusion group (n = 47). Plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) scores of all eligible subjects were collected and compared. Results The study group showed significantly higher levels of plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ versus healthy subjects (P < 0.05). Deterioration of lung cancer was associated with increased plasma cytokine levels and APACHE II scores. The combination assay of the above plasma cytokines showed significantly better diagnostic efficacy for lung cancer versus the single assay of the cytokines. Dead patients had higher plasma cytokine levels versus survived patients. The accuracy of plasma IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ levels in the severity assessment of lung cancer was comparable with that of the APACHE II scale. Conclusion The plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ are effective markers for the diagnosis of lung cancer. The combined assay contributes to the early diagnosis of lung cancer patients, and the persistent elevation of cytokines suggests an increased risk of death in lung cancer patients, so the detection of cytokine levels facilitates the severity assessment of lung cancer.
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12
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Kofod J, Elfving B, Nielsen EH, Mors O, Köhler-Forsberg O. Depression and inflammation: Correlation between changes in inflammatory markers with antidepressant response and long-term prognosis. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2022; 54:116-125. [PMID: 34598835 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation may correlate with a specific subgroup of depression and differential antidepressant response, but no trial has studied changes of many inflammatory markers over several time points and evaluated symptom-specific antidepressant response and long-term prognosis. We performed secondary analyses among 90 outpatients with moderate-severe depression (71% female, mean age 38 years) treated for 26 weeks with escitalopram or nortriptyline. We measured 27 pro- and anti-inflammatory markers at week 0, 8, 12, and 26 and calculated composite inflammation scores. Three depression rating scales were applied and symptom dimensions of depression calculated. Via Danish nationwide registers, 10 years follow-up were included on psychiatric hospital contacts, indicating relapse. Pearson correlation analyses were performed between baseline inflammatory markers and depressive symptom severity, mixed effects models during the 26-week trial, and Cox regression analyses for the register-based outcomes, adjusted for age, sex, BMI, and smoking. Baseline inflammatory markers correlated with differential severity on specific symptom dimensions but not with overall depression severity. A total of 17 of 27 inflammatory markers decreased significantly during treatment. We found no correlation between baseline nor change in inflammatory markers nor composite inflammation scores with differential treatment response on the MADRS, but small correlations between changes in inflammatory markers and differential response on neurovegetative symptoms. Findings were similar among 59 treatment-naïve patients. Inflammatory markers were not associated with differential risks for 10-year relapse. These findings support the importance of studying specific depressive symptoms to further explore the correlation between inflammation with differential antidepressant response in a subgroup of depression. Clinical Trial Registration number: GENDEP is registered at EudraCT2004-001723-38 (http://eudract.emea.europa.eu) and ISRCTN03693000 (www.controlled-trials.com).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joakim Kofod
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Betina Elfving
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Ole Mors
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Psychosis Research Unit, Aarhus University Hospital - Psychiatry, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ole Köhler-Forsberg
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Psychosis Research Unit, Aarhus University Hospital - Psychiatry, Aarhus, Denmark.
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13
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Toenders YJ, Laskaris L, Davey CG, Berk M, Milaneschi Y, Lamers F, Penninx BWJH, Schmaal L. Inflammation and depression in young people: a systematic review and proposed inflammatory pathways. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:315-327. [PMID: 34635789 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01306-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Depression onset peaks during adolescence and young adulthood. Current treatments are only moderately effective, driving the search for novel pathophysiological mechanisms underlying youth depression. Inflammatory dysregulation has been shown in adults with depression, however, less is known about inflammation in youth depression. This systematic review identified 109 studies examining the association between inflammation and youth depression and showed subtle evidence for inflammatory dysregulation in youth depression. Longitudinal studies support the bidirectional association between inflammation and depression in youth. We hypothesise multiple inflammatory pathways contributing to depression. More research is needed on anti-inflammatory treatments, potentially tailored to individual symptom profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yara J Toenders
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Liliana Laskaris
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Christopher G Davey
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Michael Berk
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,IMPACT-the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia.,Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Yuri Milaneschi
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, Department of Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Femke Lamers
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, Department of Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Brenda W J H Penninx
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, Department of Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Lianne Schmaal
- Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia. .,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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Rengasamy M, Marsland A, McClain L, Kovats T, Walko T, Pan L, Price RB. Linking childhood trauma and cytokine levels in depressed adolescents. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2021; 133:105398. [PMID: 34479104 PMCID: PMC8530984 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence supports raised circulating levels of inflammatory mediators, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), among clinically depressed adults, although preliminary findings in adolescents are mixed. Independently, meta-analyses identify correlations between childhood trauma and elevated cytokine levels in adulthood. Here, we examine the possible role of individual differences in exposure to childhood trauma in contributing to variability in cytokine levels in depressed adolescents. METHODS 52 depressed adolescents and 20 healthy adolescents completed measures of childhood trauma and provided blood for the assessment of plasma IL-6 and TNFα. Cross-sectional associations of childhood trauma and cytokine measures were assessed in both depressed and healthy adolescents, along with exploratory analysis of childhood trauma subtypes. Longitudinal relationships between childhood trauma and cytokine measures were also studied in an exploratory fashion within a subset of depressed participants (n = 36). RESULTS Higher childhood trauma (particularly emotional abuse) was positively associated with TNFα in depressed adolescents. Childhood trauma was not linked to longitudinal changes in cytokine levels. DISCUSSION In depressed adolescents, childhood trauma may relate to higher levels of the proinflammatory cytokine TNFα and contribute to heterogeneity in cytokine elevation among depressed adolescents. Such findings may ultimately help guide more effective individualized treatments for adolescents with depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manivel Rengasamy
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Western Psychiatric Hospital, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
| | - Anna Marsland
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Lora McClain
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Western Psychiatric Hospital, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Tessa Kovats
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Western Psychiatric Hospital, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Thomas Walko
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Lisa Pan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Western Psychiatric Hospital, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Rebecca B Price
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Western Psychiatric Hospital, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA
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Lee J, Chi S, Lee MS. Molecular Biomarkers for Pediatric Depressive Disorders: A Narrative Review. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221810051. [PMID: 34576215 PMCID: PMC8464852 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221810051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Depressive disorder in childhood and adolescence is a highly prevalent mood disorder that tends to recur throughout life. Untreated mood disorders can adversely impact a patient’s quality of life and cause socioeconomic loss. Thus, an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment is crucial. However, until now, diagnoses and treatments were conducted according to clinical symptoms. Objective and biological validation is lacking. This may result in a poor outcome for patients with depressive disorder. Research has been conducted to identify the biomarkers that are related to depressive disorder. Cumulative evidence has revealed that certain immunologic biomarkers including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cytokines, gastrointestinal biomarkers, hormones, oxidative stress, and certain hypothalamus-pituitary axis biomarkers are associated with depressive disorder. This article reviews the biomarkers related to the diagnosis and treatment of pediatric depressive disorders. To date, clinical biomarker tests are not yet available for diagnosis or for the prediction of treatment prognosis. However, cytokines such as Interleukin-2, interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and BDNF have shown significant results in previous studies of pediatric depressive disorder. These biomarkers have the potential to be used for diagnosis, prognostic assessment, and group screening for those at high risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongha Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Ansan Hospital, Ansan 15355, Korea;
| | - Suhyuk Chi
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Guro Hospital, Seoul 08308, Korea;
| | - Moon-Soo Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Guro Hospital, Seoul 08308, Korea;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-2626-3163; Fax: +82-2-852-1937
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16
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Personalized Medicine Using Neuroimmunological Biomarkers in Depressive Disorders. J Pers Med 2021; 11:jpm11020114. [PMID: 33578686 PMCID: PMC7916349 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11020114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with increased suicidal risk and reduced productivity at work. Neuroimmunology, the study of the immune system and nervous system, provides further insight into the pathogenesis and outcome of MDD. Cytokines are the main modulators of neuroimmunology, and their levels are somewhat entangled in depressive disorders as they affect depressive symptoms and are affected by antidepressant treatment. The use of cytokine-derived medication as a treatment option for MDD is currently a topic of interest. Although not very promising, cytokines are also considered as possible prognostic or diagnostic markers for depression. The machine learning approach is a powerful tool for pattern recognition and has been used in psychiatry for finding useful patterns in data that have translational meaning and can be incorporated in daily clinical practice. This review focuses on the current knowledge of neuroimmunology and depression and the possible use of machine learning to widen our understanding of the topic.
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17
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Rengasamy M, Marsland A, McClain L, Kovats T, Walko T, Pan L, Price RB. Longitudinal relationships of cytokines, depression and anhedonia in depressed adolescents. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 91:74-80. [PMID: 32919038 PMCID: PMC7952030 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Depression has been associated with low-grade elevation of plasma cytokines (e.g. interleukin-6, IL-6; tumor necrosis factor alpha, TNFα) in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies in adults. Preclinical and clinical studies also suggest that IL-6 and TNFα elevation are associated with anhedonia. However, few studies have examined longitudinal relationships between cytokines and depression/anhedonia in clinically depressed samples, particularly adolescents. METHODS Thirty-six adolescents with a depressive disorder receiving standard-of-care community treatment were assessed at a baseline and a follow-up timepoint. Self-report and clinical measures of depression and anhedonia, along with plasma IL-6 and TNFα levels, were obtained at both timepoints. Baseline cytokine measures were examined in association with baseline and follow-up clinical measures. On an exploratory basis, change in clinical measures over time was examined in relation to change in cytokine levels over time. RESULTS Higher baseline TNFα levels predicted higher follow-up depression severity after approximately four months (controlling for baseline depression). Higher baseline TNFα levels also associated positively with baseline anhedonia and predicted higher anhedonia at follow-up (controlling for baseline anhedonia). No association was found between change in clinical measures and change in cytokine levels over time. CONCLUSIONS Among adolescents receiving standard-of-care community treatment for depression, higher levels of TNFα predicted greater depressive symptoms at 4-month follow-up, suggesting this cytokine may be used to help identify patients in need of more intensive treatment. Elevated TNFα levels were also associated with concurrent and future anhedonia symptoms, suggesting a specific mechanism in which TNFα affects depression trajectories. Future studies should examine the relationships between cytokine levels and depression/anhedonia symptoms at multiple timepoints in larger cohorts of depressed adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manivel Rengasamy
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Anna Marsland
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Lora McClain
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tessa Kovats
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Thomas Walko
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Lisa Pan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Rebecca B Price
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA
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18
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Zhao Z, Wang B, Mu L, Wang H, Luo J, Yang Y, Yang H, Li M, Zhou L, Tao C. Long-Term Exposure to Ceftriaxone Sodium Induces Alteration of Gut Microbiota Accompanied by Abnormal Behaviors in Mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:258. [PMID: 32714875 PMCID: PMC7344183 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Growing evidence points out that a disturbance of gut microbiota may also disturb the gut–brain communication. However, it is not clear to what extent the alteration of microbiota composition can modulate brain function, affecting host behaviors. Here, we investigated the effects of gut microbiota depletion on emotional behaviors. Methods: Mice in the experimental group were orally administered ceftriaxone sodium solution (250 mg/ml, 0.2 ml/d) for 11 weeks. The open-field test and tail-suspension test were employed for the neurobehavioral assessment of the mice. Fecal samples were collected for 16s rDNA sequencing. The serum levels of cytokines and corticosterone were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The immunohistochemistry method was used for the detection of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and c-Fos protein. Results: The gut microbiota for antibiotic-treated mice showed lower richness and diversity compared with normal controls. This effect was accompanied by increased anxiety-like, depression-like, and aggressive behaviors. We found these changes to be possibly associated with a dysregulation of the immune system, abnormal activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and an alteration of neurochemistry. Conclusions: The findings demonstrate the indispensable role of microbiota in the gut–brain communication and suggest that the absence of conventional gut microbiota could affect the nervous system, influencing brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongyi Zhao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Baoning Wang
- Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Liyuan Mu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hongren Wang
- Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jingjing Luo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuan Yang
- Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hui Yang
- Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mingyuan Li
- Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Linlin Zhou
- Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chuanmin Tao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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