Modeling porosity reductions caused by mineral fouling in continuous-wall permeable reactive barriers

Effects of fluid composition in fluid injection experiments in porous media

Experiments on fluid flow in porous media, using fluids loaded with solids of various grain sizes, have been conducted in a modified Hele-Shaw setup. This setup utilised weakly cemented porous media with specific hydraulic and mechanical properties. Fluid injection in coarse granular media with clean or low-concentration fine particles, results in infiltration only, with pressure close to the material tensile strength, while injection in finer granular material causes damage alongside infiltration, with the fluid pressure still close to the material tensile strength. When larger particle sizes or higher particle concentrations are used in the mixture, the fluid travels further within the porous medium, primarily influenced by the grain size of the granular medium. In the latter case, the Darcy flow equation with an effective permeability term can be employed to determine the pressure differential. For the largest particle sizes included in the fluid, the equation is still applicable, but the effective permeability requires adjustment for particle size within the fluid rather than the granular medium. This is crucial when the injection point is locally clogged. The experiments show that fracturing conditions are controlled by different mechanisms. Dimensional and statistical analysis was used to classify the injection pressures to regimes predicted by fracturing theory or by Darcy law with modified effective permeabilities. The findings show that both the material properties and fluid composition are important designing parameters.

Significance of temperature as a key driver in ZVI PRB applications for PCE degradation

We report on the potential of elevated groundwater temperatures and zero-valent iron permeable reactive barriers (ZVI PRBs), for example, through a combination with underground thermal energy storage (UTES), to achieve enhanced remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbon (CHC) contaminated groundwater. Building on earlier findings concerning deionized solutions, we created a database for mineralized groundwater based on temperature dependence of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) degradation using two popular ZVIs (i.e., Gotthart-Maier cast iron [GM] and ISPAT sponge iron [IS]) in column experiments at 25 °C-70 °C to establish a temperature-dependent ZVI PRB dimensioning approach. Scenario analysis revealed that a heated ZVI PRB system in a moderate temperature range up to 40 °C showed the greatest efficiency, with potential material savings of ~55% to 75%, compared to 10 °C, considering manageability and longevity. With a 25 °C-70 °C temperature increase, rate coefficients of PCE degradation increased from 0.4 ± 0.0 h-1 to 2.9 ± 2.2 h-1 (GM) and 0.1 ± 0.1 h-1 to 1.8 ± 0.0 h-1 (IS), while TCE rate coefficients increased from 0.6 ± 0.1 h-1 to 5.1 ± 3.9 h-1 at GM. Activation energies for PCE degradation yielded 32 kJ mol-1 (GM) and 56 kJ mol-1 (IS). Temperature-dependent anaerobic iron corrosion was key in regulating mineral precipitation and passivation of the iron surface as well as porosity reduction due to gas production.

Measurement of pore volume, connectivity and clogging of pervious concrete reactive barrier used to treat acid mine drainage

It has recently been shown that pervious concrete is a promising, effective technology as a permeable reactive barrier system for treatment of acid mine drainage (AMD). However, pore clogging also occurs simultaneously during AMD treatment. In the present study, mixtures of pervious concrete were made and used in a column experiment during which pore clogging occurred in the samples. Pore volume, connectivity and other parameters of pervious concrete were evaluated using five (5) different methods comprising the volumetric method (VM), linear-traverse method (LTM), image analysis (IA), falling head permeability test and X-ray microcomputed tomography. It was found that pervious concrete effectively removed from AMD, about 90 to 99% of various heavy metals including Al, Fe, Zn, Mn and Mg. Cr concentration significantly increased in the treated effluent, owing to leaching from cementitious materials used in mixtures. The VM and LTM gave statistically similar pore volume results, while IA's values were 20 to 30% higher than those of the conventional methods. The falling head permeability test and IA were found to be effective in quantifying pore clogging effects. Pervious concrete exhibited high pore connectivity of 95.0 to 99.7%, which underlies its efficacious hydraulic conductivity.

Temperature Effects on PCE Degradation on ZVI in Column Experiments with Deionized Water

The effects of rising groundwater temperatures on zerovalent iron (ZVI)-based remediation techniques will be critical in accelerating chlorinated hydrocarbon (CHC) degradation and side reactions. Therefore, tetrachloroethylene (PCE) degradation with three ZVIs widely used in permeable reactive barriers (Gotthart-Maier cast iron [GM], Peerless cast iron [PL], and ISPAT sponge iron [IS]) was evaluated at 10-70 °C in deionized water. From 10 to 70 °C, PCE degradation half-lives decreased from 25 ± 2 to 0.9 ± 0.1 h (PL), 24 ± 3 to 0.7 ± 0.1 h (GM), and 2.5 ± 0.01 to 0.3 ± 0.005 h (IS). Trichloroethylene (TCE) degradation half-lives at PL and GM decreased from 14.3 ± 3 to 0.2 ± 0.1 h (PL) and 7.6 ± 2 to 0.4 ± 0.1 h (GM). This acceleration of CHC degradation and the stronger shift toward reductive β-elimination reduced the concentration of potentially harmful metabolites with increasing temperatures. PCE and TCE degradation yields an activation energy of 28 (IS), 58 and 40 kJ mol^-1 (GM), and 62 and 53 kJ mol^-1 (PL). Hydrogen gas production by ZVI corrosion increased by 3 orders of magnitude from 10 to 70 °C, and an increased chance of gas clogging was observed at high temperatures.

Modeling porosity loss in Fe0-based permeable reactive barriers with Faraday's law

Solid iron corrosion products (FeCPs), continuously generated from iron corrosion in Fe⁰-based permeable reactive barriers (PRB) at pH > 4.5, can lead to significant porosity loss and possibility of system's failure. To avoid such failure and to estimate the long-term performance of PRBs, reliable models are required. In this study, a mathematical model is presented to describe the porosity change of a hypothetical Fe⁰-based PRB through-flowed by deionized water. The porosity loss is solely caused by iron corrosion process. The new model is based on Faraday's Law and considers the iron surface passivation. Experimental results from literature were used to calibrate the parameters of the model. The derived iron corrosion rates (2.60 mmol/(kg day), 2.07 mmol/(kg day) and 1.77 mmol/(kg day)) are significantly larger than the corrosion rate used in previous modeling studies (0.4 mmol/(kg day)). This suggests that the previous models have underestimated the impact of in-situ generated FeCPs on the porosity loss. The model results show that the assumptions for the iron corrosion rates on basis of a first-order dependency on iron surface area are only valid when no iron surface passivation is considered. The simulations demonstrate that volume-expansion by Fe⁰ corrosion products alone can cause a great extent of porosity loss and suggests careful evaluation of the iron corrosion process in individual Fe⁰-based PRB.

Anaerobic Corrosion of Zero-Valent Iron at Elevated Temperatures

Increasing groundwater temperatures caused by global warming, subsurface infrastructure, or heat storage projects may interfere with groundwater remediation techniques using zero-valent iron (ZVI) technology by accelerating anaerobic corrosion. The corrosion behavior of three ZVIs widely used in permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), Peerless cast iron (PL), Gotthart-Maier cast iron (GM), and an ISPAT iron sponge (IS), was investigated at temperatures between 25 and 70 °C in half-open batch reactors by measuring the volume of hydrogen gas generated. Initially, the corrosion rates of all tested ZVIs increased with temperature; at temperatures ≤40 °C, a material-specific steady state is reached, and at temperatures >40 °C, passivation causes a decrease in long-term corrosion rates. The observed corrosion behavior was therefore assumed to be superimposed by accelerating and inhibiting effects, caused by surface precipitates where the fitting of measured corrosion rates by a modeling approach, using the corroded amount of Fe⁰ to account for passivating minerals, yields intrinsic activation energies (E_a, _ZVI) of 81, 90, and 107 kJ mol^-1 for IS, GM, and PL, respectively. An increase in H₂ production might not be directly transferable to an increase in general ZVI reactivity; however, the results suggest that an increase in chlorinated hydrocarbon degradation rates can be expected for ZVI-PRBs in the immediate vicinity of low-temperature underground thermal energy storages (UTESs) or in the impact areas of high-temperature UTES with temperatures of ≤40 °C.

Sequential coupling of bio-augmented permeable reactive barriers for remediation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane contaminated groundwater

Sequential coupling of high-density luffa sponge (HDLS) immobilized microorganism and permeable reactive barriers (IM Bio-PRBs) was superior to intimate coupling of free microorganism and permeable reactive barriers (FM Bio-PRBs) for remediation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane contaminated groundwater. IM Bio-PRBs had much better performance to removal 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA) and prevent the transport of 1,1,1-TCA and inorganic ions (NO₃^-, PO₄^3-, and SO₄^2-). The majority of them were prevented and accumulated in upgradient of IM Bio-PRBs. 1,1,1-TCA and inorganic ions in there contributed to the much faster growth of microorganism in upgradient aquifer. Therefore, the removal of 1,1,1-TCA and consumption of inorganic ions in upgradient of Bio-PRBs played a constructive role in reducing the processing load of following zero-valent iron (ZVI) PRBs and the negative effect of free microorganism cells (biological clogging) and inorganic ions (chemical clogging) on Bio-PRB permeability. In addition, IM Bio-PRBs were more conducive to accelerate the removal of 1,1,1-TCA in long-term remediation and 1,1,1-TCA residual concentration significantly lower than the safety standard of 0.2 mg L^-1. The change of terminal by-products of 1,1,1-TCA contaminated groundwater in Bio-PRBs showed that 1,1,1-TCA could be effectively de-chlorinated and mineralized in Bio-PRBs. The reductant H₂S (prolong the service life of ZVI-PRBs) was much more produced and utilized in IM Bio-PRBs. Taken together, sequentially coupled IM Bio-PRBs had a better overall performance, and its service life could be prolonged. It was a different design and idea to update conventional PRB remediation technology and theory.

Dehalogenation of trichloroethylene vapors by partially saturated zero-valent iron

The reduction of trichloroethylene (TCE) in gas phase by different types of granular zero-valent iron (Fe⁰) was examined in anaerobic batch vapor systems performed at room temperature. Concentrations of TCE and byproducts were determined at discrete time intervals by analysis of the headspace vapors. Depending on the type of iron used, reductions of TCE gas concentration from 35% up to 99% were observed for treatments of 6 weeks. In line with other experimental studies performed with aqueous solutions, the particle size was found to play a key role in the reactivity of the iron. Namely an increase of the TCE removal up to almost 3 times was observed using iron powders with particle size lower than 425 μm compared to iron powders with particle size lower than 850 μm. The manufacturing process of the iron powder was instead found to play only a limited role. Namely, no significant differences were observed in the TCE reduction by Fe⁰ obtained using an iron powder attained by water atomization and sieving compared to the removal achieved using an iron powder subjected to a further annealing processes to reduce the content of oxides. Conversely, the pretreatment of the iron powder with HCl was found to enhance the reactivity of the iron. In particular, by washing the iron powder of 425 μm with HCl acid 0.1 M the reduction of TCE after 6 weeks of treatment increase from approximately 80% for the as received material to >99% for the pretreated iron powder. We also performed tests at different humidity of the iron observing that not statistical differences were obtained using a water content of 10% or 50% by weight. In all the experiments, the only detectable byproducts of the reactions were C4-C6 alkenes and alkanes that can be attributed to a hydrogenation of the CCl bond.

Calcium carbonate-based permeable reactive barriers for iron and manganese groundwater remediation at landfills

High concentrations of iron (Fe(II)) and manganese (Mn(II)) reductively dissolved from soil minerals have been detected in groundwater monitoring wells near many municipal solid waste landfills. Two in situ permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), comprised of limestone and crushed concrete, were installed downgradient of a closed, unlined landfill in Florida, USA, to remediate groundwater containing high concentrations of these metals. Influent groundwater to the PRBs contained mean Fe and Mn concentrations of approximately 30mg/L and 1.62mg/L, respectively. PRBs were constructed in the shallow aquifer (maximum depth 4.6m below land surface) and groundwater was sampled from a network of nearby monitoring wells to evaluate barrier performance in removing these metals. PRBs significantly (p<0.05) removed dissolved Fe and Mn from influent groundwater; Fe was removed from influent water at average rates of 91% and 95% (by mass) for the limestone and crushed concrete PRBs, respectively, during the first year of the study. The performance of the PRBs declined after 3years of operation, with Fe removal efficiency decreasing to 64% and 61% for limestone and concrete PRBs, respectively. A comparison of water quality in shallow and deep monitoring wells showed a more dramatic performance reduction in the deeper section of the concrete PRB, which was attributed to an influx of sediment into the barrier and settling of particulates from the upper portions of the PRBs. Although removal of Fe and Mn from redox impacts was achieved with the PRBs, the short time frame of effectiveness relative to the duration of a full-scale remediation effort may limit the applicability of these systems at some landfills because of the construction costs required.

The specific reactive surface area of granular zero-valent iron in metal contaminant removal: Column experiments and modelling

A series of dynamic-flow kinetic experiments were conducted to assess the removal rates of aqueous Cu(2+) and Zn(2+) ions by zero-valent iron (ZVI), a promising material for inclusion in cold-climate remediation applications. The influence of experimental parameters on contaminant removal rates, including aqueous flow rate, operating temperature, and the concentrations of ZVI, salt and dissolved oxygen, was investigated. A mass transport model has been developed that accounts (i) aqueous-phase dispersion processes, (ii) film diffusion of contaminant ions to the reactive ZVI surface and (iii) the reactive removal mechanism itself. Regression to the experimental data indicated that when oxygen is present in the solution feed Cu(2+) and Zn(2+) removal processes were limited by film diffusion. In de-aerated solutions film diffusion still controls Cu(2+) removal but a first-order surface reaction provides a better model for Zn(2+) kinetics. Using air as the equilibrium feed gas, the reactive proportion of the total surface area for contaminant removal was calculated to be 97% and 64% of the active spherically-assumed geometric area associated with ZVI media for Cu(2+) and Zn(2+), respectively. Relative to a gas absorption area, determined in previous studies, the reactive proportion is less than 0.41% of the unreacted ZVI total surface area. These findings suggest that only part of the iron oxyhydroxide surface is reacting during ZVI based metal contaminant removal.

Geochemical modelling for predicting the long-term performance of zeolite-PRB to treat lead contaminated groundwater

The feasibility of using geochemical modelling to predict the performance of a zeolite-permeable reactive barrier (PRB) for treating lead (Pb(2+)) contaminated water was investigated in this study. A short-term laboratory column experiment was first performed with the zeolite (clinoptilolite) until the elution of 50 PV (1 PV=ca. 283 mL). Geochemical simulations of the one-dimensional transport of the Pb(2+), considering removal processes including: ion-exchange, adsorption and complexation; the concomitant release of exchangeable cations (Ca(2+), Mg(2+), Na(+), and K(+)) and the changes in pH were subsequently performed using the geochemical model PHREEQC. The results showed a reasonable agreement between the experimental results and the numerical simulations, with the exception of Ca(2+) for which a great discrepancy was observed. The model also indicated the formation of secondary mineral precipitates such as goethite and hematite throughout the experiment, of which the effect on the hydraulic conductivity was found to be negligible. The results were further used to extrapolate the long-term performance of the zeolite. We found the capacity would be completely exhausted at PV=250 (ca. 3 days). The study, thus, generally demonstrates the applicability of PHREEQC to predict the short and long-term performance of zeolite-PRBs. Therefore, it can be used to assist in the design and for management purposes of such barriers.

In-situ Pb(2+) remediation using nano iron particles

Originally, application of nano zero valent iron (nZVI) particles for the removal of lead (Pb(2+)) in porous media was studied. At first, stabilized nZVI (S-nZVI) was prepared and characterized, then used in batch and continuous systems. Based on the batch experiments, corresponding reaction kinetics well fitted with the pseudo-first-order adsorption model, and reaction rate ranged from 0.01 to 0.04 g/mg/min depend on solution pH and the molar ratio between Fe and Pb. In batch tests, optimal condition with more than 90% removal efficiency at 60 min was observed at a pH range of 4 to 6 and Fe/Pb ratio more than 2.5. Continuous experiments exposed that Pb(2+) remediation was as well influenced by seepage velocity, grain size, and type of porous media. The maximum Pb(2+) removal efficiency in batch and bench-scale systems were 97% and 81%, correspondingly. The results have shown the ability of S-nZVI to use in permeable reactive barriers, as an efficient adsorbent for Pb(2+), because of its excellent stability, high reducing power, and a large surface area.

Column test-based optimization of the permeable reactive barrier (PRB) technique for remediating groundwater contaminated by landfill leachates

We investigated the optimum composition of permeable reactive barrier (PRB) materials for remediating groundwater heavily contaminated by landfill leachate, in column tests using various mixtures of zero-valent iron (ZVI), zeolite (Zeo) and activated carbon (AC) with 0.01-0.25, 3.0-5.0 and 0.7-1.0mm grain sizes, respectively. The main contributors to the removal of organic/inorganic contaminants were ZVI and AC, and the optimum weight ratio of the three PRB materials for removing the contaminants and maintaining adequate hydraulic conductivity was found to be 5:1:4. Average reductions in chemical oxygen demand (COD) and contents of total nitrogen (TN), ammonium, Ni, Pb and 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from test samples using this mixture were 55.8%, 70.8%, 89.2%, 70.7%, 92.7% and 94.2%, respectively. We also developed a systematic method for estimating the minimum required thickness and longevity of the PRB materials. A ≥ 309.6 cm layer with the optimum composition is needed for satisfactory longevity, defined here as meeting the Grade III criteria (the Chinese National Bureau of Standards: GB/T14848/93) for in situ treatment of the sampled groundwater for ≥ 10 years.

An overview of permeable reactive barriers for in situ sustainable groundwater remediation

Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) are one of the innovative technologies widely accepted as an alternative to the 'pump and treat' (P&T) for sustainable in situ remediation of contaminated groundwater. The concept of the technology involves the emplacement of a permeable barrier containing reactive materials across the flow path of the contaminated groundwater to intercept and treat the contaminants as the plume flows through it under the influence of the natural hydraulic gradient. Since the invention of PRBs in the early 1990s, a variety of materials has been employed to remove contaminants including heavy metals, chlorinated solvents, aromatic hydrocarbons, and pesticides. Contaminant removal is usually accomplished via processes such as adsorption, precipitation, denitrification and biodegradation. Despite wide acknowledgment, there are still unresolved issues about long term-performance of PRBs, which have somewhat affected their acceptability and full-scale implementation. The current paper presents an overview of the PRB technology, which includes the state of art, the merits and limitations, the reactive media used so far, and the mechanisms employed to transform or immobilize contaminants. The paper also looks at the design, construction and the long-term performance of PRBs.

Permeable Adsorptive Barrier (PAB) for the remediation of groundwater simultaneously contaminated by some chlorinated organic compounds

In this paper, a Permeable Reactive Barrier (PRB) made with activated carbon, namely a Permeable Adsorptive Barrier (PAB), is put forward as an effective technique for the remediation of aquifers simultaneously contaminated by some chlorinated organic compounds. A design procedure, based on a computer code and including different routines, is presented as a tool to accurately describe mass transport within the aquifer and adsorption/desorption phenomena occurring inside the barrier. The remediation of a contaminated aquifer near a solid waste landfill in the district of Napoli (Italy), where Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) and Trichloroethylene (TCE) are simultaneously present, is considered as a case study. A complete hydrological and geotechnical site characterization, as well as a number of dedicated adsorption laboratory tests for the determination of activated carbon PCE/TCE adsorption capacity in binary systems, are carried out to support the barrier design. By means of a series of numerical simulations it is possible to determine the optimal barrier location, orientation and dimensions. PABs appear to be an effective remediation tool for the in-situ treatment of an aquifer contaminated by PCE and TCE simultaneously, as the concentration of both compounds flowing out of the barrier is everywhere lower than the regulatory limits on groundwater quality.

Quantification of changes in zero valent iron morphology using X-ray computed tomography

Morphological changes within the porous architecture of laboratory scale zero valent iron (ZVI) permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), after exposure to different groundwater conditions, have been quantified experimentally for different ZVI/sand ratios (10%, 50% and 100%, W/W) with the aim of inferring porosity changes in field barriers. Column studies were conducted to simulate interaction with different water chemistries, a synthetic groundwater, acidic drainage and deionised (DI) water as control. Morphological changes, in terms of pore size and distribution, were measured using X-ray computed tomography (CT). CT image analysis revealed significant morphological changes in columns treated with different water chemistries. For example, 100% ZVI (W/W) columns had a higher frequency of small pores (0.6 mm) was observed in ZVI grains reacted with typical groundwater, resulting in a porosity of 27%, compared to 32% when exposed to DI water. In comparison, ZVI grains treated with the acidic drainage had higher porosity (44%) and larger average pore size (2.8 mm). 10% ZVI PRB barrier material had the highest mean porosity (56%) after exposure to any water chemistry whilst 100% ZVI (W/W) columns always had the lowest (34%) with the 50% ZVI (W/W) in between (40%). These results agree with previously published PRB field data and simultaneously conducted geochemical monitoring and mass balance calculation, indicating that both the geochemical and hydraulic environment of the PRB play an important role in determining barrier lifespan. This study suggests that X-ray CT image analysis is a powerful tool for studying the detailed inter pores between ZVI grains within PRBs.

Improving the sustainability of granular iron/pumice systems for water treatment

Metallic iron (Fe(0)) is currently used in subsurface and above-ground water filtration systems on a pragmatic basis. Recent theoretical studies have indicated that, to be sustainable, such systems should not contain more than 60% Fe(0) (vol/vol). The prediction was already validated in a Fe(0)/sand system using methylene blue as an operational tracer. The present work is the first attempt to experimentally verify the new concept using pumice particles. A well-characterized pumice sample is used as operational supporting material and is mixed with 200 g of a granular Fe(0), in volumetric proportions, varying from 0 to 100%. The resulting column systems are characterized (i) by the time dependent evolution of their hydraulic conductivity and (ii) for their efficiency for the removal of Cu(II), Ni(II), and Zn(II) from a three-contaminants-solution (about 0.3 mM of each metal). Test results showed a clear sustainability of the long term hydraulic conductivity with decreasing Fe(0)/pumice ratio. In fact, the pure Fe(0) system clogged after 17 days, while the 25% Fe(0) system could operate for 36 days. The experimental data confirmed the view that well-designed Fe(0) PRBs may be successful at removing both reducible and non-reducible metal species.

Permeability of iron sulfide (FeS)-based materials for groundwater remediation

Iron sulfide (FeS) has been extensively assessed as a reactive medium to remove both metals and halogenated organics from groundwater. However, to address its suitability as a material for permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), its propensity for solids and gas production, which result in reduced permeability, must be evaluated. The reduction in permeability for sands coated with FeS (as mackinawite), under the anoxic conditions often encountered at contaminated groundwater sites, was examined through column experiments and geochemical modeling under conditions of high calcium and nitrate, which have been previously shown to cause significant permeability reduction in zero-valent iron (ZVI) systems. The column experiments showed negligible production of both solids and gases. The geochemical modeling predicted a maximum reduction in permeability of 1% due to solids and about 30% due to gas formation under conditions for which a complete loss of permeability was predicted for ZVI systems. This difference in permeability reduction is driven by the differences in thermodynamic stability of ZVI and FeS in aqueous solutions. The results suggest that geochemical conditions that result in high permeability losses for ZVI systems will likely not be problematic for FeS-based reactive materials.

Predicting longevity of iron permeable reactive barriers using multiple iron deactivation models

In this study we investigate the model uncertainties involved in predicting long-term permeable reactive barrier (PRB) remediation efficiency based on a lab-scale column experiment under accelerated flow conditions. A PRB consisting of 20% iron and 80% sand was simulated in a laboratory-scale column and contaminated groundwater was pumped into the column for approximately 1 year at an average groundwater velocity of 3.7 E-1 m d(-1). Dissolved contaminants (PCE, TCE, cis-DCE, trans-DCE and VC) and inorganic (Ca(2+), Fe(2+), TIC and pH) concentrations were measured in groundwater sampled at different times and at eight different distances along the column. These measurements were used to calibrate a multi-component reactive transport model, which subsequently provided predictions of long-term PRB efficiency under reduced flow conditions (i.e., groundwater velocity of 1.4 E-3m d(-1)), representative of a field site of interest in this study. Iron reactive surface reduction due to mineral precipitation and iron dissolution was simulated using four different models. All models were able to reasonably well reproduce the column experiment measurements, whereas the extrapolated long-term efficiency under different flow rates was significantly different between the different models. These results highlight significant model uncertainties associated with extrapolating long-term PRB performance based on lab-scale column experiments. These uncertainties should be accounted for at the PRB design phase, and may be reduced by independent experiments and field observations aimed at a better understanding of reactive surface deactivation mechanisms in iron PRBs.

Electrochemical depassivation for recovering Fe(0) reactivity by Cr(VI) removal with a permeable reactive barrier system

A new electrochemical permeable reactive barrier (Electro-PRB) system for removal of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] using Fe(0) meshes was developed. Electro-PRB was found to be effective for electrochemical depassivation of Fe(0) to remove Cr(VI) during treatment. During initial treatment, Cr(VI) removal rates decreased with time, due to loss of Fe(0) reactivity by mineral fouling. After Fe(0) was passivated, electrochemical depassivation was introduced for different electrolysis times to recover Fe(0) reactivity. It was found that there was approximately 100.4-131.3% initial removal rate recovery, due to the electrochemical break down of precipitates on the Fe(0) surfaces. During the treatment, the decreasing pH and increasing oxidation-reduction Potential (ORP) of the effluent implied the passivation of Fe(0) surfaces. Scanning electron microscope analysis of acid-washed, electrochemically depassivated, and passivated Fe(0) confirmed the efficiency of Elecro-PRB in the recovery Fe(0) reactivity. The results indicate that the Electro-PRB system proposed here is capable of recovering the reactivity of Fe(0), which may prolong the operation of Cr(VI) removal processes.

Estimate of the optimum weight ratio in zero-valent iron/pumice granular mixtures used in permeable reactive barriers for the remediation of nickel contaminated groundwater

This paper presents the results of laboratory column tests aimed at defining the optimum weight ratio of zero-valent iron (ZVI)/pumice granular mixtures to be used in permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) for the removal of nickel from contaminated groundwater. The tests were carried out feeding the columns with aqueous solutions of nickel nitrate at concentrations of 5 and 50 mg/l using three ZVI/pumice granular mixtures at various weight ratios (10/90, 30/70 and 50/50), for a total of six column tests; two additional tests were carried out using ZVI alone. The most successful compromise between reactivity (higher ZVI content) and long-term hydraulic performance (higher Pumice content) seems to be given by the ZVI/pumice granular mixture with a 30/70 weight ratio.

Remediation technologies for heavy metal contaminated groundwater

The contamination of groundwater by heavy metal, originating either from natural soil sources or from anthropogenic sources is a matter of utmost concern to the public health. Remediation of contaminated groundwater is of highest priority since billions of people all over the world use it for drinking purpose. In this paper, thirty five approaches for groundwater treatment have been reviewed and classified under three large categories viz chemical, biochemical/biological/biosorption and physico-chemical treatment processes. Comparison tables have been provided at the end of each process for a better understanding of each category. Selection of a suitable technology for contamination remediation at a particular site is one of the most challenging job due to extremely complex soil chemistry and aquifer characteristics and no thumb-rule can be suggested regarding this issue. In the past decade, iron based technologies, microbial remediation, biological sulphate reduction and various adsorbents played versatile and efficient remediation roles. Keeping the sustainability issues and environmental ethics in mind, the technologies encompassing natural chemistry, bioremediation and biosorption are recommended to be adopted in appropriate cases. In many places, two or more techniques can work synergistically for better results. Processes such as chelate extraction and chemical soil washings are advisable only for recovery of valuable metals in highly contaminated industrial sites depending on economical feasibility.

Predictions of long-term performance of granular iron permeable reactive barriers: field-scale evaluation

Long-term performance is a key consideration for the granular iron permeable reactive barrier (PRB) technology because the economic benefit relies on sustainable operation for substantial periods of time. However, predictions on the long-term performance have been limited mainly because of the lack of reliable modeling tools. This study evaluated the predictive capability of a recently-developed reactive transport model at two field-scale PRBs, both having relatively high concentrations of dissolved carbonate in the native groundwater. The first site, with 8 years of available monitoring data, was a funnel-and-gate installation, with a low groundwater velocity through the gate (about 0.12 m d(-1)). The loss in iron reactivity caused by secondary mineral precipitation was small, maintaining relatively high removal rates for chlorinated organics. The simulated concentrations for most constituents in the groundwater were within the range of the monitoring data. The second site, with monitoring data available for 5 years, was a continuous wall PRB, designed for a groundwater velocity of 0.9 m d(-1). A comparison of measured and simulated aqueous concentrations suggested that the average groundwater velocity through the PRB could be lower than the design value by a factor of two or more. The distribution and amounts of carbonate minerals measured in core samples supported the decreased groundwater velocity used in the simulation. The generally good agreement between the simulated and measured aqueous and solid-phase data suggest that the model could be an effective tool for predicting long-term performance of granular iron PRBs, particularly in groundwater with high concentrations of carbonate.

A procedure to design a Permeable Adsorptive Barrier (PAB) for contaminated groundwater remediation

A procedure to optimize the design of a Permeable Adsorptive Barrier (PAB) for the remediation of a contaminated aquifer is presented in this paper. A computer code, including different routines that describe the groundwater contaminant transport and the pollutant capture by adsorption in unsteady conditions over the barrier solid surface, has been developed. The complete characterization of the chemical-physical interactions between adsorbing solids and the contaminated water, required by the computer code, has been obtained by experimental measurements. A case study in which the procedure developed has been applied to a tetrachloroethylene (PCE)-contaminated aquifer near a solid waste landfill, in the district of Napoli (Italy), is also presented and the main dimensions of the barrier (length and width) have been evaluated. Model results show that PAB is effective for the remediation of a PCE-contaminated aquifer, since the concentration of PCE flowing out of the barrier is everywhere always lower than the concentration limit provided for in the Italian regulations on groundwater quality.

Heavy metals removal and hydraulic performance in zero-valent iron/pumice permeable reactive barriers

Long-term behaviour is a major issue related to the use of zero-valent iron (ZVI) in permeable reactive barriers for groundwater remediation; in fact, in several published cases the hydraulic conductivity and removal efficiency were progressively reduced during operation, potentially compromising the functionality of the barrier. To solve this problem, the use of granular mixtures of ZVI and natural pumice has recently been proposed. This paper reports the results of column tests using aqueous nickel and copper solutions of various concentrations. Three configurations of reactive material (ZVI only, granular mixture of ZVI and pumice, and pumice and ZVI in series) are discussed. The results clearly demonstrate that iron-pumice granular mixtures perform well both in terms of contaminant removal and in maintaining the long-term hydraulic conductivity. Comparison with previous reports concerning copper removal by ZVI/sand mixtures reveals higher performance in the case of ZVI/pumice.

Evaluation of five strategies to limit the impact of fouling in permeable reactive barriers

Ground water flow and geochemical reactive transport models were used to assess the effectiveness of five strategies used to limit fouling and to enhance the long-term hydraulic behavior of continuous-wall permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) employing granular zero valent iron (ZVI). The flow model accounted for geological heterogeneity and the reactive transport model included a geochemical algorithm for simulating iron corrosion and mineral precipitation reactions that have been observed in ZVI PRBs. The five strategies that were evaluated are pea gravel equalization zones, a sacrificial pre-treatment zone, pH adjustment, large ZVI particles, and mechanical treatment. Results of simulations show that installation of pea gravel equalization zones results in flow equalization and a more uniform distribution of residence times within the PRB. Residence times within the PRB are less affected by mineral precipitation when a pre-treatment zone is employed. pH adjustment limits the total amount of hydroxide ions in ground water to reduce porosity reduction and to retain larger residence times. Larger ZVI particles reduce porosity reduction as a result of the smaller iron surface area for iron corrosion, and retain longer residence time. Mechanical treatment redistributes the porosity uniformly throughout the PRB over time, which is effective in maintaining residence time.

Iron hydroxy carbonate formation in zerovalent iron permeable reactive barriers: characterization and evaluation of phase stability

Predicting the long-term potential of permeable reactive barriers for treating contaminated groundwater relies on understanding the endpoints of biogeochemical reactions between influent groundwater and the reactive medium. Iron hydroxy carbonate (chukanovite) is frequently observed as a secondary mineral precipitate in granular iron PRBs. Mineralogical characterization was carried out using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy on materials collected from three field-based PRBs in the US (East Helena, MT; Elizabeth City, NC; Denver Federal Center, CO). These PRBs were installed to treat a range of contaminants, including chlorinated organics, hexavalent chromium, and arsenic. Results obtained indicate that chukanovite is a prevalent secondary precipitate in the PRBs. Laboratory experiments on high-purity chukanovite separates were carried out to constrain the room-temperature solubility for this mineral. An estimated Gibbs energy of formation (Delta(f)G degrees) for chukanovite is -1174.4 +/- 6 kJ/mol. A mineral stability diagram is consistent with observations from the field. Water chemistry from the three reactive barriers falls inside the predicted stability field for chukanovite, at inorganic carbon concentrations intermediate to the stability fields of siderite and ferrous hydroxide. These new data will aid in developing better predictive models of mineral accumulation in zerovalent iron PRBs.

Hydrogeochemical and biological processes affecting the long-term performance of an iron-based permeable reactive barrier

Despite the wide diffusion of zero-valent iron (Fe(0)) permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), there is still a great uncertainty about their longevity and long-term performance. The aim of this study is to investigate the biological and the hydrogeochemical processes that take place at a Fe(0) installation located in Avigliana, Italy, and to derive some general considerations about long-term performance of PRBs.The examined PRB was installed in November 2004 to remediate a chlorinated solvents plume (mainly trichloroethene and 1,2-dichloroethene). The investigation was performed during the third year of operation and included: (1) groundwater sampling and analysis for chlorinated solvents, dissolved CH(4), dissolved H(2) and major inorganic constituents; (2) Fe(0) core sampling and analysis by SEM-EDS, XRD, and FTIR spectroscopy for the organic fraction; (3) in situ permeability tests and flow field monitoring by water level measurements.The study revealed that iron passivation is negligible, as the PRB is still able to effectively treat the contaminants and to reduce their concentrations below target values. Precipitation of several inorganic compounds inside the PRB was evidenced by SEM-EDS and XRD analysis conducted on iron samples. Groundwater sampling evidenced heavy sulfate depletion and the highest reported CH(4) concentration (>5,000 microg/L) at zero-valent iron PRB sites. These are due to the intense microbial activity of sulfate-reducers and methanogens, whose proliferation was most likely stimulated by the use of a biopolymer (i.e. guar gum) as shoring fluid during the excavation of the barrier. Slug tests within the barrier evidenced an apparent hydraulic conductivity two orders of magnitude lower than the predicted value. This occurrence can be ascribed to biofouling and/or accumulation of CH(4)(g) inside the iron filings.This experience suggests that when biopolymer shoring is planned to be used, long-term column tests should be performed beforehand with initial bacterial inoculation and organic substrate dosing, in order to predict the effects of bacterial overgrowth and gas generation. During construction particular care should be taken in order to minimize the amount of used biopolymer so that complete breakdown can be achieved.

Performance of a zerovalent iron reactive barrier for the treatment of arsenic in groundwater: Part 2. Geochemical modeling and solid phase studies

Arsenic uptake processes were evaluated in a zerovalent iron reactive barrier installed at a lead smelting facility using geochemical modeling, solid-phase analysis, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy techniques. Aqueous speciation of arsenic is expected to play a key role in directing arsenic uptake processes. Geochemical modeling reveals contrasting pH-dependencies for As(III) and As(V) precipitation. At the moderately alkaline pH conditions typically encountered in zerovalent iron reactive barriers, As(III) is unlikely to precipitate as an oxide or a sulfide phase. Conversely, increasing pH is expected to drive precipitation of metal arsenates including ferrous arsenate. Bacterially mediated sulfate reduction plays an important role in field installations of granular iron. Neoformed iron sulfides provide surfaces for adsorption of oxyanion and thioarsenic species of As(III) and As(V) and are expected to provide enhanced arsenic removal capacity. X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectra indicate that arsenic is sequestered in the solid phase as both As(III) and As(V) in coordination environments with O and S. Arsenic removal in the PRB probably results from several pathways, including adsorption to iron oxide and iron sulfide surfaces, and possible precipitation of ferrous arsenate. Corrosion of granular iron appears to result in some As(III) oxidation to As(V) as the proportion of As(V) to As(III) in the solid phase is greater compared to influent groundwater. As(0) was not detected in the PRB materials. These results are broadly comparable to laboratory based studies of arsenic removal by zerovalent iron, but additional complexity is revealed in the field environment, which is largely due to the influence of subsurface microbiota.

Performance of a zerovalent iron reactive barrier for the treatment of arsenic in groundwater: Part 1. Hydrogeochemical studies

Developments and improvements of remedial technologies are needed to effectively manage arsenic contamination in groundwater at hazardous waste sites. In June 2005, a 9.1 m long, 14 m deep, and 1.8 to 2.4 m wide (in the direction of groundwater flow) pilot-scale permeable reactive barrier (PRB) was installed at a former lead smelting facility, located near Helena, Montana (USA). The reactive barrier was designed to treat groundwater contaminated with moderately high concentrations of both As(III) and As(V). The reactive barrier was installed over a 3-day period using bio-polymer slurry methods and modified excavating equipment for deep trenching. The reactive medium was composed entirely of granular iron which was selected based on long-term laboratory column experiments. A monitoring network of approximately 40 groundwater sampling points was installed in July 2005. Monitoring results indicate arsenic concentrations >25 mg L(-1) in wells located hydraulically upgradient of the PRB. Of 80 groundwater samples collected from the pilot-PRB, 11 samples exceeded 0.50 mg As L(-1); 62 samples had concentrations of arsenic at or below 0.50 mg L(-1); and, 24 samples were at or below the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for arsenic of 0.01 mg L(-1). After 2 years of operation, monitoring points located within 1 m of the downgradient edge of the PRB showed significant decreases in arsenic concentrations at depth intervals impacted by the emplaced zerovalent iron. This study indicates that zerovalent iron can be effectively used to treat groundwater contaminated with arsenic given appropriate groundwater geochemistry and hydrology. The study also further demonstrates the shortcomings of hanging-wall designs. Detailed subsurface characterization data that capture geochemical and hydrogeologic variability, including a flux-based analysis, are needed for successful applications of PRB technology for arsenic remediation.

Treatment of arsenic, heavy metals, and acidity using a mixed ZVI-compost PRB

A 30-month performance evaluation of a pilot permeable reactive barrier (PRB) consisting of a mixture of leaf compost, zerovalent iron (ZVI), limestone, and pea gravel was conducted at a former phosphate fertilizer manufacturing facility in Charleston, SC. The PRB is designed to remove heavy metals and arsenic from groundwater by promoting microbially mediated sulfate reduction and sulfide-mineral precipitation and arsenic and heavy metal sorption. Performance monitoring showed effective treatment of As, Pb, Cd, Zn, and Ni from concentrations as high as 206 mg L(-1), 2.02 mg L(-1), 0.324 mg L(-1), 1060 mg L(-1), and 2.12 mg L(-1), respectively, entering the PRB, to average concentrations of <0.03 mg L(-1), < 0.003 mg L(-1), < 0.001 mg L(-1), < 0.23 mg L(-1), and <0.003 mg L(-1), respectively, within the PRB. Both As(III) and As(V) were effectively removed from solution with X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) analysis of core samples indicating the presence of As(V) in oxygen-bound form and As(III) in both oxygen- and sulfur-bound forms. XANES solid phase sulfur analysis indicated decreases in the peak amplitude of intermediate oxidized sulfur species and sulfate components with increasing distance and depth within the PRB.

Effects of initial iron corrosion rate on long-term performance of iron permeable reactive barriers: column experiments and numerical simulation

Column experiments and numerical simulation were conducted to test the hypothesis that iron material having a high corrosion rate is not beneficial for the long-term performance of iron permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) because of faster passivation of iron and greater porosity loss close to the influent face of the PRBs. Four iron materials (Connelly, Gotthart-Maier, Peerless, and ISPAT) were used for the column experiments, and the changes in reactivity toward cis-dichloroethene (cis-DCE) degradation in the presence of dissolved CaCO3 were evaluated. The experimental results showed that the difference in distribution of the accumulated precipitates, resulting from differences in iron corrosion rate, caused a difference in the migration rate of the cis-DCE profiles and a significant difference in the pattern of passivation, indicating a faster passivation in the region close to the influent end for the material having a higher corrosion rate. For the numerical simulation, the accumulation of secondary minerals and reactivity loss of iron were coupled using an empirically-derived relationship that was incorporated into a multi-component reactive transport model. The simulation results provided a reasonable representation of the evolution of iron reactivity toward cis-DCE treatment and the changes in geochemical conditions for each material, consistent with the observed data. The simulations for long-term performance were also conducted to further test the hypothesis and predict the differences in performance over a period of 40 years under typical groundwater conditions. The predictions showed that the cases of higher iron corrosion rates had earlier cis-DCE breakthrough and more reduction in porosity starting from near the influent face, due to more accumulation of carbonate minerals in that region. Therefore, both the experimental and simulation results appear to support the hypothesis and suggest that reactivity changes of iron materials resulting from evolution of geochemical conditions should be considered in the design of iron PRBs.