Monolayers of poly-l-lysine on mica – Electrokinetic characteristics

Comparison of cation and anion-mediated resolution enhancement of bioprinted hydrogels for membranous tissue fabrication

Fabrication of engineered thin membranous tissues (TMTs) presents a significant challenge to researchers, as these structures are small in scale, but present complex anatomies containing multiple stratified cell layers. While numerous methodologies exist to fabricate such tissues, many are limited by poor mechanical properties, need for post-fabrication, or lack of cytocompatibility. Extrusion bioprinting can address these issues, but lacks the resolution necessary to generate biomimetic, microscale TMT structures. Therefore, our goal was to develop a strategy that enhances bioprinting resolution below its traditional limit of 150 μm and delivers a viable cell population. We have generated a system to effectively shrink printed gels via electrostatic interactions between anionic and cationic polymers. Base hydrogels are composed of gelatin methacrylate type A (cationic), or B (anionic) treated with anionic alginate, and cationic poly-L-lysine, respectively. Through a complex coacervation-like mechanism, the charges attract, causing compaction of the base GelMA network, leading to reduced sample dimensions. In this work, we evaluate the role of both base hydrogel and shrinking polymer charge on effective print resolution and cell viability. The alginate anion-mediated system demonstrated the ability to reach bioprinting resolutions of 70 μm, while maintaining a viable cell population. To our knowledge, this is the first study that has produced such significant enhancement in extrusion bioprinting capabilities, while also remaining cytocompatible.

Ultralow Energy Consumption Angstrom-Fluidic Memristor

The emergence of nanofluidic memristors has made a giant leap to mimic the neuromorphic functions of biological neurons. Here, we report neuromorphic signaling using Angstrom-scale funnel-shaped channels with poly-l-lysine (PLL) assembled at nano-openings. We found frequency-dependent current-voltage characteristics under sweeping voltage, which represents a diode in low frequencies, but it showed pinched current hysteresis as frequency increases. The current hysteresis is strongly dependent on pH values but weakly dependent on salt concentration. We attributed the current hysteresis to the entropy barrier of PLL molecules entering and exiting the Angstrom channels, resulting in reversible voltage-gated open-close state transitions. We successfully emulated the synaptic adaptation of Hebbian learning using voltage spikes and obtained a minimum energy consumption of 2-23 fJ in each spike per channel. Our findings pave a new way to mimic neuronal functions by Angstrom channels in low energy consumption.

Preparation of geometrically highly controlled Ga particle arrays on quasi-planar nanostructured surfaces as a SCALMS model system

This study establishes a preparative route towards a model system for supported catalytically active liquid metal solutions (SCALMS) on nanostructured substrates. This model is characterized by a uniquely precise geometrical control of the gallium particle size distribution. In a SCALMS system, the Ga serves as a matrix material which can be decorated with a catalytically active material subsequently. The corresponding Ga containing precursor is spin-coated on aluminum based substrates, previously nanostructured by electrochemical anodization. The highly ordered substrates are functionalized with distinct oxide coatings by atomic layer deposition (ALD) independently from the morphology. After preparation of the metal particles on the oxide interface, the characterization of our model system in terms of its geometry parameters (droplet diameter, size distribution and population density) points to SiO2 as the best suited surface for a highly controlled geometry. This flexible model system can be functionalized with a dissolved noble metal catalyst for the application chosen.

SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein (RBD) Subunit Adsorption at Abiotic Surfaces and Corona Formation at Polymer Particles

The adsorption kinetics of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein subunit with the receptor binding domain at abiotic surfaces was investigated. A combination of sensitive methods was used such as atomic force microscopy yielding a molecular resolution, a quartz microbalance, and optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy. The two latter methods yielded in situ information about the protein adsorption kinetics under flow conditions. It was established that at pH 3.5-4 the protein adsorbed on mica and silica surfaces in the form of compact quasi-spherical aggregates with an average size of 14 nm. The maximum coverage of the layers was equal to 3 and 1 mg m^-2 at pH 4 and 7.4, respectively. The experimental data were successfully interpreted in terms of theoretical results derived from modeling. The experiments performed for flat substrates were complemented by investigations of the protein corona formation at polymer particles carried out using in situ laser Doppler velocimetry technique. In this way, the zeta potential of the protein layers was acquired as a function of the coverage. Applying the electrokinetic model, these primary data were converted to the dependence of the subunit zeta potential on pH. It was shown that a complete acid-base characteristic of the layer can be acquired only using nanomolar quantities of the protein.

Laccase immobilization in polyelectrolyte multilayer membranes for 17α-ethynylestradiol removal: Biocatalytic approach for pharmaceuticals degradation

Enzymatic membrane reactors equipped with multifunctional biocatalytic membranes are promising and sustainable alternatives for removal of micropollutants, including steroid estrogens, under mild conditions. Thus, in this study an effort was made to produce novel multifunctional biocatalytic polyelectrolyte multilayer membranes via polyelectrolyte layer-by-layer assembly with laccase enzyme immobilized between or into polyelectrolyte layers. In this study, multifunctional biocatalytic membranes are considered as systems composed of commercially available filtration membrane modified by polyelectrolytes and immobilized enzymes, which are produced for complex treatment of water pollutants. The multifunctionality of the proposed systems is related to the fact that these membranes are capable of micropollutants removal via simultaneous catalytic conversion, membrane adsorption and membrane rejection making remediation process more complex, however, also more efficient. Briefly, cationic poly-l-lysine and polyethylenimine as well as anionic poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) polyelectrolytes were deposited onto NP010 nanofiltration and UFX5 ultrafiltration membranes to produce systems for removal of 17α-ethynylestradiol. Images from scanning electron microscopy confirm effective enzyme deposition, whereas results of zeta potential measurements indicate introduction of positive charge onto the membranes. Based on preliminary results, four membranes with over 70%, activity retention produced using polyethylenimine in internal and entrapped mode, were selected for degradation tests. Systems based on UFX5 membrane allowed over 60% 17α-ethynylestradiol removal within 100 min, whereas NP010-based systems removed over 75% of estrogen within 150 min. Further, around 80% removal of 17α-ethynylestradiol was possible from the solutions at concentration up to 0.1 mg/L at pH ranging from 4 to 6 and at the pressure up to 3 bar, indicating high activity of the immobilized laccase over wide range of process conditions. Produced systems exhibited also great long-term stability followed by limited enzyme elution from the membrane. Finally, removal of over 70% and 60% of 17α-ethynylestradiol, respectively by NP010 and UFX5 systems after 8 cycles of repeated use indicate high reusability potential of the systems and suggest their practical application in removal of micropollutants, including estrogens.

Poly-L-Arginine Molecule Properties in Simple Electrolytes: Molecular Dynamic Modeling and Experiments

Physicochemical properties of poly-L-arginine (P-Arg) molecules in NaCl solutions were determined by molecular dynamics (MD) modeling and various experimental techniques. Primarily, the molecule conformations, the monomer length and the chain diameter were theoretically calculated. These results were used to interpret experimental data, which comprised the molecule secondary structure, the diffusion coefficient, the hydrodynamic diameter and the electrophoretic mobility determined at various ionic strengths and pHs. Using these data, the electrokinetic charge and the effective ionization degree of P-Arg molecules were determined. In addition, the dynamic viscosity measurements for dilute P-Arg solutions enabledto determine the molecule intrinsic viscosity, which was equal to 500 and 90 for ionic strength of 10-5 and 0.15 M, respectively. This confirmed that P-Arg molecules assumed extended conformations and approached the slender body limit at the low range of ionic strength. The experimental data were also used to determine the molecule length and the chain diameter, which agreed with theoretical predictions. Exploiting these results, a robust method for determining the molar mass of P-Arg samples, the hydrodynamic diameter, the radius of gyration and the sedimentation coefficient was proposed.

Heterogeneity in Lateral Distribution of Polycations at the Surface of Lipid Membrane: From the Experimental Data to the Theoretical Model

Natural and synthetic polycations of different kinds attract substantial attention due to an increasing number of their applications in the biomedical industry and in pharmacology. The key characteristic determining the effectiveness of the majority of these applications is the number of macromolecules adsorbed on the surface of biological cells or their lipid models. Their study is complicated by a possible heterogeneity of polymer layer adsorbed on the membrane. Experimental methods reflecting the structure of the layer include the electrokinetic measurements in liposome suspension and the boundary potential of planar bilayer lipid membranes (BLM) and lipid monolayers with a mixed composition of lipids and the ionic media. In the review, we systematically analyze the methods of experimental registration and theoretical description of the laterally heterogeneous structures in the polymer layer published in the literature and in our previous studies. In particular, we consider a model based on classical theory of the electrical double layer, used to analyze the available data of the electrokinetic measurements in liposome suspension with polylysines of varying molecular mass. This model suggests a few parameters related to the heterogeneity of the polymer layer and allows determining the conditions for its appearance at the membrane surface. A further development of this theoretical approach is discussed.

Deposition of Polymer Particles with Fibrinogen Corona at Abiotic Surfaces under Flow Conditions

The deposition kinetics of polymer particles with fibrinogen molecule coronas at bare and poly-L-lysine (PLL) modified mica was studied using the microfluid impinging-jet cell. Basic physicochemical characteristics of fibrinogen and the particles were acquired using dynamic light scattering and the electrophoretic mobility methods, whereas the zeta potential of the substrates was determined using streaming potential measurements. Subsequently, an efficient method for the preparation of the particles with coronas, characterized by a controlled fibrinogen coverage, was developed. This enabled us to carry out measurements, which confirmed that the deposition kinetics of the particles at mica vanished at pH above 5. In contrast, the particle deposition of PLL modified mica was at maximum for pH above 5. It was shown that the deposition kinetics could be adequately analyzed in terms of the mean-field approach, analogously to the ordinary colloid particle behavior. This contrasts the fibrinogen molecule behavior, which efficiently adsorbs at negatively charged substrates for the entire range pHs up to 9.7. These results have practical significance for conducting label-free immunoassays governed by the specific antigen/antibody interactions.

Exploiting Electrostatic Interaction for Highly Sensitive Detection of Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles by an Electrokinetic Sensor

We present an approach to improve the detection sensitivity of a streaming current-based biosensor for membrane protein profiling of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). The experimental approach, supported by theoretical investigation, exploits electrostatic charge contrast between the sensor surface and target analytes to enhance the detection sensitivity. We first demonstrate the feasibility of the approach using different chemical functionalization schemes to modulate the zeta potential of the sensor surface in a range -16.0 to -32.8 mV. Thereafter, we examine the sensitivity of the sensor surface across this range of zeta potential to determine the optimal functionalization scheme. The limit of detection (LOD) varied by 2 orders of magnitude across this range, reaching a value of 4.9 × 10⁶ particles/mL for the best performing surface for CD9. We then used the optimized surface to profile CD9, EGFR, and PD-L1 surface proteins of sEVs derived from non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell-line H1975, before and after treatment with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, as well as sEVs derived from pleural effusion fluid of NSCLC adenocarcinoma patients. Our results show the feasibility to monitor CD9, EGFR, and PD-L1 expression on the sEV surface, illustrating a good prospect of the method for clinical application.

Tunable layer-by-layer films containing hyaluronic acid and their interactions with CD44

We report on the development of layer-by-layer (LbL) constructs whose viscoelastic properties and bioactivity can be finely tuned by using polyanions of different size and/or crosslinking. As a polyanion we used hyaluronic acid (HA) - a multi-signaling biomolecule whose bioactivity depends on its molecular weight. We investigated the interplay between the mechanical properties of the LbL systems built using HA of different sizes and the specific HA-mediated biochemical interactions. We characterized the assembled materials and their interactions with CD44, the main HA receptor, by Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation (QCM-D), Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). We observed that the presence of CD44 resulted in the disruption of the non-crosslinked multilayers, while crosslinked films remain stable and bind CD44 in a HA molecular weight and charge specific fashion.

Cytocompatibility of stabilized black phosphorus nanosheets tailored by directly conjugated polymeric micelles for human breast cancer therapy

The novel procedure of few-layer black phosphorus (FLBP) stabilization and functionalisation was here proposed. The cationic polymer PLL and non-ionic PEG have been involved into encapsulation of FLBP to allow sufficient time for further nanofabrication process and overcome environmental degradation. Two different spacer chemistry was designed to bind polymers to tumor-homing peptides. The efficiency of functionalisation was examined by RP-HPLC, microscopic (TEM and SEM) and spectroscopic (FT-IR and Raman) techniques as well supported by ab-initio modelling. The cell and dose dependent cytotoxicity of FLBP and its bioconjugates was evaluated against HB2, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines. Functionalisation allowed not only for improvement of environmental stability, but also enhances therapeutic effect by abolished the cytotoxicity of FLBP against HB2 cell line. Moreover, modification of FLBP with PLL caused increase of selectivity against highly aggressive breast cancer cell lines. Results indicate the future prospect application of black phosphorus nanosheets as nanocarrier, considering its unique features synergistically with conjugated polymeric micelles.

PLL-Poly(HPMA) Bottlebrush-Based Antifouling Coatings: Three Grafting Routes

In this work, we compare three routes to prepare antifouling coatings that consist of poly(l-lysine)-poly(N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide) bottlebrushes. The poly(l-lysine) (PLL) backbone is self-assembled onto the surface by charged-based interactions between the lysine groups and the negatively charged silicon oxide surface, whereas the poly(N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide) [poly(HPMA)] side chains, grown by reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization, provide antifouling properties to the surface. First, the PLL-poly(HPMA) coatings are synthesized in a bottom-up fashion through a grafting-from approach. In this route, the PLL is self-assembled onto a surface, after which a polymerization agent is immobilized, and finally HPMA is polymerized from the surface. In the second explored route, the PLL is modified in solution by a RAFT agent to create a macroinitiator. After self-assembly of this macroinitiator onto the surface, poly(HPMA) is polymerized from the surface by RAFT. In the third and last route, the whole PLL-poly(HPMA) bottlebrush is initially synthesized in solution. To this end, HPMA is polymerized from the macroinitiator in solution and the PLL-poly(HPMA) bottlebrush is then self-assembled onto the surface in just one step (grafting-to approach). Additionally, in this third route, we also design and synthesize a bottlebrush polymer with a PLL backbone and poly(HPMA) side chains, with the latter containing 5% carboxybetaine (CB) monomers that eventually allow for additional (bio)functionalization in solution or after surface immobilization. These three routes are evaluated in terms of ease of synthesis, scalability, ease of characterization, and a preliminary investigation of their antifouling performance. All three coating procedures result in coatings that show antifouling properties in single-protein antifouling tests. This method thus presents a new, simple, versatile, and highly scalable approach for the manufacturing of PLL-based bottlebrush coatings that can be synthesized partly or completely on the surface or in solution, depending on the desired production process and/or application.

Tunable Current Rectification and Selectivity Demonstrated in Nanofluidic Diodes through Kinetic Functionalization

The possibility of tuning the current rectification and selectivity in nanofluidic diodes is demonstrated both experimentally and theoretically through dynamically functionalizing a conical nanopore with poly-l-lysine. We identified an optimum functionalization time equivalent to optimum modification depth that assures the highest rectification degrees. Results showed that the functionalization time-dependent rectification behavior of nanofluidic diodes is dominated by the properties of current at positive voltages that in our electrode configuration indicate the "on" state of the diode and accumulation of ions in the nanopore. The functionalization time also tunes the ion selectivity of the diode. If the functionalization time is sufficiently short, an unusual depletion of counterions near the bipolar interface results in a cation-selective nanopore. However, a further increase in the duration of functionalization renders a nanopore that is an anion-selective nanopore. The dynamic functionalization presented in this Letter enables tuning ion selectivity of nanopores.

Electrochemically Enhanced Dissolution of Silica and Alumina in Alkaline Environments

Dissolution of mineral surfaces at asymmetric solid-liquid-solid interfaces in aqueous solutions occurs in technologically relevant processes, such as chemical/mechanical polishing (CMP) for semiconductor fabrication, formation and corrosion of structural materials, and crystallization of materials relevant to heterogeneous catalysis or drug delivery. In some such processes, materials at confined interfaces exhibit dissolution rates that are orders of magnitude larger than dissolution rates of isolated surfaces. Here, the dissolution of silica and alumina in close proximity to a charged gold surface or mica in alkaline solutions of pH 10-11 is shown to depend on the difference in electrostatic potentials of the surfaces, as determined from measurements conducted using a custom-built electrochemical pressure cell and a surface forces apparatus (SFA). The enhanced dissolution is proposed to result from overlap of the electrostatic double layers between the dissimilar charged surfaces at small intersurface separation distances (<1 Debye length). A semiquantitative model shows that overlap of the electric double layers can change the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the surface with the less negative potential, which results in an increase in the rate of dissolution of that surface. When the surface electrochemical properties were changed, the dissolution rates of silica and alumina were increased by up to 2 orders of magnitude over the dissolution rates of isolated compositionally similar surfaces under otherwise identical conditions. The results provide new insights on dissolution processes that occur at solid-liquid-solid interfaces and yield design criteria for controlling dissolution through electrochemical modification, with relevance to diverse technologies.

Kinetics of Poly-l-lysine Adsorption on Mica and Stability of Formed Monolayers: Theoretical and Experimental Studies

Various physicochemical parameters of poly-l-lysine (PLL) solutions comprising the diffusion coefficient, the electrophoretic mobility, the density, and the intrinsic viscosity were determined for the pH range 3.0-9.2. This allowed us to calculate derivative parameters characterizing the PLL molecule such as: zeta potential, the number of electrokinetic charges, ionization degree, contour length, and cross section area. These data were exploited in theoretical calculations of PLL adsorption kinetics on solid substrates under diffusion transport. A hybrid approach was used comprising a blocking function derived from the random sequential adsorption (RSA) model. In experiments, the PLL adsorption on mica was studied using the streaming potential measurements and interpreted in terms of a general electrokinetic model. This confirmed a side-on adsorption mechanism of the macroion molecules at the examined pH range. Additionally, using this method, the stability of PLL monolayers was determined performing in situ desorption kinetic experiments. In this way, the equilibrium adsorption constant and the energy minimum depth were determined. It was confirmed that the monolayer stability decreases with pH following the decrease in the number of electrokinetic charges per molecule. This confirmed the electrostatic interaction driven adsorption mechanism of PLL. It is also predicted that at pH 5.7-7.4 the monolayers were stable under diffusion-controlled desorption over the time exceeding 100 h. In addition to their significance for basic science, the results obtained in this work can be exploited for developing procedures for preparing stable PLL monolayers of well controlled coverage and electrokinetic properties.

Highly Stabilized Nanoparticles on Poly-l-Lysine-Coated Oxidized Metals: A Versatile Platform with Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity

The increasing incidence of infections in implantable devices has encouraged the search for biocompatible antimicrobial surfaces. To inhibit the bacterial adhesion and proliferation on biomaterials, several surface functionalization strategies have been developed. However, most of these strategies lead to bacteriostatic effect and only few of these are able to reach the bactericidal condition. In this work, bactericidal surfaces were designed through the functionalization of titanium surfaces with poly-l-lysine (PLL) as the mediator for the incorporation of antimicrobial silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). This functionalization influences the adsorption of the particles on the substrate impeding the agglomeration observed when bare titanium surfaces are used, leading to a homogeneous distribution of AgNPs on the surfaces. The antimicrobial activity of this surface has been tested against two different strains, namely, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. For both strains and different AgNPs sizes, the surface modified with PLL and AgNPs shows a much enhanced antimicrobial activity in comparison with AgNPs deposited on bare titanium. This enhanced antibacterial activity is high enough to reach bactericidal effect, a condition hard to achieve in antimicrobial surfaces. Importantly, the designed surfaces are able to decrease the bacterial viability more than 5 orders with respect to the initial bacterial inoculum. That means that a relative low load of AgNPs on the PLL-modified titanium surfaces reaches 99.999% bacterial death after 24 h. The results of the present study are important to avoid infections in indwelling materials by reinforcing the preventive antibiotic therapy usually dosed throughout the surgical procedure and during the postoperative period.

Reversible Protein Adsorption on Mixed PEO/PAA Polymer Brushes: Role of Ionic Strength and PEO Content

Proteins at interfaces are a key for many applications in the biomedical field, in biotechnologies, in biocatalysis, in food industry, etc. The development of surface layers that allow to control and manipulate proteins is thus highly desired. In previous works, we have shown that mixed polymer brushes combining the protein-repellent properties of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and the stimuli-responsive adsorption behavior of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) could be synthesized and used to achieve switchable protein adsorption. With the present work, we bring more insight into the rational design of such smart thin films by unravelling the role of PEO on the adsorption/desorption of proteins. The PEO content of the mixed PEO/PAA brushes was regulated, on the one hand, by using PEO with different molar masses and, on the other hand, by varying the ratio of PEO and PAA in the solutions used to synthesize the brushes. The influence of ionic strength on the protein adsorption behavior was also further examined. The behavior of three proteins-human serum albumin, lysozyme, and human fibrinogen, which have very different size, shape, and isoelectric point-was investigated. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, quartz crystal microbalance, atomic force microscopy, and streaming potential measurements were used to characterize the mixed polymer brushes and, in particular, to estimate the fraction of each polymer within the brushes. Protein adsorption and desorption conditions were selected based on previous studies. While brushes with a lower PEO content allowed the higher protein adsorption to occur, fully reversible adsorption could only be achieved when the PEO surface density was at least 25 PEO units per nm². Taken together, the results increase the ability to finely tune protein adsorption, especially with temporal control. This opens up possibilities of applications in biosensor design, separation technologies, nanotransport, etc.

Hematite/silica nanoparticle bilayers on mica: AFM and electrokinetic characterization

Tuning the properties of bilayers by controlled deposition of nanoparticles.

Use of Pulsed Streaming Potential with a Prepared Cationic Polyelectrolyte Layer to Detect Deposition Kinetics of Graphene Oxide and Consequences of Particle Size Differences

The deposition kinetics of graphene oxide (GO) onto poly(ethylene imine) (PEI) layer was characterized in situ with pulsed streaming potential (SP) measurement, and it was found that the initial rate constant (k_i) was dependent on the size of GO with same surface charge density at a fixed concentration under controlled experimental conditions. Assuming the deposition was controlled by diffusion at the initial stage, k_i is proportional to R_h^-2/3, where R_h is the hydrodynamic radius. By flushing a GO solution through a capillary coated with PEI, the initial change rate of relative SP (dE_r/dt) was obtained in 20 s and k_i was measured with five different concentrations in about 2 min. Three GO samples of different sizes obtained from the same batch of raw material were characterized with pulsed SP to get k_i values, and their sizes were verified with atomic force microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The experimental results are consistent with the predicted effects of the size of NPs on their deposition kinetics.

Self-assembled, nanostructured coatings for water oxidation by alternating deposition of Cu-branched peptide electrocatalysts and polyelectrolytes

This work demonstrates the heterogenization of homogeneous water oxidation electrocatalysts in surface coatings produced by combining the substances with a suitable polyelectrolyte.

This work demonstrates the heterogenization of homogeneous water oxidation electrocatalysts in surface coatings produced by combining the substances with a suitable polyelectrolyte. The electrocatalysts i.e. Cu(ii)-branched peptide complexes involving a 2,3-l-diaminopropionic acid junction unit are heterogenized by building composite layers on indium-tin-oxide (ITO) electrode surface. Alternating deposition of the peptide complexes and poly(l-lysine) or poly(allylamine hydrochloride) were carried out in the presence of phosphate in a pH range of 7.5–10.5. Discussion of the results is divided to (1) characteristics of composite layer buildup and (2) electrocatalytic water oxidation and accompanying changes of these layers. For (1), optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy (OWLS) has been applied to reveal the layer-by-layer formation of a Cu-ligand/polyelectrolyte/phosphate coating. The fabricated structures had a nanoporous topography (atomic force microscopy). As for (2), electrochemistry employing coated ITO substrates indicated improved water oxidation electrocatalysis vs. neat ITO and dependence of this improvement on the presence or absence of a histidine ligand in the deposited Cu(ii)-complexes equally, as observed in homogeneous systems. Electrochemical OWLS revealed changes in the coatings in operando, upon alternating positive–zero–positive etc. polarization: after some initial loss of the coating mass steady-state electrolysis was sustained by a compact and stable layer. According to X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy Cu remains in an N-donor ligand environment after electrolysis.