Size and shape effects in the biodistribution of intravascularly injected particles

Application of magnetic nanoparticles in adoptive cell therapy of cancer; training, guiding and imaging cells

Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) is on the horizon as a thrilling therapeutic plan for cancer. However, widespread application of ACT is often restricted by several challenges, including complexity of priming tumor-specific T cells and poor trafficking in solid tumors. The convergence of nanotechnology and cancer immunotherapy is coming of age and could address the limitations of ACT. Recent studies have provided evidence on the application of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) to generate smart immune cells and to bypass problems associated with conventional ACT. Herein, we review current progress in the application of MNPs to improve preparing, guiding and tracking immune cells in cancer ACT. Besides, we comment on the challenges ahead and strategies to optimize MNPs for clinical settings.

Cuboids Prevail When Unraveling the Influence of Microchip Geometry on Macrophage Interactions and Metabolic Responses

Drug delivery advances rely on using nano- and microsized carriers to transfer therapeutic molecules, although challenges persist in increasing the availability of new and even approved pharmaceutical products. Particle shape, a critical determinant in how these carriers distribute within the body after administration, raises opportunities of using, for instance, micrometer-sized nonspherical particles for vascular targeting and thereby creating new prospects for precise drug delivery to specific targeted areas. The versatility of polycrystalline silicon microfabrication allows for significant variation in the size and shape of microchips, and so, in the current work, photolithography was employed to create differently shaped polysilicon microchips, including cuboids, cubes, bars, and cylinders, to explore the influence of particle shape on cellular interactions. These microchips with different shapes and lateral dimensions, accounting for surface areas in the range of ca. 15 to 120 μm2 and corresponding total volumes of 0.4 to 27 μm3, serve as ideal models for investigating their interactions with macrophages with diameters of ca. 20 μm. Side-scattering imaging flow cytometry was employed for studying the interaction of label-free prepared microchips with RAW 264.7 macrophages. Using a dose of 3 microchips per cell, results show that cuboids exhibit the highest cellular association (ca. 25%) and uptake (ca. 20%), suggesting their potential as efficient carriers for targeted drug delivery to macrophages. Conversely, similarly sized cylinders and bar-shaped microchips exhibit lower uptakes of about 8% and about 6%, respectively, indicating potential benefits in evading macrophage recognition. On average, 1-1.5 microchips were internalized, and ca. 1 microchip was surface-bound per cell, with cuboids showing the higher values overall. Macrophages respond to microchips by increasing their metabolic activity and releasing low levels of intracellular enzymes, indicating reduced toxicity. Interestingly, increasing the particle dose enhances macrophage metabolic activity without significantly affecting enzyme release.

Supramolecular assembly of polycation/mRNA nanoparticles and in vivo monocyte programming

Size-dependent phagocytosis is a well-characterized phenomenon in monocytes and macrophages. However, this size effect for preferential gene delivery to these important cell targets has not been fully exploited because commonly adopted stabilization methods for electrostatically complexed nucleic acid nanoparticles, such as PEGylation and charge repulsion, typically arrest the vehicle size below 200 nm. Here, we bridge the technical gap in scalable synthesis of larger submicron gene delivery vehicles by electrostatic self-assembly of charged nanoparticles, facilitated by a polymer structurally designed to modulate internanoparticle Coulombic and van der Waals forces. Specifically, our strategy permits controlled assembly of small poly(β-amino ester)/messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) nanoparticles into particles with a size that is kinetically tunable between 200 and 1,000 nm with high colloidal stability in physiological media. We found that assembled particles with an average size of 400 nm safely and most efficiently transfect monocytes following intravenous administration and mediate their differentiation into macrophages in the periphery. When a CpG adjuvant is co-loaded into the particles with an antigen mRNA, the monocytes differentiate into inflammatory dendritic cells and prime adaptive anticancer immunity in the tumor-draining lymph node. This platform technology offers a unique ligand-independent, particle-size-mediated strategy for preferential mRNA delivery and enables therapeutic paradigms via monocyte programming.

Exosomes: a review of biologic function, diagnostic and targeted therapy applications, and clinical trials

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles generated by all cells and they carry nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. They mediate the exchange of substances between cells,thereby affecting biological properties and activities of recipient cells. In this review, we briefly discuss the composition of exocomes and exosome isolation. We also review the clinical applications of exosomes in cancer biology as well as strategies in exosome-mediated targeted drug delivery systems. Finally, the application of exosomes in the context of cancer therapeutics both in practice and literature are discussed.

Acid-Responsive Decomposable Nanomedicine Based on Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks for Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging/Chemotherapy Combined Tumor Theranostics

Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanoparticles (NPs) are gaining traction in tumor theranostics for their effectiveness in encapsulating both imaging agents and therapeutic drugs. While typically, similar hydrophilic molecules are encapsulated in either pure aqueous or organic environments, few studies have explored co-encapsulation of chemotherapeutic drugs and imaging agents with varying hydrophilicity and, consequently, constructed multifunctional ZIF-8 composite NPs for acid-responsive, near-infrared fluorescence imaging/chemotherapy combined tumor theranostics. Here, we present a one-pot method for the synthesis of uniform Cy5.5&DOX@ZIF-8 nanoparticles in mixed solvents, efficiently achieving simultaneous encapsulation of hydrophilic doxorubicin (DOX) and hydrophobic Cyanine-5.5 (Cy5.5). Surface decoration with dextran (Dex) enhanced colloidal stability and biocompatibility. The method significantly facilitated co-loading of Cy5.5 dyes and DOX drugs, endowing the composite NPs with notable fluorescent imaging capabilities and pH-responsive chemotherapy capacities. In vivo near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging in A549 tumor-bearing mice demonstrated significant accumulation of Cy5.5 at tumor sites due to enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effects, with fluorescence intensities approximately 48-fold higher than free Cy5.5. Enhanced therapeutic efficiency was observed in composite NPs compared to free DOX, validating tumor-targeted capability. These findings suggest ZIF-8-based nanomedicines as promising platforms for multifunctional tumor theranostics.

Exploring In Vivo Pulmonary and Splenic Toxicity Profiles of Silicon Quantum Dots in Mice

Silicon-based quantum dots (SiQDs) represent a special class of nanoparticles due to their low toxicity and easily modifiable surface properties. For this reason, they are used in applications such as bioimaging, fluorescent labeling, drug delivery, protein detection techniques, and tissue engineering despite a serious lack of information on possible in vivo effects. The present study aimed to characterize and evaluate the in vivo toxicity of SiQDs obtained by laser ablation in the lung and spleen of mice. The particles were administered in three different doses (1, 10, and 100 mg QDs/kg of body weight) by intravenous injection into the caudal vein of Swiss mice. After 1, 6, 24, and 72 h, the animals were euthanized, and the lung and spleen tissues were harvested for the evaluation of antioxidant enzyme activity, lipid peroxidation, protein expression, and epigenetic and morphological changes. The obtained results highlighted a low toxicity in pulmonary and splenic tissues for concentrations up to 10 mg SiQDs/kg body, demonstrated by biochemical and histopathological analysis. Therefore, our study brings new experimental evidence on the biocompatibility of this type of QD, suggesting the possibility of expanding research on the biomedical applications of SiQDs.

Roadmap for Clinical Translation of Mobile Microrobotics

Medical microrobotics is an emerging field to revolutionize clinical applications in diagnostics and therapeutics of various diseases. On the other hand, the mobile microrobotics field has important obstacles to pass before clinical translation. This article focuses on these challenges and provides a roadmap of medical microrobots to enable their clinical use. From the concept of a "magic bullet" to the physicochemical interactions of microrobots in complex biological environments in medical applications, there are several translational steps to consider. Clinical translation of mobile microrobots is only possible with a close collaboration between clinical experts and microrobotics researchers to address the technical challenges in microfabrication, safety, and imaging. The clinical application potential can be materialized by designing microrobots that can solve the current main challenges, such as actuation limitations, material stability, and imaging constraints. The strengths and weaknesses of the current progress in the microrobotics field are discussed and a roadmap for their clinical applications in the near future is outlined.

Porous protein crystals: synthesis and applications

Large-pore protein crystals (LPCs) are an emerging class of biomaterials. The inherent diversity of proteins translates to a diversity of crystal lattice structures, many of which display large pores and solvent channels. These pores can, in turn, be functionalized via directed evolution and rational redesign based on the known crystal structures. LPCs possess extremely high solvent content, as well as extremely high surface area to volume ratios. Because of these characteristics, LPCs continue to be explored in diverse applications including catalysis, targeted therapeutic delivery, templating of nanostructures, structural biology. This Feature review article will describe several of the existing platforms in detail, with particular focus on LPC synthesis approaches and reported applications.

Multifunctional elastin-like polypeptide nanocarriers for efficient miRNA delivery in cancer therapy

BACKGROUND

The exogenous delivery of miRNA to mimic and restore miRNA-34a activity in various cancer models holds significant promise in cancer treatment. Nevertheless, its effectiveness is often impeded by challenges, including a short half-life, propensity for off-target accumulation, susceptibility to inactivation by blood-based enzymes, concerns regarding patient safety, and the substantial cost associated with scaling up. As a means of overcoming these barriers, we propose the development of miRNA-loaded Tat-A86 nanoparticles by virtue of Tat-A86's ability to shield the loaded agent from external environmental factors, reducing degradation and inactivation, while enhancing circulation time and targeted accumulation.

RESULTS

Genetically engineered Tat-A86, featuring 16 copies of the interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R)-binding peptide (AP1), Tat for tumor penetration, and an elastin-like polypeptide (ELP) for presenting target ligands and ensuring stability, served as the basis for this delivery system. Comparative groups, including Tat-E60 and A86, were employed to discern differences in binding and penetration. The designed ELP-based nanoparticle Tat-A86 effectively condensed miRNA, forming stable nanocomplexes under physiological conditions. The miRNA/Tat-A86 formulation bound specifically to tumor cells and facilitated stable miRNA delivery into them, effectively inhibiting tumor growth. The efficacy of miRNA/Tat-A86 was further evaluated using three-dimensional spheroids of lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) as in vitro model and LLC tumor-bearing mice as an in vivo model. It was found that miRNA/Tat-A86 facilitates effective cell killing by markedly improving miRNA penetration, leading to a substantial reduction in the size of LLC spheroids. Compared to other controls, Tat-A86 demonstrated superior efficacy in suppressing the growth of 3D cellular aggregates. Moreover, at equivalent doses, miRNA-34a delivered by Tat-A86 inhibited the growth of LLC cells in allograft mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these studies demonstrate that Tat-A86 nanoparticles can deliver miRNA systemically, overcoming the basic hurdles impeding miRNA delivery by facilitating both miRNA uptake and stability, ultimately leading to improved therapeutic effects.

On the uncertainty of the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and biodistribution

The specific delivery of a drug to its site of action also known as targeted drug delivery is a topic in the field of pharmaceutics studied for decades. One approach extensively investigated in this context is the use ligand functionalized nanoparticles. These particles are modified to carry receptor specific ligands, enabling them to accumulate at a desired target site. However, while this concept initially appears straightforward to implement, in-depth research has revealed several challenges hindering target site specific particle accumulation - some of which remain unresolved to this day. One of these challenges consists in the still incomplete understanding of how nanoparticles interact with biological systems. This knowledge gap significantly compromises the predictability of particle distribution in biological systems, which is critical for therapeutic efficacy. One of the most crucial steps in delivery is the attachment of nanoparticles to cells at the target site. This attachment occurs via the formation of multiple ligand receptor bonds. A process also referred to as multivalent interaction. While multivalency has been described extensively for individual molecules and macromolecules respectively, little is known on the multivalent binding of nanoparticles to cells. Here, we will specifically introduce the concept of avidity as a measure for favorable particle membrane interactions. Also, an overview about nanoparticle and membrane properties affecting avidity will be given. Thereafter, we provide a thorough review on literature investigating the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and success in targeted particle delivery. In particular, we want to analyze the currently uncertain data on the existence and nature of the correlation between particle avidity and biodistribution.

In vitro profiling and molecular dynamics simulation studies of berberine loaded MCM-41 mesoporous silica nanoparticles to prevent neuronal apoptosis

Neuronal loss in Alzheimer's disease has been reported to display features of apoptosis, pyroptosis (programmed necrosis), or necroptosis. This study thoroughly examines the production and characterization of MCM-41 based berberine (BBR)-loaded porous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) by a modified Stöber method, focusing on their possible role in inhibiting the apoptotic process. Particle size, polydispersity index, morphology, drug loading, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and drug release were examined. The formulation was analyzed using various spectroscopic techniques. The surface area was computed by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller plot. Computational models were developed for molecular dynamics simulation studies. A small PDI value indicated an even distribution of particles at nanoscale sizes (80-100 nm). Results from XRD and SEAD experiments confirmed the amorphous nature of BBR in nanoparticles. Nanoparticles had high entrapment (75.21 ± 1.55%) and drug loading (28.16 ± 2.5%) efficiencies. A negative zeta potential value (-36.861.1 mV) indicates the presence of silanol groups on the surface of silica. AFM findings reveal bumps due to the surface drug that contributed to the improved roughness of the MSNs-BBR surface. Thermal gravimetric analysis confirmed the presence of BBR in MSNs. Drug release was controlled by simple diffusion or quasi-diffusion. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the existence of diffused drug molecules. Cellular studies using SH-SY-5Y cells revealed dose-dependent growth inhibition. Fragmented cell nuclei and nuclear apoptotic bodies in DAPI-stained cells exposed to nanoparticles showed an increase in apoptotic cells. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated a lower red-to-green ratio in SH-SY-5Y cells treated with nanoparticles. This suggests improved mitochondrial health, cellular viability restoration, and prevention of the apoptotic process. This study provides essential data on the synthesis and potential of MSNs loaded with BBR, which may serve as a viable therapeutic intervention for conditions associated with apoptosis.

Vital role of oxidative stress in tadpole liver damage caused by polystyrene nanoparticles

Polystyrene nanoparticles are emerging as contaminants in freshwater environments, posing potential risks to amphibians exposed to extended periods of water contamination. Using tadpoles as a model, this study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of PS NPs. Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (Py-GCMS) analysis revealed a concentration-dependent increase in polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs) levels in tadpoles with escalating exposure concentrations. Following exposure to 100 nm fluorescent microspheres, fluorescence was observed in the intestines and gills, peaking at 48 hours. Histopathological analysis identified degenerative necrosis and inflammation in the liver, along with atrophic necrosis of glomeruli and tubules in the kidneys. These results indicate a discernible impact of PS NPs on antioxidant levels, including reduced superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, elevated glutathione content, and increased malondialdehyde levels. Electron microscopy observations revealed the infiltration of PS NPs into Kupffer's cells and hepatocytes, leading to visible lesions such as nuclear condensation and mitochondrial disruption. The primary objective of this research was to elucidate the adverse effects of prolonged PS NPs exposure on amphibians.

Selective inhibition of partial EMT-induced tumour cell growth by cerium valence states of extracellular ceria nanoparticles for anticancer treatment

Targeting specific tumour cells and their microenvironments is essential for enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapy and reducing its side effects. A partial epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition state (pEMT, with a hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal phenotype) in tumour cells is an attractive targeting for anticancer treatment because it potentially provides maximal stemness and metastasis relevant to malignant cancer stem cell-like features. However, treatment strategies to target pEMT in tumour cells remain a challenge. This study demonstrates that extracellular cerium oxide nanoparticles (CNPs) selectively inhibit the growth of pEMT-induced tumour cells, without affecting full epithelial tumour cells. Herein, highly concentrated Ce3+ and Ce4+ ions are formed on CNP-layered poly-L-lactic acid surfaces. Cell cultures of pEMT-induced and uninduced lung cancer cell lines on the CNP-layered substrates allow the effect of extracellular CNPs on tumour cell growth to be investigated. The extracellular CNPs with dominant Ce3+ and Ce4+ ions were able to trap pEMT-induced tumour cells in a growth-arrested quiescent/dormant or cytostatic state without generating redox-related reactive oxygen species (ROS), i.e. non-redox mechanisms. The dominant Ce3+ state provided highly efficient growth inhibition of the pEMT-induced tumour cells. In contrast, the dominant Ce4+ state showed highly selective and appropriate growth regulation of normal and tumour cells, including a mesenchymal phenotype. Furthermore, Ce4+-CNPs readily adsorbed serum-derived fibronectin and laminin. Cerium valence-specific proteins adsorbed on CNPs may influence receptor-mediated cell-CNP interactions, leading to tumour cell growth inhibition. These findings provide new perspectives for pEMT-targeting anticancer treatments based on the unique biointerface of extracellular CNPs with different Ce valence states.

Specificity of hexarhenium cluster anions for synthesis of Mn2+-based nanoparticles with lamellar shape and pH-induced leaching for specific organ selectivity in MRI contrasting

The present work demonstrates the structure variation of hexarhenium anionic cluster units [{Re6S8}(CN)(6-n)(OH)n]4- (n = 0, 2, 4) as the strategy to develop Mn2+-containing nanoparticles (NPs) exhibiting pH-dependent leaching. The dicyanotetrahydroxo complex [{Re6S8}(CN)2(OH)4]4- is the optimal for the synthesis of the Mn2+-based NPs with a lamellar shape exhibiting the pH-dependent aggregation and magnetic relaxation behavior. The pH-dependent behavior of the NPs derives from the easy protonation of the apical hydroxo ligands of [{Re6S8}(CN)2(OH)4]4- cluster, which triggers partial leaching of Mn2+ ions and aggregation of the NPs driven by the surface neutralization. The in vivo MRI scanning of the mice intravenously injected with the NPs indicates the preferable accumulation of the lamellar NPs within mouse intestine over liver and kidneys. This differs from the spherical NPs constructed from [{Re6Se8}(CN)6]4- units, which provide the preferable brightening of mouse liver over kidneys and intestine.

Features of Anisotropic Drug Delivery Systems

Natural materials are anisotropic. Delivery systems occurring in nature, such as viruses, blood cells, pollen, and many others, do have anisotropy, while delivery systems made artificially are mostly isotropic. There is apparent complexity in engineering anisotropic particles or capsules with micron and submicron sizes. Nevertheless, some promising examples of how to fabricate particles with anisotropic shapes or having anisotropic chemical and/or physical properties are developed. Anisotropy of particles, once they face biological systems, influences their behavior. Internalization by the cells, flow in the bloodstream, biodistribution over organs and tissues, directed release, and toxicity of particles regardless of the same chemistry are all reported to be factors of anisotropy of delivery systems. Here, the current methods are reviewed to introduce anisotropy to particles or capsules, including loading with various therapeutic cargo, variable physical properties primarily by anisotropic magnetic properties, controlling directional motion, and making Janus particles. The advantages of combining different anisotropy in one entity for delivery and common problems and limitations for fabrication are under discussion.

Development of cationic solid lipid nanoparticles incorporating cholesteryl-9-carboxynonanoate (9CCN) for delivery of antagomiRs to macrophages

Lipid-based nanoparticles are a useful tool for nucleic acids delivery and have been regarded as a promising approach for diverse diseases. However, off-targets effects are a matter of concern and some strategies to improve selectivity of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were reported. The goal of this study was to test formulations of SLNs incorporating lipid cholesteryl-9-carboxynonanoate (9CCN) as "eat-me" signal to target antagomiR oligonucleotides to macrophages. We formulate four SLNs, and those with a mean diameter of 200 nm and a Z-potential values between 25 and 40 mV, which allowed the antagomiR binding, were selected for in vitro studies. Cell viability, transfection efficiency and cellular uptake assays were performed within in vitro macrophages using flow cytometry and confocal imaging and the SLNs incorporating 25 mg of 9CCN proved to be the best formulation. Subsequently, we used a labeled antagomiR to study tissue distribution in in-vivo ApoE-/- model of atherosclerosis. Using the ApoE-/- model we demonstrated that SLNs with phagocytic signal 9-CCN target macrophages and release the antagomiR cargo in a selective way.

Unraveling the micro- and nanoplastic predicament: A human-centric insight

Micro- and nanoplastics are vast anthropogenic pollutants in our direct surroundings with a robust environmental stability and a potential for a long-lasting and increasing global circulation. This has raised concerns among the public and policy makers for human health upon exposure to these particles. The micro- and nanoplastic burden on humans is currently under debate, along with criticism on the experimental approaches used in hazard assessment. The present review presents an overview of the human-relevant aspects associated with the current micro-and nanoplastic burden. We focus on environmental circulation and the estimation of exposure quantities to humans, along with a state-of-the-art overview of particle accumulation in over 15 human organs and other specimen. Additionally, data regarding particle characteristics used in toxicity testing was extracted from 91 studies and discussed considering their environmental and human relevance.

Nano polystyrene microplastics could accumulate in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): Negatively impacts on the intestinal and liver health through water exposure

Microplastics (MPs) have become a significant concern for their potential toxicity. However, the correlation between the size of plastic particles and their toxicity remains inconclusive. Here, we investigate the toxic effects of different sizes (80 nm, 800 nm, 8 µm and 80 µm) polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs) on the model organism Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The results of bioluminescent imaging indicate that the 80 nm PS-MPs are more likely to invade the body. H&E staining shows severe damage on the intestinal villi and distinct hepatic steatosis in the 80 nm group. EdU labeling shows that the proliferation activity of intestinal and liver cells reduces significantly in the 80 nm group. The gut microbiome analysis shows a severe imbalance of gut microbiota homeostasis in the 80 nm group. The analysis of liver transcriptomics and metabolomics shows that the liver lipid metabolism is disordered in the 80 nm group. In conclusion, this study confirms that the 80 nm PS-MPs are more likely to induce intestinal and liver toxicity. All the above lay the foundation for further study on the pathological damage of MPs to other organisms.

Sarcoma cell-specific radiation sensitization by titanate scrolled nanosheets: insights from physicochemical analysis and transcriptomic profiling

This study aimed to explore the potential of metal oxides such as Titanate Scrolled Nanosheets (TNs) in improving the radiosensitivity of sarcoma cell lines. Enhancing the response of cancer cells to radiation therapy is crucial, and one promising approach involves utilizing metal oxide nanoparticles. We focused on the impact of exposing two human sarcoma cell lines to both TNs and ionizing radiation (IR). Our research was prompted by previous in vitro toxicity assessments, revealing a correlation between TNs' toxicity and alterations in intracellular calcium homeostasis. A hydrothermal process using titanium dioxide powder in an alkaline solution produced the TNs. Our study quantified the intracellular content of TNs and analyzed their impact on radiation-induced responses. This assessment encompassed PIXE analysis, cell proliferation, and transcriptomic analysis. We observed that sarcoma cells internalized TNs, causing alterations in intracellular calcium homeostasis. We also found that irradiation influence intracellular calcium levels. Transcriptomic analysis revealed marked disparities in the gene expression patterns between the two sarcoma cell lines, suggesting a potential cell-line-dependent nano-sensitization to IR. These results significantly advance our comprehension of the interplay between TNs, IR, and cancer cells, promising potential enhancement of radiation therapy efficiency.

Structure-Based Evaluation of Hybrid Lipid-Polymer Nanoparticles: The Role of the Polymeric Guest

The combination of phospholipids and block-copolymers yields advanced hybrid nanoparticles through the self-assembly process in an aqueous environment. The physicochemical features of the lipid/polymer components, like the lipid-polymer molar ratio, the macromolecular architecture of the block copolymer, the main transition temperature of the phospholipid, as well as the formulation and preparation protocol parameters, are some of the most crucial parameters for the formation of hybrid lipid/polymer vesicles and for the differentiation of their morphology. The morphology, along with other physicochemical nanoparticle characteristics are strictly correlated with the nanoparticle's later biological behavior after being administered, affecting interactions with cells, biodistribution, uptake, toxicity, drug release, etc. In the present study, a structural evaluation of hybrid lipid-polymer nanoparticles based on cryo-TEM studies was undertaken. Different kinds of hybrid lipid-polymer nanoparticles were designed and developed using phospholipids and block copolymers with different preparation protocols. The structures obtained ranged from spherical vesicles to rod-shaped structures, worm-like micelles, and irregular morphologies. The obtained morphologies were correlated with the formulation and preparation parameters and especially the type of lipid, the polymeric guest, and their ratio.

Shape Dependent Therapeutic Potential of Nanoparticulate System: Advance Approach for Drug Delivery

Drug delivery systems rely heavily on nanoparticles because they provide a targeted and monitored release of pharmaceuticals that maximize therapeutic efficacy and minimize side effects. To maximize drug internalization, this review focuses on comprehending the interactions between biological systems and nanoparticles. The way that nanoparticles behave during cellular uptake, distribution, and retention in the body is determined by their shape. Different forms, such as mesoporous silica nanoparticles, micelles, and nanorods, each have special properties that influence how well drugs are delivered to cells and internalized. To achieve the desired particle morphology, shape-controlled nanoparticle synthesis strategies take into account variables like pH, temperatures, and reaction time. Top-down techniques entail dissolving bulk materials to produce nanoparticles, whereas bottom-up techniques enable nanostructures to self-assemble. Comprehending the interactions at the bio-nano interface is essential to surmounting biological barriers and enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of nanotechnology in drug delivery systems. In general, drug internalization and distribution are greatly influenced by the shape of nanoparticles, which presents an opportunity for tailored and efficient treatment plans in a range of medical applications.

Size-dependent and sex-specific negative effects of micro- and nano-sized polystyrene particles in the terrestrial invertebrate model Drosophila melanogaster

Microplastic pollution is believed to be one of the most widespread and long-lasting changes on a global scale. Our understanding that microplastics significantly impact terrestrial systems and are a global change stressor continues to grow. In the present study, we investigated the negative effect of long-term (28 days of exposure in food) polystyrene particles of micro (1.0-1.9 µm, 0.4-0.6 µm) and nano (0.04-0.06 µm) scale, in low doses, on the fruit fly - representing a common, globally distributed terrestrial invertebrate, and a model species in many fields. Our observations involved such parameters as ingestion and transfer of particles, survival, reproduction, changes in ultrastructure and tissue and cell responses in midgut epithelium (the place of direct contact with plastic), ovary, and testis in adults, and transgenerational effects in larvae. These observations may indicate possible toxic effects of the tested substances, even in low doses, that can be expected in other taxa, in terrestrial ecosystems. We observed a negative impact of polystyrene particles on the fruit fly survival, midgut, ovary, and testis, involving ultrastructural alterations, such as autophagy and/or ultimately necrosis in the midgut, triggering oxidative stress and activating processes of antioxidative protection. Despite the changes, midgut function and reproduction were not altered - spermatogenesis and oogenesis proceeded normally. The effect was size-dependent - the smaller the polystyrene particles were, the more substantial was the impact they caused. Ultrastructural changes and studied parameters, i.e., generation of ROS (overproduction of which generates oxidative stress), total glutathione concentration (involved in defense against ROS, acting in distinct pathways), and total antioxidant concentration (the oxidative defense system) showed the highest levels after exposure to the smallest nanoparticles, and vice versa. The effect was also sex-dependent, with male flies being more sensitive. Negative effects in males were more substantial and more prominent, even after contact with larger particles, compared to females. The smaller particles (0.4-0.6 µm, 0.04-0.06 µm) were transferred to the ovary and accumulated in the oocytes. In this case, a transgenerational negative effect was detected in larvae. It was characterized by size-dependent alterations, with smaller particles triggering higher levels of ROS and cellular oxidative response. Only the largest particles (1.0-1.9 µm) did not pass into the gonad and did not alter the larvae. These observations together demonstrated that polystyrene particles of micro- and nanoscale, even in a low dose, can induce numerous negative effects on terrestrial invertebrates.

Liver-Targeting Nanoplatforms for the Induction of Immune Tolerance

Liver-targeting nanoparticles have emerged as a promising platform for the induction of immune tolerance by taking advantage of the liver's unique tolerogenic properties and nanoparticles' physicochemical flexibility. Such an approach provides a versatile solution to the treatment of a diversity of immunologic diseases. In this review, we begin by assessing the design parameters integral to cell-specific targeting and the tolerogenic induction of nanoplatforms engineered to target the four critical immunogenic hepatic cells, including liver sinusoidal epithelial cells (LSECs), Kupffer cells (KCs), hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), and hepatocytes. We also include an overview of multiple therapeutic strategies in which nanoparticles are being studied to treat many allergies and autoimmune disorders. Finally, we explore the challenges of using nanoparticles in this field while highlighting future avenues to expand the therapeutic utility of liver-targeting nanoparticles in autoimmune processes.

Adhesion dynamics of functionalized nanocarriers to endothelial cells: a dissipative particle dynamics study

Targeted drug delivery to endothelial cells utilizing functionalized nanocarriers (NCs) is an essential procedure in therapeutic and diagnosis therapies. Using dissipative particle dynamics simulation, NCs have been designed and combined with an endothelial environment, such as the endothelial glycocalyx (EG) layer, receptors, water, and cell wall. Furthermore, the energy landscapes of the functionalized NC with the endothelial cell have been analyzed as a function of properties such as the shape, size, initial orientation, and ligand density of NCs. Our results show that an appropriate higher ligand density for each particular NC provides more driving forces than barriers for the penetration of the NCs. Herein we report the importance of shell entropy loss for the NC shape effect on the adhesion and penetration into the EG layer. Moreover, the rotation of the disc shape NC as a wheel during the penetration is an extra driving force for its further inclusion. By increasing the NCs' size larger than the appropriate size for each particular ligand density, due to an increase in the NCs' shell entropy loss, the barriers surpass the driving forces for NC penetration. Furthermore, the parallel orientation provides the NCs with the best penetration capabilities. However, the rotation of the disc shape NCs enhances their diffusion in the perpendicular orientation too. Overall, our findings highlight the crucial role of the shell entropy loss in governing the penetration of NCs. Besides, studying NCs with a homogeneous ligand composition enabled us to cross barriers and probe energetics after the complete inclusion of the NCs.

Fluorescent liposomal nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery in ischemic stroke therapy

Ischemic stroke causes acute CNS injury and long-term disability, with limited treatment options such as surgical clot removal or clot-busting drugs. Neuroprotective therapies are needed to protect vulnerable brain regions. The purinergic receptor P2X4 is activated during stroke and exacerbates post-stroke damage. The chemical compound 5-(3-Bromophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-Benzofuro[3,2-e]-1,4-diazepin-2-one (5BDBD) inhibits P2X4 and has shown neuroprotective effects in rodents. However, it is difficult to formulate for systemic delivery to the CNS. The current manuscript reports for the first time, the synthesis and characterization of 5BDBD PEGylated liposomal formulations and evaluates their feasibility to treat stroke in a preclinical mice model. A PEGylated liposomal formulation of 5BDBD was synthesized and characterized, with encapsulation efficacy of >80%, and release over 48 hours. In vitro and in vivo experiments with Nile red encapsulation showed cytocompatibility and CNS infiltration of nanocarriers. Administered 4 or 28 hours after stroke onset, the nanoformulation provided significant neuroprotection, reducing infarct volume by ∼50% compared to controls. It outperformed orally-administered 5BDBD with a lower dose and shorter treatment duration, suggesting precise delivery by nanoformulation improves outcomes. The fluorescent nanoformulations may serve as a platform for delivering and tracking therapeutic agents for stroke treatment.

The flow of anisotropic nanoparticles in solution and in blood

The alignment of anisotropic nanoparticles in flow has been used for a range of applications such as the preparation of strong fibres and the assembly of in-plane aligned 1D-nanoobjects that are used for electronic devices, sensors, energy and biological application. Important is also the flow behaviour of nanoparticles that were designed for nanomedical applications such as drug delivery. It is widely observed that non-spherical nanoparticles have longer circulation times and a more favourable biodistribution. To be able to understand this behaviour, researchers have turned to analyzing the flow of non-spherical nanoparticles in the blood stream. In this review, an overview of microfluidic techniques that are used to monitor the alignment of anisotropic nanoparticles in solution will be provided, which includes analysis by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and polarized light microscopy. The flow of these nanoparticles in blood is then discussed as the presence of red blood cells causes margination of some nanoparticles. Using fluorescence microscopy, the extent of margination can be identified, which coincides with the ability of nanoparticles to adhere to the cells grown along the wall. While these studies are mainly carried out in vitro using blood, initial investigations in vivo were able to confirm the unusual flow of anisotropic nanoparticles.

Template-Free Manufacturing of Defined Structure and Size Polymeric Microparticles

Complex-structured polymeric microparticles hold significant promise as an advance in next-generation medicine mostly due to demand from developing targeted drug delivery. However, the conventional methods for producing these microparticles of defined size, shape, and sophisticated composition often face challenges in scalability, reliance on specialized components such as micro-patterned templates, or limited control over particle size distribution and cargo (functional payload) release kinetics. In this study, we introduce a novel and reliably scalable approach for manufacturing microparticles of defined structures and sizes with variable parameters. The concept behind this method involves the deposition of a specific number of polymer layers on a substrate with low surface energy. Each layer can serve as either the carrier for cargo or a programmable shell-former with predefined permeability. Subsequently, this layered structure is precisely cut into desired-size blanks (particle precursors) using a laser. The manufacturing process is completed by applying heat to the substrate, which results in sealing the edges of the blanks. The combination of the high surface tension of the molten polymer and the low surface energy of the substrate enables the formation of discrete particles, each possessing semi-spherical or other designed geometries determined by their internal composition. Such anisotropic microparticles are envisaged to have versatile applications.

Divergent approach to nanoscale glycomicelles and photo-responsive supramolecular glycogels. Implications for drug delivery and photoswitching lectin affinity

The field of stimuli-responsive supramolecular biomaterials has rapidly advanced in recent years, with potential applications in diverse areas such as cancer theranostics, tissue engineering, and catalysis. However, designing molecular materials that exhibit predetermined hierarchical self-assembly to control the size, morphology, surface chemistry, and responsiveness of the final nanostructures remains a significant challenge. In this study, we present a divergent synthetic approach for the fabrication of spherical micelles and functional 1D-glyconanotube-based photoresponsive gels from structurally related diazobenzene/diacetylene glycolipids. The resulting nanostructures were characterized using NMR, TEM, and SEM, confirming the formation of spherical and tubular nanostructures in both the gel and solution states. Upon UV irradiation, a reversible gel-sol transition was observed, resulting from the photoswitching of the azobenzene unit from the stretched trans form to the compact, metastable cis form. Our gels were shown to enable spatio-temporal control of the adhesion and release of the lectin Concanavalin A, demonstrating potential use as regenerable biomaterials to fight against infections with toxins and pathogens. Additionally, our micelles and gels were evaluated as nanocontainers for loading and controlled release of hydrophobic dyes and antitumoural agents, suggesting their possible use as smart theranostic drug delivery systems.

The impact of coal mine dust characteristics on pathways to respiratory harm: investigating the pneumoconiotic potency of coals

Exposure to dust from the mining environment has historically resulted in epidemic levels of mortality and morbidity from pneumoconiotic diseases such as silicosis, coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP), and asbestosis. Studies have shown that CWP remains a critical issue at collieries across the globe, with some countries facing resurgent patterns of the disease and additional pathologies from long-term exposure. Compliance measures to reduce dust exposure rely primarily on the assumption that all "fine" particles are equally toxic irrespective of source or chemical composition. For several ore types, but more specifically coal, such an assumption is not practical due to the complex and highly variable nature of the material. Additionally, several studies have identified possible mechanisms of pathogenesis from the minerals and deleterious metals in coal. The purpose of this review was to provide a reassessment of the perspectives and strategies used to evaluate the pneumoconiotic potency of coal mine dust. Emphasis is on the physicochemical characteristics of coal mine dust such as mineralogy/mineral chemistry, particle shape, size, specific surface area, and free surface area-all of which have been highlighted as contributing factors to the expression of pro-inflammatory responses in the lung. The review also highlights the potential opportunity for more holistic risk characterisation strategies for coal mine dust, which consider the mineralogical and physicochemical aspects of the dust as variables relevant to the current proposed mechanisms for CWP pathogenesis.

Emerging strategies to fabricate polymeric nanocarriers for enhanced drug delivery across blood-brain barrier: An overview

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) serves as an essential interface between central nervous system (CNS) and its periphery, allowing selective permeation of ions, gaseous molecules, and other nutrients to maintain metabolic functions of brain. Concurrently, it restricts passage of unsolicited materials from bloodstream to CNS which could otherwise lead to neurotoxicity. Nevertheless, in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, and other brain cancers, drugs must reach CNS. Among various materials developed for this purpose, a few judiciously selected polymeric nanocarriers are reported to be highly prospective to facilitate BBB permeation. However, the challenge of transporting drug-loaded nanomaterials across this barrier remains formidable. Herein a concise analysis of recently employed strategies for designing polymeric nanocarriers to deliver therapeutics across BBB is presented. Impacts of 3Ss, namely, size, shape, and surface charge of polymeric nanocarriers on BBB permeation along with different ligands used for nanoparticle surface modification to achieve targeted delivery have been scrutinized. Finally, we elucidated future research directions in the context of designing smart polymeric nanocarriers for BBB permeation. This work aims to guide researchers engaged in polymeric nanocarrier design, helping them navigate where to begin, what challenges to address, and how to proceed effectively.

Matrix metalloproteinase responsive hydrogel microplates for programmed killing of invasive tumour cells

Interactive materials are an emerging class of systems that can offer control over response and adaptivity in polymer structures towards the meso- and macroscale. Here, we use enzyme regulated cleavage of peptide crosslinkers in polymer hydrogels to release a cytotoxic therapeutic nanoparticle with an adaptable mechanism. Hydrogel microplates were formed through polyethylene glycol/peptide photoinitiated thiol-ene chemistry in a soft-lithography process to give square plates of 20 by 20 μm with a height of 10 μm. The peptide was chosen to be degradable in the presence of matrix metalloproteinase 2/9 (MMP-2/9). The hydrogel material's mechanical properties, swelling, and protease degradation were characterised. The microfabricated hydrogels were loaded with docetaxel (DTXL) containing poly(dl-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles, and characterised for enzyme responsivity, and toxicity to MMP-2/9 overexpressing brain cancer cell line U87-MG. A 5-fold decrease in EC50 was seen compared to free DTXL, and a 20-fold decrease was seen for the MMP responsive microplates versus a non-degradable control microplate. Potential applications of this system in post-resection glioblastoma treatment are envisioned.

Investigation of the Interaction between Mechanosynthesized ZnS Nanoparticles and Albumin Using Fluorescence Spectroscopy

In this paper, ZnS nanoparticles were bioconjugated with bovine serum albumin and prepared in a form of nanosuspension using a wet circulation grinding. The stable nanosuspension with monomodal particle size distribution (d50 = 137 nm) and negative zeta potential (-18.3 mV) was obtained. The sorption kinetics and isotherm were determined. Interactions between ZnS and albumin were studied using the fluorescence techniques. The quenching mechanism, describing both static and dynamic interactions, was investigated. Various parameters were calculated, including the quenching rate constant, binding constant, stoichiometry of the binding process, and accessibility of fluorophore to the quencher. It has been found that tryptophan, in comparison to tyrosine, can be closer to the binding site established by analyzing the synchronous fluorescence spectra. The cellular mechanism in multiple myeloma cells treated with nanosuspension was evaluated by fluorescence assays for quantification of apoptosis, assessment of mitochondrial membrane potential and evaluation of cell cycle changes. The preliminary results confirm that the nontoxic nature of ZnS nanoparticles is potentially applicable in drug delivery systems. Additionally, slight changes in the secondary structure of albumin, accompanied by a decrease in α-helix content, were investigated using the FTIR method after analyzing the deconvoluted Amide I band spectra of ZnS nanoparticles conjugated with albumin. Thermogravimetric analysis and long-term stability studies were also performed to obtain a complete picture about the studied system.

A Novel Experimental Approach to Understand the Transport of Nanodrugs

Nanoparticle-based drugs offer attractive advantages like targeted delivery to the diseased site and size and shape-controlled properties. Therefore, understanding the particulate flow of the nanodrugs is important for effective delivery, accurate prediction of required dosage, and developing efficient drug delivery platforms for nanodrugs. In this study, the transport of nanodrugs including flow velocity and deposition is investigated using three model metal oxide nanodrugs of different sizes including iron oxide, zinc oxide, and combined Cu-Zn-Fe oxide synthesized via a modified polyol approach. The hydrodynamic size, size, morphology, chemical composition, crystal phase, and surface functional groups of the water-soluble nanodrugs were characterized via dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray, X-ray diffraction, and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, respectively. Two different biomimetic flow channels with customized surfaces are developed via 3D printing to experimentally monitor the velocity and deposition of the different nanodrugs. A diffusion dominated mechanism of flow is seen in size ranges 92 nm to 110 nm of the nanodrugs, from the experimental velocity and mass loss profiles. The flow velocity analysis also shows that the transport of nanodrugs is controlled by sedimentation processes in the larger size ranges of 110-302 nm. However, the combined overview from experimental mass loss and velocity trends indicates presence of both diffusive and sedimentation forces in the 110-302 nm size ranges. It is also discovered that the nanodrugs with higher positive surface charges are transported faster through the two test channels, which also leads to lower deposition of these nanodrugs on the walls of the flow channels. The results from this study will be valuable in realizing reliable and cost-effective in vitro experimental approaches that can support in vivo methods to predict the flow of new nanodrugs.

FRET-based analysis on the structural stability of polymeric micelles: Another key attribute beyond PEG coverage and particle size affecting the blood clearance

Various attributes of micelles, such as PEG density and particle size, are considered to be related to blood clearance. The structural stability of micelles is another key attribute that will affect the in vivo fate. This study employed fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) analysis to guide the preparation of polymeric micelles with different structural stability. Micelles prepared using copolymers with longer hydrophobic blocks showed higher structural stability; emulsification was a better method than nanoprecipitation to prepare stable micelles. The fast chain exchange kinetics and the high-water content of micellar cores explained the low structural stability of those micelles. Moreover, this study highlighted the importance of structural stability that affected blood clearance in concert with PEG length and particle size. One-third of the small and stable micelles were detected in the blood 24 h after injection. While unstable micelles would be cleared from the circulation within 4 h. Notably, there would be a threshold of structural stability. Micelles with structural stability below this threshold were quickly cleared even if they possessed a longer PEG length and a smaller size. In contrast, higher structural stability allowed polymeric micelles to maintain higher integrity in vivo and enhance tumor accumulation and anti-tumor efficacy. In conclusion, this study systematically analyzed the importance of the structural stability of micelles on the in vivo fate.

Biogenic Synthesis of Copper Nanoparticles: A Systematic Review of Their Features and Main Applications

Nanotechnology is an innovative field of study that has made significant progress due to its potential versatility and wide range of applications, precisely because of the development of metal nanoparticles such as copper. Nanoparticles are bodies composed of a nanometric cluster of atoms (1-100 nm). Biogenic alternatives have replaced their chemical synthesis due to their environmental friendliness, dependability, sustainability, and low energy demand. This ecofriendly option has medical, pharmaceutical, food, and agricultural applications. When compared to their chemical counterparts, using biological agents, such as micro-organisms and plant extracts, as reducing and stabilizing agents has shown viability and acceptance. Therefore, it is a feasible alternative for rapid synthesis and scaling-up processes. Several research articles on the biogenic synthesis of copper nanoparticles have been published over the past decade. Still, none provided an organized, comprehensive overview of their properties and potential applications. Thus, this systematic review aims to assess research articles published over the past decade regarding the antioxidant, antitumor, antimicrobial, dye removal, and catalytic activities of biogenically synthesized copper nanoparticles using the scientific methodology of big data analytics. Plant extract and micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi) are addressed as biological agents. We intend to assist the scientific community in comprehending and locating helpful information for future research or application development.

The Ethnopharmacological Properties of Green-Engineered Metallic Nanoparticles against Metabolic Disorders

Metabolic syndrome is a multifaceted pathophysiologic condition that is largely caused by an imbalance between caloric intake and energy expenditure. The pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome is determined by an individual's genetic/epigenetics and acquired factors. Natural compounds, notably plant extracts, have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and insulin-sensitizing properties and are considered to be a viable option for metabolic disorder treatment due to their low risk of side effects. However, the limited solubility, low bioavailability, and instability of these botanicals hinder their performance. These specific limitations have prompted the need for an efficient system that reduces drug degradation and loss, eliminates unwanted side effects, and boosts drug bioavailability, as well as the percentage of the drug deposited in the target areas. The quest for an enhanced (effective) drug delivery system has led to the formation of green-engineered nanoparticles, which has increased the bioavailability, biodistribution, solubility, and stability of plant-based products. The unification of plant extracts and metallic nanoparticles has helped in the development of new therapeutics against metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, neurodegenerative disorders, non-alcoholic fatty liver, and cancer. The present review outlines the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases and their cures with plant-based nanomedicine.

The shape anisotropy of magnetic nanoparticles: an approach to cell-type selective and enhanced internalization

The effects of the shape anisotropy of nanoparticles on cellular uptake is still poorly understood due to challenges in the synthesis of anisotropic magnetic nanoparticles of the same composition. Here, we design and synthesize spherical magnetic nanoparticles and their anisotropic assemblies, namely magnetic nanochains (length ∼800 nm). Then, nanoparticle shape anisotropy is investigated on urothelial cells in vitro. Although both shapes of nanomaterials reveal biocompatibility, we havefound significant differences in the extent of their intracellular accumulation. Contrary to spherical particles, anisotropic nanochains preferentially accumulate in cancer cells as confirmed by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis, indicating that control of the nanoparticle shape geometry governs cell-type-selective intracellular uptake and accumulation.

Nano-bio Interface between As4S4 Nanoparticles and Albumin Influenced by Wet Stirred Media Milling

Arsenic sulfide (As₄S₄) nanoparticles have been intensively researched as a promising drug in a cancer treatment. For the first time, the interaction between As₄S₄ and bovine serum albumin has been studied in this paper. Initially, the sorption kinetics of albumin on the surface of nanoparticles was investigated. Subsequently, its structural changes influenced by interaction with the As₄S₄ nanoparticles during wet stirred media milling were studied in deep. Both the dynamic and static quenching were detected after analyzing the fluorescence quenching spectra. From the synchronous fluorescence spectra it was investigated, that the fluorescence intensity for tyrosine residues decreased by about 55%, and for tryptophan it was about 80%. It indicates the fluorescence from tryptophan is more intense and gets more efficiently quenched than those from tyrosine residues in presence of As₄S₄, implying that the tryptophan can be closer to the binding site. From the circular dichroisms and FTIR spectra it was observed that conformation of the protein remains almost unchanged. The content of appropriate secondary structures was determined by deconvolution of the absorption peak attributed to the amide I band in FTIR spectra. The preliminary anti-tumor cytotoxic effect of prepared albumin-As₄S₄ system was also tested on multiple myeloma cell lines.

Engineered nanomaterials that exploit blood-brain barrier dysfunction fordelivery to the brain

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a highly regulated physical and functional boundarythat tightly controls the transport of materials between the blood and the brain. There is an increasing recognition that the BBB is dysfunctional in a wide range of neurological disorders; this dysfunction can be symptomatic of the disease but can also play a role in disease etiology. BBB dysfunction can be exploited for the delivery of therapeutic nanomaterials. Forexample, there can be a transient, physical disruption of the BBB in diseases such as brain injury and stroke, which allows temporary access of nanomaterials into the brain. Physicaldisruption of the BBB through external energy sources is now being clinically pursued toincrease therapeutic delivery into the brain. In other diseases, the BBB takes on new properties that can beleveraged by delivery carriers. For instance, neuroinflammation induces the expression ofreceptors on the BBB that can be targeted by ligand-modified nanomaterials and theendogenous homing of immune cells into the diseased brain can be hijacked for the delivery ofnanomaterials. Lastly, BBB transport pathways can be altered to increase nanomaterial transport. In this review, we will describe changes that can occur in the BBB in disease, and how these changes have been exploited by engineered nanomaterials forincreased transport into the brain.

A Biomolecular Toolbox for Precision Nanomotors

The application of nanomotors for cancer diagnosis and therapy is a new and exciting area of research, which when combined with precision nanomedicine, promises to solve many of the issues encountered by previous development of passive nanoparticles. The goal of this article is to introduce nanomotor and nanomedicine researchers to the deep pool of knowledge available regarding cancer cell biology and biochemistry, as well as provide a greater appreciation of the complexity of cell membrane compositions, extracellular surfaces, and their functional consequences. A short description of the nanomotor state-of-art for cancer therapy and diagnosis is first provided, as well as recommendations for future directions of the field. Then, a biomolecular targeting toolbox has been collated for researchers looking to apply their nanomaterial of choice to a biological setting, as well as providing a glimpse into currently available clinical therapies and technologies. This toolbox contains an overview of different classes of targeting molecules available for high affinity and specific targeting and cell surface targets to aid researchers in the selection of a clinical disease model and targeting methodology. It is hoped that this review will provide biological context, inspiration, and direction to future nanomotor and nanomedicine research.

Boosting the Potential of Chemotherapy in Advanced Breast Cancer Lung Metastasis via Micro-Combinatorial Hydrogel Particles

Breast cancer cell colonization of the lungs is associated with a dismal prognosis as the distributed nature of the disease and poor permeability of the metastatic foci challenge the therapeutic efficacy of small molecules, antibodies, and nanomedicines. Taking advantage of the unique physiology of the pulmonary circulation, here, micro-combinatorial hydrogel particles (µCGP) are realized via soft lithographic techniques to enhance the specific delivery of a cocktail of cytotoxic nanoparticles to metastatic foci. By cross-linking short poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains with erodible linkers within a shape-defining template, a deformable and biodegradable polymeric skeleton is realized and loaded with a variety of therapeutic and imaging agents, including docetaxel-nanoparticles. In a model of advanced breast cancer lung metastasis, µCGP amplified the colocalization of docetaxel-nanoparticles with pulmonary metastatic foci, prolonged the retention of chemotoxic molecules at the diseased site, suppressed lesion growth, and boosted survival beyond 20 weeks post nodule engraftment. The flexible design and modular architecture of µCGP would allow the efficient deployment of complex combination therapies in other vascular districts too, possibly addressing metastatic diseases of different origins.

Lysine-Derived Charge-Altering Releasable Transporters: Targeted Delivery of mRNA and siRNA to the Lungs

Targeted delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics to the lungs could transform treatment options for pulmonary disease. We have previously developed oligomeric charge-altering releasable transporters (CARTs) for in vivo mRNA transfection and demonstrated their efficacy for use in mRNA-based cancer vaccination and local immunomodulatory therapies against murine tumors. While our previously reported glycine-based CART-mRNA complexes (G-CARTs/mRNA) show selective protein expression in the spleen (mouse, >99%), here, we report a new lysine-derived CART-mRNA complex (K-CART/mRNA) that, without additives or targeting ligands, shows selective protein expression in the lungs (mouse, >90%) following systemic IV administration. We further show that by delivering siRNA using the K-CART, we can significantly decrease expression of a lung-localized reporter protein. Blood chemistry and organ pathology studies demonstrate that K-CARTs are safe and well-tolerated. We report on the new step economical, organocatalytic synthesis (two steps) of functionalized polyesters and oligo-carbonate-co-α-aminoester K-CARTs from simple amino acid and lipid-based monomers. The ability to direct protein expression selectively in the spleen or lungs by simple, modular changes to the CART structure opens fundamentally new opportunities in research and gene therapy.

Magnetic Nanoscalpel for the Effective Treatment of Ascites Tumors

One of the promising novel methods for radical tumor resection at a single-cell level is magneto-mechanical microsurgery (MMM) with magnetic nano- or microdisks modified with cancer-recognizing molecules. A low-frequency alternating magnetic field (AMF) remotely drives and controls the procedure. Here, we present characterization and application of magnetic nanodisks (MNDs) as a surgical instrument ("smart nanoscalpel") at a single-cell level. MNDs with a quasi-dipole three-layer structure (Au/Ni/Au) and DNA aptamer AS42 (AS42-MNDs) on the surface converted magnetic moment into mechanical and destroyed tumor cells. The effectiveness of MMM was analyzed on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells in vitro and in vivo using sine and square-shaped AMF with frequencies from 1 to 50 Hz with 0.1 to 1 duty-cycle parameters. MMM with the "Nanoscalpel" in a sine-shaped 20 Hz AMF, a rectangular-shaped 10 Hz AMF, and a 0.5 duty cycle was the most effective. A sine-shaped field caused apoptosis, whereas a rectangular-shaped field caused necrosis. Four sessions of MMM with AS42-MNDs significantly reduced the number of cells in the tumor. In contrast, ascites tumors continued to grow in groups of mice and mice treated with MNDs with nonspecific oligonucleotide NO-MND. Thus, applying a "smart nanoscalpel" is practical for the microsurgery of malignant neoplasms.

Passing of Nanocarriers across the Histohematic Barriers: Current Approaches for Tumor Theranostics

Over the past several decades, nanocarriers have demonstrated diagnostic and therapeutic (i.e., theranostic) potencies in translational oncology, and some agents have been further translated into clinical trials. However, the practical application of nanoparticle-based medicine in living organisms is limited by physiological barriers (blood-tissue barriers), which significantly hampers the transport of nanoparticles from the blood into the tumor tissue. This review focuses on several approaches that facilitate the translocation of nanoparticles across blood-tissue barriers (BTBs) to efficiently accumulate in the tumor. To overcome the challenge of BTBs, several methods have been proposed, including the functionalization of particle surfaces with cell-penetrating peptides (e.g., TAT, SynB1, penetratin, R8, RGD, angiopep-2), which increases the passing of particles across tissue barriers. Another promising strategy could be based either on the application of various chemical agents (e.g., efflux pump inhibitors, disruptors of tight junctions, etc.) or physical methods (e.g., magnetic field, electroporation, photoacoustic cavitation, etc.), which have been shown to further increase the permeability of barriers.

Nanodrug delivery systems for metabolic chronic liver diseases: advances and perspectives

Nanomedicines are revolutionizing healthcare as recently demonstrated by the Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-2019 vaccines, with billions of doses administered worldwide in a safe manner. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is the most common noncommunicable chronic liver disease, posing a major growing challenge to global public health. However, due to unmet diagnostic and therapeutic needs, there is great interest in the development of novel translational approaches. Nanoparticle-based approaches offer novel opportunities for efficient and specific drug delivery to liver cells, as a step toward precision medicines. In this review, the authors highlight recent advances in nanomedicines for the generation of novel diagnostic and therapeutic tools for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and related liver diseases.

Recent advancements in design of nucleic acid nanocarriers for controlled drug delivery

Research of nanoscale nucleic acid carriers has garnered attention in recent years due to their distinctive and controllable properties. However, current knowledge is limited in how we can efficiently utilize these systems for clinical applications. Several researchers have pioneered new and innovative nanocarrier drug delivery systems, but understanding physiochemical properties and behavior in vivo is vital to implementing them as clinical drug delivery platforms. In this review, we outline the most significant innovations in the synthesis, physical properties, and utilization of nucleic acid nanocarriers in the past 5 years, addressing the crucial properties which improve nanocarrier characteristics, delivery, and drug release. The challenges of controlling the transport of nucleic acid nanocarriers and therapeutic release for biological applications are outlined. Barriers which inhibit effective transport into tissue are discussed with emphasis on the modifications needed to overcome such obstacles. The novel strategies discussed in this work summarize the pivotal features of modern nucleic nanocarriers and postulate where future developments could revolutionize the translation of these tools into a clinical setting.

Gold Complexes in Anticancer Therapy: From New Design Principles to Particle-Based Delivery Systems

The discovery of the medicinal properties of gold complexes has fuelled the design and synthesis of new anticancer metallodrugs, which have received special attention due to their unique modes of action. Current research in the development of gold compounds with therapeutic properties is predominantly focused on the molecular design of drug leads with superior pharmacological activities, e.g., by introducing targeting features. Moreover, intensive research aims at improving the physicochemical properties of gold compounds, such as chemical stability and solubility in the physiological environment. In this regard, the encapsulation of gold compounds in nanocarriers or their chemical grafting onto targeted delivery vectors could lead to new nanomedicines that eventually reach clinical applications. Herein, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art progress of gold anticancer compounds, andmore importantly we thoroughly revise the development of nanoparticle-based delivery systems for gold chemotherapeutics.

PLGA-Based Micro/Nanoparticles: An Overview of Their Applications in Respiratory Diseases

Respiratory diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are critical areas of medical research, as millions of people are affected worldwide. In fact, more than 9 million deaths worldwide were associated with respiratory diseases in 2016, equivalent to 15% of global deaths, and the prevalence is increasing every year as the population ages. Due to inadequate treatment options, the treatments for many respiratory diseases are limited to relieving symptoms rather than curing the disease. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies for respiratory diseases are urgently needed. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) micro/nanoparticles (PLGA M/NPs) have good biocompatibility, biodegradability and unique physical and chemical properties, making them one of the most popular and effective drug delivery polymers. In this review, we summarized the synthesis and modification methods of PLGA M/NPs and their applications in the treatment of respiratory diseases (asthma, COPD, cystic fibrosis (CF), etc.) and also discussed the research progress and current research status of PLGA M/NPs in respiratory diseases. It was concluded that PLGA M/NPs are the promising drug delivery vehicles for the treatment of respiratory diseases due to their advantages of low toxicity, high bioavailability, high drug loading capacity, plasticity and modifiability. And at the end, we presented an outlook on future research directions, aiming to provide some new ideas for future research directions and hopefully to promote their widespread application in clinical treatment.

Understanding the rod-to-tube transformation of self-assembled ascorbyl dipalmitate lipid nanoparticles stabilized with PEGylated lipids

We previously established a nanoparticle-based drug delivery system (DDS) for high-dose ascorbic acid therapy by self-assembly of a lipid-modified ascorbic acid derivative, L-ascorbyl 2,6-dipalmitate (ASC-DP). The particles' morphology should be modified for effective DDSs. Here, we modulated the morphology of self-assembled ASC-DP nanoparticles using two different PEGylated lipids, distearoylphosphatidylethanolamine-polyethylene glycol (DSPE-PEG) and cholesterol-polyethylene glycol (Chol-PEG), with various PEG molecular weights. At the preparation molar ratio of 10 : 1 (ASC-DP/PEGylated lipid), rod-like nanoparticles emerged in the ASC-DP/DSPE-PEG system, whereas the ASC-DP/Chol-PEG system yielded tube-like nanoparticles. The internal structures of both rod-like ASC-DP/DSPE-PEG and tube-like ASC-DP/Chol-PEG nanoparticles were similar to that of repeated ASC-DP bilayers. The particles' surfaces featured PEGylated lipids, which stabilized the structure and dispersion of the nanoparticles. For both systems, the particle size increased slightly with increasing the PEGylated lipid's PEG molecular weight. Increasing the PEG molecular weight decreased the inner tunnel size of tube-like ASC-DP/Chol-PEG nanoparticles. A mechanism has been proposed for the rod-to-tube transformation. Surface-layer free-energy changes owing to the mixing of multiple lipids and PEG chain repulsion are thought to underlie the inner tunnels' formation. The rod-to-tube morphology of self-assembled ASC-DP nanoparticles can be modulated by controlling the PEGylated lipids' structure, including the lipid species and the PEG chain length.