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Ngema M, Xulu ND, Ngubane PS, Khathi A. Pregestational Prediabetes Induces Maternal Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis Dysregulation and Results in Adverse Foetal Outcomes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5431. [PMID: 38791468 PMCID: PMC11122116 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Maternal type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has been shown to result in foetal programming of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, leading to adverse foetal outcomes. T2DM is preceded by prediabetes and shares similar pathophysiological complications. However, no studies have investigated the effects of maternal prediabetes on foetal HPA axis function and postnatal offspring development. Hence, this study investigated the effects of pregestational prediabetes on maternal HPA axis function and postnatal offspring development. Pre-diabetic (PD) and non-pre-diabetic (NPD) female Sprague Dawley rats were mated with non-prediabetic males. After gestation, male pups born from the PD and NPD groups were collected. Markers of HPA axis function, adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone, were measured in all dams and pups. Glucose tolerance, insulin and gene expressions of mineralocorticoid (MR) and glucocorticoid (GR) receptors were further measured in all pups at birth and their developmental milestones. The results demonstrated increased basal concentrations of ACTH and corticosterone in the dams from the PD group by comparison to NPD. Furthermore, the results show an increase basal ACTH and corticosterone concentrations, disturbed MR and GR gene expression, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance assessed via the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) indices in the pups born from the PD group compared to NPD group at all developmental milestones. These observations reveal that pregestational prediabetes is associated with maternal dysregulation of the HPA axis, impacting offspring HPA axis development along with impaired glucose handling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Andile Khathi
- School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, Private Bag X54001, Durban 4041, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa; (M.N.); (N.D.X.); (P.S.N.)
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2
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Newell AJ, Chung SH, Wagner CK. Inhibition of progesterone receptor activity during development increases reelin-immunoreactivity in Cajal-Retzius cells, alters synaptic innervation in neonatal dentate gyrus, and impairs episodic-like memory in adulthood. Horm Behav 2021; 127:104887. [PMID: 33166560 PMCID: PMC8130849 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Progesterone receptor (PR) is expressed in Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells of the dentate gyrus (DG) molecular layer during the postnatal period (P1-28), a critical stage of development for the dentate gyrus and its circuitry. CR cells secrete the glycoprotein, reelin, which is required for typical development of the DG and its connections, particularly afferent input from the perforant path. This pathway regulates the processing of sensory information arriving from entorhinal cortex and integrates this information to form episodic memories. To assess the potential role of PR activity on the development of these connections and associated behavior, rats were treated daily from P1 to 7 with the PR antagonist, RU486. RU486 treatment increased the number of reelin-ir cells, suggesting an accumulation of reelin, and implicating PR in the regulation of a principle developmental function of CR cells. RU486 also altered the synaptic bouton marker, synaptophysin-ir, in a sex-specific manner, suggesting a role for PR activity in the development of perforant path innervation of the molecular layer (MOL). Finally, both control and RU486 treated rats spent significantly more time with a temporally distant object in the Relative Recency task, suggesting an intact associative memory for object identity and temporal order in both groups. In contrast, the same RU486 treated rats were impaired in an episodic-like memory task compared to controls, failing to integrate object identity ('what'), time ('when'), and object position ('where'). These findings reveal a novel role for PR in regulating CR cell function within the MOL, thereby altering development of DG connectivity and behavioral function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Newell
- Department of Psychology, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, United States of America; Center for Neuroscience Research, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, United States of America
| | - Sung Hwan Chung
- Department of Psychology, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, United States of America; Center for Neuroscience Research, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, United States of America
| | - Christine K Wagner
- Department of Psychology, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, United States of America; Center for Neuroscience Research, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, United States of America.
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3
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Tenkumo C, Ohta KI, Suzuki S, Warita K, Irie K, Teradaya S, Kusaka T, Kanenishi K, Hata T, Miki T. Repeated maternal separation causes transient reduction in BDNF expression in the medial prefrontal cortex during early brain development, affecting inhibitory neuron development. Heliyon 2020; 6:e04781. [PMID: 32923721 PMCID: PMC7475105 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
It is widely accepted that maternal separation (MS) induces stress in children and disrupts neural circuit formation during early brain development. Even though such disruption occurs transiently early in life, its influence persists after maturation, and could lead to various neurodevelopmental disorders. Our recent study revealed that repeated MS reduces the number of inhibitory neurons and synapses in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and causes mPFC-related social deficits after maturation. However, how MS impedes mPFC development during early brain development remains poorly understood. Here, we focused on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) involved in the development of inhibitory neurons, and examined time-dependent BDNF expression in the mPFC during the pre-weaning period in male rats exposed to MS. Our results show that MS attenuates BDNF expression only around the end of the first postnatal week. Likewise, mRNA expression of activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc), an immediate-early gene whose expression is partly regulated by BDNF, also decreased in the MS group along with the reduction in BDNF expression. On the contrary, mRNA expression of tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB), which is a BDNF receptor, was scarcely altered, while its protein expression decreased in the MS group only during the weaning period. In addition, MS reduced mRNA levels of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) 65, a GABA synthesizing enzyme, only during the weaning period. Our results suggest that repeated MS temporarily attenuates BDNF signaling in the mPFC during early brain development. BDNF plays a crucial role in the development of inhibitory neurons; therefore, transient attenuation of BDNF signaling may cause delays in GABAergic neuron development in the mPFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiaki Tenkumo
- Department of Perinatology and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Ken-ichi Ohta
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
- Corresponding author.
| | - Shingo Suzuki
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Katsuhiko Warita
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
| | - Kanako Irie
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Saki Teradaya
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Takashi Kusaka
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Kenji Kanenishi
- Department of Perinatology and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Hata
- Department of Perinatology and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Takanori Miki
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, Japan
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4
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Adzic M, Glavonic E, Nesic MJ, Milosavljevic M, Mihaljevic M, Petrovic Z, Pavlovic Z, Brkic Z, Francija E, Soldatovic I, Mitic M, Radulovic J, Maric NP. Glucocorticoid receptor alpha translational isoforms as mediators of early adversities and negative emotional states. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 90:288-299. [PMID: 30580022 PMCID: PMC6383671 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Childhood trauma (CT) increases the risk for psychopathology through disturbed acquisition and extinction of fear. The effects of CT are mediated by abnormalities of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Since, the alterations in GRα translational isoforms have been documented in psychiatric disorders we sought to: 1) explore whether multiple GRα isoforms in the human peripheral blood mononuclear cells of two independent cohorts (whole cell n = 40; and nuclear extracts n = 43, adult subjects) mediate the effect of CT on negative affectivity (NA) measured by Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS), and 2) examine their role/function during fear extinction in the animal model. In multiple regression analysis, CT, nuclear 40-kDa GRα, their interactions and FKBP5 explained 22%-35% of variance in DASS scores. Structural equation modeling showed that CT had a significant direct effect on 40-kDa and DASS in both cohorts, and on the nuclear 25-kDa GRα. The association between 40-kDa and total DASS was significantly mediated by nuclear FKBP5, whereas on DASS anxiety, over FKBP5 in both cohorts and nuclear full length GRα. Nuclear 40-kDa GRα and its interaction with CT had a significant direct effect on DASS anxiety. In mice, the successful extinction learning was followed by nuclear translocation of 40-kDa GRα and induction of BDNF exon IV expression. Our data revealed that the association between CT and adult NA in non-clinical subjects is mediated by the GRα translational isoforms, in particular 40-kDa GRα, and emphasized its role in fear extinction and neural plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miroslav Adzic
- VINČA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Emilija Glavonic
- VINČA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milica J Nesic
- Clinical Centre of Serbia, Clinic for Psychiatry, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Minja Milosavljevic
- VINČA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marina Mihaljevic
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Clinical Centre of Serbia, Clinic for Psychiatry, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Zorica Petrovic
- VINČA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Zorana Pavlovic
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Clinical Centre of Serbia, Clinic for Psychiatry, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Zeljka Brkic
- VINČA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ester Francija
- VINČA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivan Soldatovic
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Institute of Medical Statistics and Informatics, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milos Mitic
- VINČA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Nadja P Maric
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Clinical Centre of Serbia, Clinic for Psychiatry, Belgrade, Serbia
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Newell AJ, Lalitsasivimol D, Willing J, Gonzales K, Waters EM, Milner TA, McEwen BS, Wagner CK. Progesterone receptor expression in cajal-retzius cells of the developing rat dentate gyrus: Potential role in hippocampus-dependent memory. J Comp Neurol 2018; 526:2285-2300. [PMID: 30069875 PMCID: PMC6193812 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The development of medial temporal lobe circuits is critical for subsequent learning and memory functions later in life. The present study reports the expression of progesterone receptor (PR), a powerful transcription factor of the nuclear steroid receptor superfamily, in Cajal-Retzius cells of the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus of rats. PR was transiently expressed from the day of birth through postnatal day 21, but was absent thereafter. Although PR immunoreactive (PR-ir) cells did not clearly express typical markers of mature neurons, they possessed an ultrastructural morphology consistent with neurons. PRir cells did not express markers for GABAergic neurons, neuronal precursor cells, nor radial glia. However, virtually all PR cells co-expressed the calcium binding protein, calretinin, and the glycoprotein, reelin, both reliable markers for Cajal-Retzius neurons, a transient population of developmentally critical pioneer neurons that guide synaptogenesis of perforant path afferents and histogenesis of the dentate gyrus. Indeed, inhibition of PR activity during the first two weeks of life impaired adult performance on both the novel object recognition and object placement memory tasks, two behavioral tasks hypothesized to describe facets of episodic-like memory in rodents. These findings suggest that PR plays an unexplored and important role in the development of hippocampal circuitry and adult memory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Newell
- Department of Psychology, Center for Neuroscience Research’, 1400 Washington Ave., University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222
| | - Diana Lalitsasivimol
- Department of Psychology, Center for Neuroscience Research’, 1400 Washington Ave., University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222
| | - Jari Willing
- Department of Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience Program, 603 E Daniel St., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820
| | - Keith Gonzales
- Department of Psychology, Center for Neuroscience Research’, 1400 Washington Ave., University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222
| | - Elizabeth M. Waters
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065
| | - Teresa A. Milner
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, 407 East 61, St New York, NY 1006521
| | - Bruce S. McEwen
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065
| | - Christine K. Wagner
- Department of Psychology, Center for Neuroscience Research’, 1400 Washington Ave., University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222
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6
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Tamano H, Morioka H, Iwaki H, Suzuki H, Sato Y, Takeda A. Yokukansan, a Herbal Medicine in Japan, Buffers Social Crowding Stress via Ameliorating Glucocorticoid Secretion Response to Vasopressin. Biol Pharm Bull 2018; 41:920-924. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b18-00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haruna Tamano
- Department of Neurophysiology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Hiroki Morioka
- Department of Neurophysiology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Haruka Iwaki
- Department of Neurophysiology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Hiroki Suzuki
- Department of Neurophysiology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Yuichi Sato
- Department of Neurophysiology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Atsushi Takeda
- Department of Neurophysiology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
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7
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Tesic V, Perovic M, Lazic D, Kojic S, Smiljanic K, Ruzdijic S, Rakic L, Kanazir S. Long-term intermittent feeding restores impaired GR signaling in the hippocampus of aged rat. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2015; 149:43-52. [PMID: 25616002 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Diminished glucocorticoid signaling is associated with an age-related decline in hippocampal functioning. In this study we demonstrate the effect of intermittent, every other day (EOD) feeding on the glucocorticoid hormone/glucocorticoid receptor (GR) system in the hippocampus of middle-aged (18-month-old) and aged (24-month-old) Wistar rats. In aged ad libitum-fed rats, a decrease in the level of total GR and GR phosphorylated at Ser(232) (pGR) was detected. Conversely, aged rats subjected to EOD feeding, starting from 6 months of age, showed an increase in GR and pGR levels and a higher content of hippocampal corticosterone. Furthermore, prominent nuclear staining of pGR was observed in CA1 pyramidal and DG granule neurons of aged EOD-fed rats. These changes were accompanied by increased Sgk-1 and decreased GFAP transcription, pointing to upregulated transcriptional activity of GR. EOD feeding also induced an increase in the expression of the mineralocorticoid receptor. Our results reveal that intermittent feeding restores impaired GR signaling in the hippocampus of aged animals by inducing rather than by stabilizing GR signaling during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vesna Tesic
- Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milka Perovic
- Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Divna Lazic
- Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Snezana Kojic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Kosara Smiljanic
- Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sabera Ruzdijic
- Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Selma Kanazir
- Institute for Biological Research, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
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8
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Heberden C, Meffray E, Goustard-Langelier B, Maximin E, Lavialle M. Dexamethasone inhibits the maturation of newly formed neurons and glia supplemented with polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2013; 138:395-402. [PMID: 23907015 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2013] [Revised: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Stress bears a negative impact on adult neurogenesis. High levels of corticoids have been shown to inhibit neural stem cell proliferation, and are considered responsible for the loss of neural precursors. Their effects on the differentiation of the glial and neuronal lineages have been less studied. We examined the effect of dexamethasone (Dex), a synthetic glucocorticoid, on the differentiation of rat neural stem cells in vitro. Dex had no effect on the differentiation of cells cultured under standard conditions. Since we previously determined that NSC, when cultured under classical conditions, were deprived of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and displayed phospholipid compositions very different from the in vivo figures [1], we examined the effect of Dex under PUFA supplementation. Dex impaired neuron and oligodendrocyte maturation in PUFA-supplemented cells, demonstrated by the reduction of neurite lengths and oligodendrocyte sizes. This effect was mediated by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), since it was eliminated by mifepristone, a GR antagonist, and could be relayed by a reduction of ERK phosphorylation. We determined that GR was associated with PPAR β and α under basal conditions, and that this association was disrupted when PUFA were added in combination with Dex. We assumed that this effect on the receptor status enabled the effect of Dex on PUFA supplemented cells, since we determined that the binding to the glucocorticoid response element was higher in cells incubated with PUFA and Dex. In conclusion, corticoids can impair NSC differentiation, and consequently impact the entire process of neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Heberden
- INRA UR0909 Laboratoire de Nutrition et Régulations Lipidiques des Fonctions Cérébrales, CRJ 78352 Jouy-en-Josas, France.
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9
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Ordyan NE, Pivina SG, Galeeva AY, Rakitskaya VV, Akulova VK. The ontogenetic pattern of the expression of glucocorticoid receptors and the transcription factor NGFI-A in the hippocampus of male rats after prenatal stress. NEUROCHEM J+ 2013. [DOI: 10.1134/s1819712413030100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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10
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Zhao YD, Ou S, Cheng SY, Xiao Z, He WJ, Zhang JH, Ruan HZ. Dendritic development of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells in a neonatal hypoxia-ischemia injury model. J Neurosci Res 2013; 91:1165-73. [PMID: 23686818 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
It is believed that neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) brain injury causes neuron loss and brain functional defects. However, the effect of HI brain injury on dendritic development of the remaining pyramidal cells of the hippocampus and the reaction of contralateral hippocampal neurons require further studies. The Morris water maze and Golgi-Cox staining were used to evaluate the learning and memory and dendritic morphology of pyramidal cells. The results of Golgi-Cox staining showed CA1 pyramidal neurons of HI injury models with fewer bifurcations and shorter dendrite length than the naive control group. The density of dendritic spines of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons was significantly lower in the HI brain injury group than in controls. With respect to hippocampal function, the HI brain injury group presented cognitive deficits in the reference memory task and probe trail. In the HI group, the pyramidal cells of left hippocampus that did not experienced ischemia but did experience hypoxia had more complex dendrites and higher density of spine than the HI injury side and control. The functional implementation of injured hippocampus might depend mainly on the hypertrophy of contralateral hippocampus after HI brain injury. Corticosterone can partially prevent the hippocampal pyramidal cells from HI injury and reduce the difference of the bilateral hippocampus pyramidal cells, but there was no improvement in learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Dong Zhao
- Department of Neurobiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
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11
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Abstract
Adverse environments during the fetal and neonatal development period may permanently program physiology and metabolism, and lead to increased risk of diseases in later life. Programming of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is one of the key mechanisms that contribute to altered metabolism and response to stress. Programming of the HPA axis often involves epigenetic modification of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene promoter, which influences tissue-specific GR expression patterns and response to stimuli. This review summarizes the current state of research on the HPA axis and programming of health and disease in the adult, focusing on the epigenetic regulation of GR gene expression patterns in response to fetal and neonatal stress. Aberrant GR gene expression patterns in the developing brain may have a significant negative impact on protection of the immature brain against hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in the critical period of development during and immediately after birth.
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12
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Long-lasting effects of maternal separation on an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder: effects on memory and hippocampal oxidative stress. Neurochem Res 2011; 37:700-7. [PMID: 22108759 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0660-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2011] [Revised: 11/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Adverse early life events, such as periodic maternal separation, may alter the normal pattern of brain development and subsequently the vulnerability to a variety of mental disorders in adulthood. Patients with a history of early adversities show higher frequency of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This study was undertaken to verify if repeated long-term separation of pups from dams would affect memory and oxidative stress parameters after exposure to an animal model of PTSD. Nests of Wistar rats were divided into intact and subjected to maternal separation (incubator at 32°C, 3 h/day) during post-natal days 1-10. When adults, the animals were subdivided into exposed or not to a PTSD model consisting of exposure to inescapable footshock, followed by situational reminders. One month after exposure to the shock, the animals were exposed to a memory task (Morris water maze) and another month later animals were sacrificed and DNA breaks and antioxidant enzymes activities were measured in the hippocampus. Rats exposed to shock or maternal separation plus shock showed long-lasting effects on spatial memory, spending more time in the opposite quadrant of the water maze. This effect was higher in animals subjected to both maternal separation and shock. Both shock and maternal separation induced a higher score of DNA breaks in the hippocampus. No differences were observed on antioxidant enzymes activities. In conclusion, periodic maternal separation may increase the susceptibility to the effects of a stressor applied in adulthood on performance in the water maze. Increased DNA breaks in hippocampus was induced by both, maternal separation and exposure to shock.
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13
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Dynamic molecular and anatomical changes in the glucocorticoid receptor in human cortical development. Mol Psychiatry 2011; 16:504-15. [PMID: 20308989 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2010.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) has a critical role in determining the brain's capacity to respond to stress, and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of psychiatric illness. We hypothesized that key changes in cortical GR occur during adolescence and young adulthood, at a time when individuals are at increased risk of developing schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depression. We investigated the mRNA and protein expression of GR in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex across seven developmental time points from infancy to adulthood. GR mRNA expression, determined by microarray and quantitative real-time PCR, was lowest in neonates and peaked around young adulthood. Western blotting revealed two dynamic patterns of GRα protein expression across the lifespan, with N-terminal variants displaying differing unique patterns of abundance. GRα-A and a 67-kDa GRα isoform mirrored mRNA trends and peaked in toddlers and late in adolescence, whereas a 40-kDa isoform, very likely a GRα-D variant, peaked in neonates and decreased across the lifespan. GRα protein was localized to pyramidal neurons throughout life and most strikingly in young adulthood, but to white matter astrocytes only in neonates and infants (<130 days). These results suggest that the neonatal and late adolescent periods represent critical windows of stress pathway development, and highlight the importance of white matter astrocytes and pyramidal neurons, respectively, at these stages of cortical development. Evidence of dynamic patterns of GR isoform expression and cellular localization across development strengthens the hypothesis that windows of vulnerability to stress exist across human cortical development.
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14
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Yi SS, Hwang IK, Shin JH, Choi JH, Lee CH, Kim IY, Kim YN, Won MH, Park IS, Seong JK, Yoon YS. Regulatory mechanism of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and neuronal changes after adrenalectomy in type 2 diabetes. J Chem Neuroanat 2010; 40:130-9. [PMID: 20472052 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2010] [Revised: 05/05/2010] [Accepted: 05/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes, especially type 2, is closely associated with hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulation. Short-term effects of adrenalectomy (ADX) in type 2 diabetes are well characterized; however, there have been few reports on the long-term effects of ADX in genetically engineered type 2 diabetes and the neuroendocrine system. We performed bilateral ADX in Zucker Lean Control rats (ZLC; ADX-ZLC), Zucker Diabetic Fatty rats (ZDF; ADX-ZDF), and sham control rats to evaluate how the HPA axis would be regulated in long-term corticosterone deficient type 2 diabetic animals. We evaluated arginine vasopressin (AVP), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) expression with immunohistochemistry (IHC), immunofluorescence, real-time PCR, and Western blot analysis in each treatment group 7 weeks post ADX to assess HPA axis regulatory patterns in connection with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, mRNA expression of AVP and CRH receptors (V1aR, V1bR, CRHR1, and CRHR2) was also measured and adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) immunoreactivity was surveyed by IHC to add to data regarding the regulatory mechanism. AVP and CRH protein expression levels increased after ADX in the hypothalamus of diabetic rats based on IHC results; however, we found that the subtypes of each receptor may be regulated differently in ADX groups compared to sham groups. Immunoreactivity of ACTH in the pituitary gland was enhanced in ADX groups and GR expression levels in the hypothalamic paraventricular nuclei (PVN) remained high, as determined by IHC as well as Western blot analysis. Without the negative feedback system of corticosterone, CRH is highly enhanced and may primarily combine with CRHR1 to stimulate negative feedback through ACTH in the pituitary gland in type 2 diabetic rats with long-term ADX. Although the negative feedback signal was not transmitted appropriately following long-term ADX with type 2 diabetes, a high GR protein level was maintained as in type 2 diabetes. The long-termed lack of corticosterone in the blood stream is a very important factor for normal regulation of the HPA axis even in diabetic animals. From the data, we can conclude that the stimulated HPA axis regulation in the developing type 2 diabetic animals following long-term adrenalectomy has remained elevated rather than diminished. Therefore, the current study may provide useful information to better understand patients suffering from both type 2 diabetes and Addison's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun Shin Yi
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
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15
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Kojo A, Yamada K, Kubo KY, Yamashita A, Yamamoto T. Occlusal Disharmony in Mice Transiently Activates Microglia in Hippocampal CA1 Region but Not in Dentate Gyrus. TOHOKU J EXP MED 2010; 221:237-43. [DOI: 10.1620/tjem.221.237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Kojo
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Kanagawa Dental College
- Research Center of Brain and Oral Science, Kanagawa Dental College
| | - Kentaro Yamada
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Kanagawa Dental College
- Research Center of Brain and Oral Science, Kanagawa Dental College
| | - Kin-Ya Kubo
- Department of Oral Anatomy, Division of Oral Structure, Function and Development, Asahi University School of Dentistry
| | - Anzu Yamashita
- Research Center of Brain and Oral Science, Kanagawa Dental College
- Department of Human Biology, Kanagawa Dental College
| | - Toshiharu Yamamoto
- Research Center of Brain and Oral Science, Kanagawa Dental College
- Department of Human Biology, Kanagawa Dental College
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16
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Ogias D, de Andrade Sá ER, Kasai A, Moisan MP, Alvares EP, Gama P. Fasting differentially regulates plasma corticosterone-binding globulin, glucocorticoid receptor, and cell cycle in the gastric mucosa of pups and adult rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2010; 298:G117-25. [PMID: 19833863 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00245.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The nutritional status influences gastric growth, and interestingly, whereas cell proliferation is stimulated by fasting in suckling rats, it is inhibited in adult animals. Corticosterone takes part in the mechanisms that govern development, and its effects are regulated in particular by corticosterone-binding globulin (CBG) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR). To investigate whether corticosterone activity responds to fasting and how possible changes might control gastric epithelial cell cycle, we evaluated different parameters during the progression of fasting in 18- and 40-day-old rats. Food restriction induced higher corticosterone plasma concentration at both ages, but only in pups did CBG binding increase after short- and long-term treatments. Fasting also increased gastric GR at transcriptional and protein levels, but the effect was more pronounced in 40-day-old animals. Moreover, in pups, GR was observed in the cytoplasm, whereas, in adults, it accumulated in the nucleus after the onset of fasting. Heat shock protein (HSP) 70 and HSP 90 were differentially regulated and might contribute to the stability of GR and to the high cytoplasmic levels in pups and elevated shuttling in adult rats. As for gastric epithelial cell cycle, whereas cyclin D1 and p21 increased during fasting in pups, in adults, cyclin E slowly decreased, concomitant with higher p27. In summary, we demonstrated that corticosterone function is differentially regulated by fasting in 18- and 40-day-old rats, and such variation might attenuate any possible suppressive effects during postnatal development. We suggest that this mechanism could ultimately increase cell proliferation and allow regular gastric growth during adverse nutritional conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Ogias
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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17
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Galeeva A, Pelto-Huikko M, Pivina S, Ordyan N. Postnatal ontogeny of the glucocorticoid receptor in the hippocampus. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2010; 82:367-89. [PMID: 20472148 DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(10)82019-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Corticosteroid hormones are important intrinsic factors that not only mediate the response to stress but also largely contribute to the main physiological processes. The biological actions of these steroids involve, first of all, the activation of specific receptors, namely mineralocorticoid (MR) and glucocorticoid (GR) receptors. These two receptor types govern a flexible and well-balanced mechanism that leads to the often opposing changes in the cell. The hippocampus is the central part of the extrahypothalamic feedback loop in the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. The coexpression of both MR and GR in the hippocampus serves a coordinated response to corticosteroids in the hippocampal neurons, thereby mediating the neuronal excitability, stress response, and behavioral adaptation. Each receptor type reveals distinct ontogenetic pattern over the postnatal period. This review addresses the issues relating to postnatal development of the HPA axis and especially the hippocampal expression of the GR proteins in intact and prenatally stressed rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Galeeva
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology, Russian Academy of Science, Makarova 6, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
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18
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Ordyan NE, Galeeva AY, Pivina SG. Expression of glucocorticoid receptor in the brain of rats during postnatal ontogeny. Bull Exp Biol Med 2008; 146:176-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10517-008-0248-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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19
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Schmitt HF, Huang LZ, Son JH, Pinzon-Guzman C, Slaton GS, Winzer-Serhan UH. Acute nicotine activates c-fos and activity-regulated cytoskeletal associated protein mRNA expression in limbic brain areas involved in the central stress-response in rat pups during a period of hypo-responsiveness to stress. Neuroscience 2008; 157:349-59. [PMID: 18848603 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2008] [Revised: 07/14/2008] [Accepted: 09/10/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In adult rats, acute nicotine, the major psychoactive ingredient in tobacco smoke, stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), resulting in activation of brain areas involved in stress and anxiety-linked behavior. However, in rat pups the first two postnatal weeks are characterized by hypo-responsiveness to stress, also called the 'stress non-responsive period' (SNRP). Therefore, we wanted to address the question if acute nicotine stimulates areas involved in the stress response during SNRP. To determine neuronal activation, the expression of the immediate-early genes c-fos and activity-regulated cytoskeletal associated protein (Arc) was studied in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), bed nucleus stria terminalis (BST) and paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN), which are areas involved in the neuroendocrine and central stress response. Rat pups received nicotine tartrate (2 mg/kg) or saline by i.p. injection at postnatal days (P) 5, 7 and 10 and their brains were removed after 30 min. We used semi-quantitative radioactive in situ hybridization with gene specific antisense cRNA probes in coronal sections. In control pups, c-fos expression was low in most brain regions, but robust Arc hybridization was found in several areas including cingulate cortex, hippocampus and caudate. Acute nicotine resulted in significant induction of c-fos expression in the PVN and CeA at P5, P7 and P10, and in the BST at P7 and P10. Acute nicotine significantly induced expression of Arc in CeA at P5, P7 and P10, and in the BST at P10. In conclusion, acute nicotine age dependently activated different brain areas of the HPA axis during the SNRP. After P7, the response was more pronounced and included the BST, suggesting differential maturation of the HPA axis in response to nicotine.
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Affiliation(s)
- H F Schmitt
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Medicine, TX A&M University System, 203 Reynolds Medical Building, College Station, TX 77843-1114, USA
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20
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Zhe D, Fang H, Yuxiu S. Expressions of hippocampal mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in the single-prolonged stress-rats. Acta Histochem Cytochem 2008; 41:89-95. [PMID: 18787639 PMCID: PMC2532603 DOI: 10.1267/ahc.08013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2008] [Accepted: 06/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a stress-related mental disorder caused by traumatic experience. Single-prolonged stress (SPS) is one of the animal models proposed for PTSD. Rats exposed to SPS showed enhanced inhibition of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which has been reliably reproduced in patients with PTSD. Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in the hippocampus regulate HPA axis by glucocorticoid negative feedback. Abnormalities in negative feedback are found in PTSD, suggesting that GR and MR might be involved in the pathophysiology of these disorders. In the present study, we performed immunohistochemistry and western blotting to examine the changes in hippocampal MR- and GR-expression after SPS. Immunohistochemistry revealed decreased MR- and GR-immunoreactivity (ir) in the CA1 of hippocampus in SPS animals. Change in GR sub-distribution was also observed, where GR-ir was shifted from nucleus to cytoplasm in SPS rats. Western blotting showed that SPS induced significantly decreased MR- and GR-protein in the whole hippocampus, although the degree of decreased expression of both receptors was different. Meanwhile, we also found the MR/GR ratio decreased in SPS rats. In general, SPS induced down-regulation of MR- and GR-expression. These findings suggest that MR and GR play critical roles in affecting hippocampal function. Changes in MR/GR ratio may be relevant for behavioral syndrome in PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Du Zhe
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical College, China Medical University
| | - Han Fang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical College, China Medical University
| | - Shi Yuxiu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical College, China Medical University
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21
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Akana SF. Feeding and stress interact through the serotonin 2C receptor in developing mice. Physiol Behav 2008; 94:569-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2006] [Revised: 03/24/2008] [Accepted: 03/24/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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22
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Xiao L, Chen Y. Culture condition and embryonic stage dependent silence of glucocorticoid receptor expression in hippocampal neurons. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2008; 111:147-55. [PMID: 18625317 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2008.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2007] [Accepted: 03/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid (GC) plays a key role in controlling numerous cellular processes during embryogenesis and fetal development. The actions of glucocorticoids are mediated by interaction with their receptors. We previously reported that hippocampal neurons from embryonic day 18 (E18) rats showed silence of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression when cultured in serum-free condition. In this study, using western blot, immunofluorescence staining and real-time RT-PCR, we found that while this silence occurred in hippocampal neurons isolated from E16 and E18 rats, it did not happen in those from E20 and neonatal (P0) rats. And when cultured under serum-containing condition, none of them showed GR silence anymore. Corticosterone could not rescue the expression of GR in E16 and E18 neurons in serum-free condition, whereas adding of serum could induce the re-expression of the silenced GR. The absence of GR silence in P0 neurons was not due to the perturbation during parturition. Moreover, the unique expression profile of GR in protein and mRNA level was well reflected in the changes of GR function. These results suggested that under in vitro condition, serum was critical for the maintaining of GR expression in hippocampal neurons of early embryonic stages but less important in later developmental stages. Thus, our data implied that at different developmental stages, the expression of GR in hippocampal neurons might have different susceptibilities to environment changes and there might be a critical time window for the switching of such characteristics during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Xiao
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology, Second Military Medical University, 800 XiangYin Road, Shanghai 200433, PR China
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23
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Corticosteroid receptor-gene variants: modulators of the stress-response and implications for mental health. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 585:492-501. [PMID: 18423443 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2007] [Revised: 02/22/2008] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The stress-response, including autonomic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity, is essential for maintaining homeostasis during a challenge. Brain mineralocorticoid receptors and glucocorticoid receptors operate in balance to coordinate the stress-response. Genetic variants in both the human mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptor-genes have been functionally characterized. In vitro effects of these genetic variants on transactivation and mRNA stability have been described. In vivo, two mineralocorticoid receptor-gene SNPs (-2 G/C (allele frequency: 50%), MR I180V (11%)) and four glucocorticoid receptor-gene SNPs (ER22/23EK (3%), N363S (4%), BclI (37%), A3669G (15%)) are associated with changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity. Importantly, the two mineralocorticoid receptor-gene variants (but none of the glucocorticoid receptor-gene variants) also associate with changes in autonomic output as measured as increased heart beat following a psychosocial stress (TSST). Moreover, several of these mineralocorticorticoid receptor- and glucocorticoid receptor variants have been found associated with stress-related disorders, including depression. These data indicate that dysregulation of mineralocorticoid- and glucocorticoid receptor are causative in the pathogenesis of depression. Moreover, these mineralocorticoid- and glucocorticoid receptor-gene variants constitute part of the genetic make up that determines individual stress-responsiveness inducing vulnerability to disease. Furthermore, mineralocorticoid- and glucocorticoid receptors are drug targets, thereby aiming at the underlying mechanisms of stress-related disorders.
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Derijk RH, de Kloet ER. Corticosteroid receptor polymorphisms: determinants of vulnerability and resilience. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 583:303-11. [PMID: 18321483 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2007] [Revised: 10/03/2007] [Accepted: 11/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Why some individuals thrive and others break down under similar adverse conditions, is a central question in the neuroendocrinology of stress related psychopathology. The brain mineralocorticoid (MR) and glucocorticoid receptors (GR) operate in balance to coordinate behavioural, autonomic and neuroendocrine response patterns involved in homeostasis and health. Genetic variants of both the MR and GR have been functionally characterized. The four GR-gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (ER22/23EK (allele frequency: 3%), N363S (4%), BclI (37%), A3669G (15%)) and the two MR-gene SNPs (-2 G/C (50%), MR-I180V (11%)) showed in vitro changes in transactivational capacity, or affect stability of the mRNA (GR exon 9beta A3669G). All of these MR-and GR-SNPs change the regulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis at different levels including basal level (-2 G/C), dexamethasone induced negative feedback (ER22/23EK, N363S, BclI, 9beta A3669G) or following a psychosocial stress test (Trier Social Stress Test (TSST); all of the MR-and GR-SNPs). Importantly, the MR-I180V increased autonomic output and enhanced cortisol secretion during the TSST. Recently, several of these MR-and GR-variants have been found associated with psychopathology (depression, bipolar disorder). These data provide evidence that dysregulation of MR and GR are causative in the pathogenesis of depression and that these MR-and GR-gene variants are part of the genetic make up that determines individual stress-responsivity and coping style, affecting vulnerability to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roel H Derijk
- Division of Medical Pharmacology, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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