Nano-enabled delivery of diverse payloads across complex biological barriers

Neuroprotective effects of L-Dopa-modified zinc oxide nanoparticles on the rat model of 6-OHDA-ınduced Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative case. As the disease progresses, the response time to doses of levodopa (L-Dopa) becomes shorter and the effects of the drug are severely limited by some undesirable side effects such as the 'on-off' phenomenon. In several diseases, including Parkinson's, nanoparticles can deliver antioxidant compounds that reduce oxidative stress. This study evaluates and compares the neuroprotective effects of L-Dopa-modified zinc nanoparticles (ZnNPs) in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced PD rat model. For this purpose, the synthesis of NPs was carried out. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer were used for characterization. The rats were randomized into 9 experimental groups: control, lesion group (6-OHDA), 6-OHDA + 5 mg/kg L-Dopa, 6-OHDA + 10 mg/kg L-Dopa, 6-OHDA + 20 mg/kg L-Dopa, 6-OHDA + 20 mg/kg ZnNPs, 6-OHDA + 40 mg/kg ZnNPs, 6-OHDA + 30 mg/kg ZnNPs + L-Dopa, and 6-OHDA + 60 mg/kg ZnNPs + L-Dopa. Behavioral tests were performed on all groups 14 days after treatment. Phosphatase and tensin homolog, Excitatory amino acid transporter 1/2, and Glutamine synthetase gene analyses were performed on brain samples taken immediately after the tests. In addition, histological and immunohistochemical methods were used to determine the general structure and properties of the tissues. We obtained important findings that L-Dopa-modified ZnNPs increased the activity of glutamate transporters. Our experiment showed that glutamate increases neuronal cell vitality and improves behavioral performance. Therefore, L-Dopa-modified ZnNPs can be used to prevent neurotoxicity. According to what we found, results show that L-Dopa-modified ZnNPs will lend to the effective avoidance and therapy of PD.

Nanoparticle-neutrophils interactions for autoimmune regulation

Neutrophils play an essential role as 'first responders' in the immune response, necessitating many immune-modulating capabilities. Chronic, unresolved inflammation is heavily implicated in the progression and tissue-degrading effects of autoimmune disease. Neutrophils modulate disease pathogenesis by interacting with the inflammatory and autoreactive cells through effector functions, including signaling, degranulation, and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) release. Since the current gold standard systemic glucocorticoid administration has many drawbacks and side effects, targeting neutrophils in autoimmunity provides a new approach to developing therapeutics. Nanoparticles enable targeting of specific cell types and controlled release of a loaded drug cargo. Thus, leveraging nanoparticle properties and interactions with neutrophils provides an exciting new direction toward novel therapies for autoimmune diseases. Additionally, recent work has utilized neutrophil properties to design novel targeted particles for delivery into previously inaccessible areas. Here, we outline nanoparticle-based strategies to modulate neutrophil activity in autoimmunity, including various nanoparticle formulations and neutrophil-derived targeting.

Therapeutic synthetic and natural materials for immunoengineering

Immunoengineering is a rapidly evolving field that has been driving innovations in manipulating immune system for new treatment tools and methods. The need for materials for immunoengineering applications has gained significant attention in recent years due to the growing demand for effective therapies that can target and regulate the immune system. Biologics and biomaterials are emerging as promising tools for controlling immune responses, and a wide variety of materials, including proteins, polymers, nanoparticles, and hydrogels, are being developed for this purpose. In this review article, we explore the different types of materials used in immunoengineering applications, their properties and design principles, and highlight the latest therapeutic materials advancements. Recent works in adjuvants, vaccines, immune tolerance, immunotherapy, and tissue models for immunoengineering studies are discussed.

Aggregation-Inhibiting scFv-Based Therapies Protect Mice against AAV1/2-Induced A53T-α-Synuclein Overexpression

To date, there is no cure for Parkinson's disease (PD). There is a pressing need for anti-neurodegenerative therapeutics that can slow or halt PD progression by targeting underlying disease mechanisms. Specifically, preventing the build-up of alpha-synuclein (αSyn) and its aggregated and mutated forms is a key therapeutic target. In this study, an adeno-associated viral vector loaded with the A53T gene mutation was used to induce rapid αSyn-associated PD pathogenesis in C57BL/6 mice. We tested the ability of a novel therapeutic, a single chain fragment variable (scFv) antibody with specificity only for pathologic forms of αSyn, to protect against αSyn-induced neurodegeneration, after unilateral viral vector injection in the substantia nigra. Additionally, polyanhydride nanoparticles, which provide sustained release of therapeutics with dose-sparing properties, were used as a delivery platform for the scFv. Through bi-weekly behavioral assessments and across multiple post-mortem immunochemical analyses, we found that the scFv-based therapies allowed the mice to recover motor activity and reduce overall αSyn expression in the substantia nigra. In summary, these novel scFv-based therapies, which are specific exclusively for pathological aggregates of αSyn, show early promise in blocking PD progression in a surrogate mouse PD model.

Nanodrug delivery systems for metabolic chronic liver diseases: advances and perspectives

Nanomedicines are revolutionizing healthcare as recently demonstrated by the Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-2019 vaccines, with billions of doses administered worldwide in a safe manner. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is the most common noncommunicable chronic liver disease, posing a major growing challenge to global public health. However, due to unmet diagnostic and therapeutic needs, there is great interest in the development of novel translational approaches. Nanoparticle-based approaches offer novel opportunities for efficient and specific drug delivery to liver cells, as a step toward precision medicines. In this review, the authors highlight recent advances in nanomedicines for the generation of novel diagnostic and therapeutic tools for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and related liver diseases.

Data analytics-guided rational design of antimicrobial nanomedicines against opportunistic, resistant pathogens

Nanoparticle carriers can improve antibiotic efficacy by altering drug biodistribution. However, traditional screening is impracticable due to a massive dataspace. A hybrid informatics approach was developed to identify polymer, antibiotic, and particle determinants of antimicrobial nanomedicine activity against Burkholderia cepacia, and to model nanomedicine performance. Polymer glass transition temperature, drug octanol-water partition coefficient, strongest acid dissociation constant, physiological charge, particle diameter, count and mass mean polydispersity index, zeta potential, fraction drug released at 2 h, and fraction release slope at 2 h were highly correlated with antimicrobial performance. Graph analysis provided dimensionality reduction while preserving nonlinear descriptor-property relationships, enabling accurate modeling of nanomedicine performance. The model successfully predicted particle performance in holdout validation, with moderate accuracy at rank-ordering. This data analytics-guided approach provides an important step toward the development of a rational design framework for antimicrobial nanomedicines against resistant infections by selecting appropriate carriers and payloads for improved potency.

Perspective insights into hydrogels and nanomaterials for ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a neurological disorder prevalent worldwide with a high disability and mortality rate. In the clinic setting, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and thrombectomy could restore blood flow of the occlusion region and improve the outcomes of IS patients; however, these therapies are restricted by a narrow time window. Although several preclinical trials have revealed the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying infarct lesions, the translatability of most findings is unsatisfactory, which contributes to the emergence of new biomaterials, such as hydrogels and nanomaterials, for the treatment of IS. Biomaterials function as structural scaffolds or are combined with other compounds to release therapeutic drugs. Biomaterial-mediated drug delivery approaches could optimize the therapeutic effects based on their brain-targeting property, biocompatibility, and functionality. This review summarizes the advances in biomaterials in the last several years, aiming to discuss the therapeutic potential of new biomaterials from the bench to bedside. The promising prospects of new biomaterials indicate the possibility of an organic combination between materialogy and medicine, which is a novel field under exploration.

Noncoding RNA therapeutics for substance use disorder

Although noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been shown to regulate maladaptive neuroadaptations that drive compulsive drug use, ncRNA-targeting therapeutics for substance use disorder (SUD) have yet to be clinically tested. Recent advances in RNA-based drugs have improved many therapeutic issues related to immune response, specificity, and delivery, leading to multiple successful clinical trials for other diseases. As the need for safe and effective treatments for SUD continues to grow, novel nucleic acid-based therapeutics represent an appealing approach to target ncRNA mechanisms in SUD. Here, we review ncRNA processes implicated in SUD, discuss recent therapeutic approaches for targeting ncRNAs, and highlight potential opportunities and challenges of ncRNA-targeting therapeutics for SUD.

Smart and Multi-Functional Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment Applications: Clinical Challenges and Future Prospects

Iron oxide nanoparticle (IONPs) have become a subject of interest in various biomedical fields due to their magnetism and biocompatibility. They can be utilized as heat mediators in magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) or as contrast media in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound (US). In addition, their high drug-loading capacity enabled them to be therapeutic agent transporters for malignancy treatment. Hence, smartening them allows for an intelligent controlled drug release (CDR) and targeted drug delivery (TDD). Smart magnetic nanoparticles (SMNPs) can overcome the impediments faced by classical chemo-treatment strategies, since they can be navigated and release drug via external or internal stimuli. Recently, they have been synchronized with other modalities, e.g., MRI, MHT, US, and for dual/multimodal theranostic applications in a single platform. Herein, we provide an overview of the attributes of MNPs for cancer theranostic application, fabrication procedures, surface coatings, targeting approaches, and recent advancement of SMNPs. Even though MNPs feature numerous privileges over chemotherapy agents, obstacles remain in clinical usage. This review in particular covers the clinical predicaments faced by SMNPs and future research scopes in the field of SMNPs for cancer theranostics.

Nanoparticle delivery systems for substance use disorder

Innovative breakthroughs in nanotechnology are having a substantial impact in healthcare, especially for brain diseases where effective therapeutic delivery systems are desperately needed. Nanoparticle delivery systems offer an unmatched ability of not only conveying a diverse array of diagnostic and therapeutic agents across complex biological barriers, but also possess the ability to transport payloads to targeted cell types over a sustained period. In substance use disorder (SUD), many therapeutic targets have been identified in preclinical studies, yet few of these findings have been translated to effective clinical treatments. The lack of success is, in part, due to the significant challenge of delivering novel therapies to the brain and specific brain cells. In this review, we evaluate the potential approaches and limitations of nanotherapeutic brain delivery systems. We also highlight the examples of promising strategies and future directions of nanocarrier-based treatments for SUD.

Biodegradable Nanoparticles Loaded with Levodopa and Curcumin for Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative disorder. Levodopa (L-DOPA) remains the gold-standard drug available for treating PD. Curcumin has many pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-amyloid, and antitumor properties. Copolymers composed of Poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) and biodegradable polyesters such as Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL) can self-assemble into nanoparticles (NPs). This study describes the development of NH₂–PEO–PCL diblock copolymer positively charged and modified by adding glutathione (GSH) on the outer surface, resulting in a synergistic delivery of L-DOPA curcumin that would be able to pass the blood–brain barrier. Methods: The NH₂–PEO–PCL NPs suspensions were prepared by using a nanoprecipitation and solvent displacement method and coated with GSH. NPs were submitted to characterization assays. In order to ensure the bioavailability, Vero and PC12 cells were treated with various concentrations of the loaded and unloaded NPs to observe cytotoxicity. Results: NPs have successfully loaded L-DOPA and curcumin and were stable after freeze-drying, indicating advancing into in vitro toxicity testing. Vero and PC12 cells that were treated up to 72 h with various concentrations of L-DOPA and curcumin-loaded NP maintained high viability percentage, indicating that the NPs are biocompatible. Conclusions: NPs consisting of NH₂–PEO–PCL were characterized as potential formulations for brain delivery of L-DOPA and curcumin. The results also indicate that the developed biodegradable nanomicelles that were blood compatible presented low cytotoxicity.

Multi-ligand modified PC@DOX-PA/EGCG micelles effectively inhibit the growth of ER+, PR+ or HER2+ breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world with tumor heterogeneity. Currently, cancer treatment mainly relies on surgical intervention, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, for which the side effects, drug resistance and cost need to be resolved. In this study, we develop a natural medicine targeted therapy system. Phosphatidylcholine (PC), doxorubicin (DOX), procyanidin (PA), and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) are assembled and PC@DOX-PA/EGCG nanoparticles (NPs) are obtained. In addition, the HER2, ER and PR ligands were grafted on the surface of the NPs to acquire the targeted nanoparticles NP-ER, NP-ER-HER2, and NP-ER-HER2-PR. The physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles were detected and it was found that the nanoparticles are spherical and less than 200 nm in diameter. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo results indicate that the nanoparticles can target BT-474, MCF-7, EMT-6, and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, effectively inhibiting the growth of the breast cancer cells. In short, this research will provide some strategies for the treatment of heterogeneous breast cancer.

Polysorbate-coated mesoporous silica nanoparticles as an efficient carrier for improved rivastigmine brain delivery

Targeted delivery of neurological therapeutic to the brain has been attracting more and more attention to the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Nonetheless, the main obstacle in this road map is the existence of a blood-brain barrier (BBB) which limits the penetration efficiency of most CNS drugs into the brain parenchyma. This present investigation describes a facile synthetic strategy to prepare a highly biocompatible calcium-doped mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) functionalized by polysorbate-80 (PS) as targeting ligand to deliver rivastigmine (RV) into the brain via crossing the BBB. The developed nanosystem was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Zeta potential, and N₂-adsorption-desorption analysis. In vitro hemolysis studies were carried out to confirm the biocompatibility of the nanocarriers. Our in vivo studies in an animal model of rats showed that the RV-loaded nanosystem was able to enhance the brain-to-plasma concentration ratio, brain uptake clearance, and plasma elimination half-life of the drug compared to the free one drug following intravenous (IV) administration. The results revealed that functionalization of MSNs by PS is crucial to deliver RV into the brain, suggesting PS-functionalized MSNs could be an effective carrier to deliver RV to the brain while overcoming BBB.

Nanocarriers for pancreatic cancer imaging, treatments, and immunotherapies

Pancreatic tumors are highly desmoplastic and immunosuppressive. Delivery and distribution of drugs within pancreatic tumors are compromised due to intrinsic physical and biochemical stresses that lead to increased interstitial fluid pressure, vascular compression, and hypoxia. Immunotherapy-based approaches, including therapeutic vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibition, CAR-T cell therapy, and adoptive T cell therapies, are challenged by an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Together, extensive fibrosis and immunosuppression present major challenges to developing treatments for pancreatic cancer. In this context, nanoparticles have been extensively studied as delivery platforms and adjuvants for cancer and other disease therapies. Recent advances in nanotechnology have led to the development of multiple nanocarrier-based formulations that not only improve drug delivery but also enhance immunotherapy-based approaches for pancreatic cancer. This review discusses and critically analyzes the novel nanoscale strategies that have been used for drug delivery and immunomodulation to improve treatment efficacy, including newly emerging immunotherapy-based approaches. This review also presents important perspectives on future research directions that will guide the rational design of novel and robust nanoscale platforms to treat pancreatic tumors, particularly with respect to targeted therapies and immunotherapies. These insights will inform the next generation of clinical treatments to help patients manage this debilitating disease and enhance survival rates.

2D Nanosheets-A New Class of Therapeutic Formulations against Cancer

Researchers in cancer nanomedicine are exploring a revolutionary multifaceted carrier for treatment and diagnosis, resulting in the proposal of various drug cargos or "magic bullets" in this past decade. Even though different nano-based complexes are registered for clinical trials, very few products enter the final stages each year because of various issues. This prevents the formulations from entering the market and being accessible to patients. In the search for novel materials, the exploitation of 2D nanosheets, including but not limited to the highly acclaimed graphene, has created extensive interest for biomedical applications. A unique set of properties often characterize 2D materials, including semiconductivity, high surface area, and their chemical nature, which allow simple decoration and functionalization procedures, structures with high stability and targeting properties, vectors for controlled and sustained release of drugs, and materials for thermal-based therapies. This review discusses the challenges and opportunities of recently discovered 2D nanosheets for cancer therapeutics, with special attention paid to the most promising design technologies and their potential for clinical translation in the future.

Disentangling Mitochondria in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a major cause of dementia in older adults and is fast becoming a major societal and economic burden due to an increase in life expectancy. Age seems to be the major factor driving AD, and currently, only symptomatic treatments are available. AD has a complex etiology, although mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, and metabolic abnormalities have been widely and deeply investigated as plausible mechanisms for its neuropathology. Aβ plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau aggregates, along with cognitive deficits and behavioral problems, are the hallmarks of the disease. Restoration of mitochondrial bioenergetics, prevention of oxidative stress, and diet and exercise seem to be effective in reducing Aβ and in ameliorating learning and memory problems. Many mitochondria-targeted antioxidants have been tested in AD and are currently in development. However, larger streamlined clinical studies are needed to provide hard evidence of benefits in AD. This review discusses the causative factors, as well as potential therapeutics employed in the treatment of AD.

Bovine NK-lysin peptides exert potent antimicrobial activity against multidrug-resistant Salmonella outbreak isolates

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella is a threat to public health. Non-antibiotic therapies could serve as important countermeasures to control MDR Salmonella outbreaks. In this study, antimicrobial activity of cationic α-helical bovine NK-lysin-derived antimicrobial peptides was evaluated against MDR Salmonella outbreak isolates. NK2A and NK2B strongly inhibited MDR Salmonella growth while NK1 and NK2C showed minimum-to-no growth inhibition. Scrambled-NK2A, which is devoid of α-helicity but has the same net positive charge as NK2A, also failed to inhibit bacterial growth. Incubation of negatively charged MDR Salmonella with NK2A showed increased Zeta potential, indicating bacterial-peptide electrostatic attraction. Confocal and transmission electron microscopy studies revealed NK2A-mediated damage to MDR Salmonella membranes. LPS inhibited NK2A-mediated growth suppression in a dose-dependent response, suggesting irreversible NK2A-LPS binding. LPS-NK2A binding and bacterial membrane disruption was also confirmed via electron microscopy using gold nanoparticle-NK2A conjugates. Finally, NK2A-loaded polyanhydride nanoparticles showed sustained peptide delivery and anti-bacterial activity. Together, these findings indicate that NK2A α-helicity and positive charge are prerequisites for antimicrobial activity and that MDR Salmonella killing is mediated by direct interaction of NK2A with LPS and the inner membrane, leading to bacterial membrane permeabilization. With further optimization using nano-carriers, NK2A has the potential to become a potent anti-MDR Salmonella agent.

Nanotheranostic agents for neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), affect the ageing population worldwide and while severely impairing the quality of life of millions, they also cause a massive economic burden to countries with progressively ageing populations. Parallel with the search for biomarkers for early detection and prediction, the pursuit for therapeutic approaches has become growingly intensive in recent years. Various prospective therapeutic approaches have been explored with an emphasis on early prevention and protection, including, but not limited to, gene therapy, stem cell therapy, immunotherapy and radiotherapy. Many pharmacological interventions have proved to be promising novel avenues, but successful applications are often hampered by the poor delivery of the therapeutics across the blood-brain-barrier (BBB). To overcome this challenge, nanoparticle (NP)-mediated drug delivery has been considered as a promising option, as NP-based drug delivery systems can be functionalized to target specific cell surface receptors and to achieve controlled and long-term release of therapeutics to the target tissue. The usefulness of NPs for loading and delivering of drugs has been extensively studied in the context of NDDs, and their biological efficacy has been demonstrated in numerous preclinical animal models. Efforts have also been made towards the development of NPs which can be used for targeting the BBB and various cell types in the brain. The main focus of this review is to briefly discuss the advantages of functionalized NPs as promising theranostic agents for the diagnosis and therapy of NDDs. We also summarize the results of diverse studies that specifically investigated the usage of different NPs for the treatment of NDDs, with a specific emphasis on AD and PD, and the associated pathophysiological changes. Finally, we offer perspectives on the existing challenges of using NPs as theranostic agents and possible futuristic approaches to improve them.

Functionalized polyanhydride nanoparticles for improved treatment of mitochondrial dysfunction

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease affecting a large proportion of older adults. Exposure to pesticides like rotenone is a leading cause for PD. To reduce disease progression and prolong life expectancy, it is important to target disease mechanisms that contribute to dopaminergic neuronal atrophy, including mitochondrial dysfunction. Achieving targeted mitochondrial delivery is difficult for many therapeutics by themselves, necessitating higher therapeutic doses that could lead to toxicity. To minimize this adverse effect, targeted nano-carriers such as polyanhydride nanoparticles (NPs) can protect therapeutics from degradation and provide sustained release, enabling fewer administrations and lower therapeutic dose. This work expands upon the use of the polyanhydride NP platform for targeted drug delivery by functionalizing the polymer with a derivative of triphenylphosphonium called (3-carboxypropyl) triphenylphosphonium (CPTP) using a novel method that enables longer CPTP persistence on the NPs. The extent to which neurons internalized both nonfunctionalized and functionalized NPs was tested. Next, the efficacy of these nanoformulations in treating rotenone-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in the same cell line was evaluated using a novel neuroprotective drug, mito-metformin. CPTP functionalization significantly improved NP internalization by neuronal cells. This was correlated with significant protection by CPTP-functionalized, mito-metformin encapsulated NPs against rotenone-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. However, nonfunctionalized, mito-metformin encapsulated NPs and soluble mito-metformin administered at the same dose did not significantly protect cells from rotenone-induced toxicity. These results indicate that the targeted NP platform can provide enhanced dose-sparing and potentially reduce the occurrence of systemic side-effects for PD therapeutics.

Nanobased Platforms for Diagnosis and Treatment of COVID-19: From Benchtop to Bedside

Human respiratory viral infections are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality around the world. Among the various respiratory viruses, coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-CoV-2) have created the greatest challenge and most frightening health threat worldwide. Human coronaviruses typically infect the upper respiratory tract, causing illnesses that range from common cold-like symptoms to severe acute respiratory infections. Several promising vaccine formulations have become available since the beginning of 2021. Nevertheless, achievement of herd immunity is still far from being realized. Social distancing remains the only effective measure against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nanobiotechnology enables the design of nanobiosensors. These nanomedical diagnostic devices have opened new vistas for early detection of viral infections. The present review outlines recent research on the effectiveness of nanoplatforms as diagnostic and antiviral tools against coronaviruses. The biological properties of coronavirus and infected host organs are discussed. The challenges and limitations encountered in combating SARS-CoV-2 are highlighted. Potential nanodevices such as nanosensors, nanobased vaccines, and smart nanomedicines are subsequently presented for combating current and future mutated versions of coronaviruses.

Pharmacology of apocynin: a natural acetophenone

Apocynin is a naturally occurring acetophenone, found in the roots of Apocynum cannabinum and Picrorhiza kurroa. Various chemical and pharmaceutical modifications have been carried out to enhance the absorption and duration of action of apocynin, like, formulation of chitosan-based apocynin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles, chitosan-oligosaccharide based nanoparticles, and biodegradable polyanhydride nanoparticles. Apocynin has been subjected to a wide range of experimental screening and has proved to be useful for amelioration of a variety of disorders, like diabetic complications, neurodegeneration, cardiovascular disorders, lung cancer, hepatocellular cancer, pancreatic cancer, and pheochromocytoma. Apocynin has been primarily reported as an NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitor and prevents translocation of its p47^phox subunit to the plasma membrane, observed in neurodegeneration and hypertension. However, recent studies highlight its off-target effects that it is able to function as a scavenger of non-radical oxidant species, which is relevant for its activity against NOX 4 mediated production of hydrogen peroxide. Additionally, apocynin has shown inhibition of eNOS-dependent superoxide production in diabetic cardiomyopathy, reduction of NLRP3 activation and TGFβ/Smad signaling in diabetic nephropathy, diminished VEGF expression and decreased retinal NF-κB activation in diabetic retinopathy, inhibition of P38/MAPK/Caspase3 pathway in pheochromocytoma, inhibition of AKT-GSK3β and ERK1/2 pathways in pancreatic cancer, and decreased FAK/PI3K/Akt signaling in hepatocellular cancer. This review aims to discuss the pharmacokinetics and mechanisms of the pharmacological actions of apocynin.

Best served small: nano battles in the war against wound biofilm infections

The global challenge of antimicrobial resistance is of increasing concern, and alternatives to currently used antibiotics or methods to improve their stewardship are sought worldwide. Microbial biofilms, complex 3D communities of bacteria and/or fungi, are difficult to treat with antibiotics for several reasons. These include their protective coats of extracellular matrix proteins which are difficult for antibiotics to penetrate. Nanoparticles (NP) are one way to rise to this challenge; whilst they exist in many forms naturally there has been a profusion in synthesis of these small (<100 nm) particles for biomedical applications. Their small size allows them to penetrate the biofilm matrix, and as well as some NP being inherently antimicrobial, they also can be modified by doping with antimicrobial payloads or coated to increase their effectiveness. This mini-review examines the current role of NP in treating wound biofilms and the rise in multifunctionality of NP.

Root System Architecture, Copper Uptake and Tissue Distribution in Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Grown in Copper Oxide Nanoparticle (CuONP)-Amended Soil and Implications for Human Nutrition

Understanding the potential uptake and biodistribution of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in soil-grown plants is imperative for realistic toxicity and risk assessment considering the oral intake of edibles by humans. Herein, growing N-fixing symbiont (Bradyrhizobium japonicum) inoculated soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) for a full lifecycle of 120 days, we assessed the potential influence of particle size (25, 50, and 250 nm) and concentration (0, 50, 100, 200, and 500 mg/kg soil) of Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) on: (1) root system architecture, (2) soil physicochemical attributes at the soil-root interface, and (3) Cu transport and accumulation in root, stem, leaf, and seed in soybean, and compared them with the soluble Cu2+ ions and water-only controls. Finally, we performed a comparative assessment of total seed Cu levels in soybean with other valuable food sources for Cu intake and discussed potential human health implications. Results showed particle size- and concentration-dependent influence of CuONPs on Cu uptake and distribution in root, stem, leaf, and seed. Alterations in root architecture (root biomass, length, volume, and area) were dependent on the Cu compound types, Cu concentrations, and their interactions. Concentration-response relationships for all three sizes of CuONPs and Cu2+ ions were found to be linear. Furthermore, CuONPs and Cu2+ ions had inhibitory effects on root growth and development. Overall, soybean responses to the smallest size of CuONPs-25 nm-were greater for all parameters tested compared to the two larger-sized CuONPs (50 nm, 250 nm) or Cu2+ ions. Results suggest that minor changes in soil-root physicochemical attributes may not be a major driver for Cu uptake in soybean. Cu bioaccumulation followed the order: root > leaf > stem > seed. Despite reduction in root architecture and seed yield, the smallest size CuONPs-25 nm led to increased total seed Cu uptake compared to the larger-sized CuONPs or Cu2+ ions. Our findings also suggest that soil amendment with CuONPs, and more so with the smallest size of CuONPs-25 nm-could significantly improve seed nutritional Cu value in soybean as reflected by the % Daily Values (DV) and are rated "Good" to "Very Good" according to the "World's Healthiest Foods" rating. However, until the potential toxicity and risk from CuONP-fortified soybean seed ingestion is characterized in humans, we caution recommending such seeds for daily human consumption when addressing food Cu-deficiency and associated diseases, globally.

Biodistribution of degradable polyanhydride particles in Aedes aegypti tissues

Insecticide resistance poses a significant threat to the control of arthropods that transmit disease agents. Nanoparticle carriers offer exciting opportunities to expand the armamentarium of insecticides available for public health and other pests. Most chemical insecticides are delivered by contact or feeding, and from there must penetrate various biological membranes to reach target organs and kill the pest organism. Nanoparticles have been shown to improve bioactive compound navigation of such barriers in vertebrates, but have not been well-explored in arthropods. In this study, we explored the potential of polyanhydride micro- and nanoparticles (250 nm- 3 μm), labeled with rhodamine B to associate with and/or transit across insect biological barriers, including the cuticle, epithelium, midgut and ovaries, in female Ae. aeygpti mosquitoes. Mosquitoes were exposed using conditions to mimic surface contact with a residual spray or paint, topical exposure to mimic contact with aerosolized insecticide, or per os in a sugar meal. In surface contact experiments, microparticles were sometimes observed in association with the exterior of the insect cuticle. Nanoparticles were more uniformly distributed across exterior tissues and present at higher concentrations. Furthermore, by surface contact, topical exposure, or per os, particles were detected in internal organs. In every experiment, amphiphilic polyanhydride nanoparticles associated with internal tissues to a higher degree than hydrophobic nanoparticles. In vitro, nanoparticles associated with Aedes aegypti Aag2 cells within two hours of exposure, and particles were evident in the cytoplasm. Further studies demonstrated that particle uptake is dependent on caveolae-mediated endocytosis. The propensity of these nanoparticles to cross biological barriers including the cuticle, to localize in target tissue sites of interest, and to reach the cytoplasm of cells, provides great promise for targeted delivery of insecticidal candidates that cannot otherwise reach these cellular and subcellular locations.

Nanomaterials Designed for Antiviral Drug Delivery Transport across Biological Barriers

Viral infections are a major global health problem, representing a significant cause of mortality with an unfavorable continuously amplified socio-economic impact. The increased drug resistance and constant viral replication have been the trigger for important studies regarding the use of nanotechnology in antiviral therapies. Nanomaterials offer unique physico-chemical properties that have linked benefits for drug delivery as ideal tools for viral treatment. Currently, different types of nanomaterials namely nanoparticles, liposomes, nanospheres, nanogels, nanosuspensions and nanoemulsions were studied either in vitro or in vivo for drug delivery of antiviral agents with prospects to be translated in clinical practice. This review highlights the drug delivery nanosystems incorporating the major antiviral classes and their transport across specific barriers at cellular and intracellular level. Important reflections on nanomedicines currently approved or undergoing investigations for the treatment of viral infections are also discussed. Finally, the authors present an overview on the requirements for the design of antiviral nanotherapeutics.

Multifunctional nano-enabled delivery systems in Alzheimer's disease management

This review discusses the recent advances in multifunctional nano-enabled delivery systems (NDS) for Alzheimer's disease management, including multitherapeutics, multimodal imaging-guided diagnostics, and theranostics.

110th Anniversary: Nanoparticle mediated drug delivery for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: Crossing the blood-brain barrier

Alzheimer's disease is an irreversible neurodegenerative disorder affecting approximately 6 million Americans, 90% of which are over the age of 65. The hallmarks of the disease are represented by amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. While the neuronal characteristics of Alzheimer's disease are well known, current treatments only provide temporary relief of the disease symptoms. Many of the approved therapeutic agents for the management of cognitive impairments associated with the disease are based on neurotransmitter or enzyme modulation. However, development of new treatment strategies is limited due to failures associated with poor drug solubility, low bioavailability, and the inability to overcome obstacles present along the drug delivery route. In addition, treatment technologies must overcome the challenges presented by the blood-brain barrier. This complex and highly regulated barrier surveys the biochemical, physicochemical, and structural features of nearby molecules at the periphery, only permitting passage of select molecules into the brain. To increase drug efficacy to the brain, many nanotechnology-based platforms have been developed. These methods for assisted drug delivery employ sophisticated design strategies and offer serveral advantages over traditional methods. For example, nanoparticles are generally low-cost technologies, which can be used for non-invasive administrations, and formulations are highly tunable to increase drug loading, targeting, and release efficacy. These nanoscale systems can facilitate passage of drugs through the blood-brain barrier, thus improving the bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of therapeutic agents. Examples of such nanocarriers which are discussed herein include polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and lipid-based nanoparticles.

A journey through the emergence of nanomedicines with poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) based nanoparticles

Starting in the late 1970s, the pioneering work of Patrick Couvreur gave birth to the first biodegradable nanoparticles composed of a biodegradable synthetic polymer. These nanoparticles, made of poly(alkylcyanoacrylate) (PACA), were the first synthetic polymer-based nanoparticulate drug carriers undergoing a phase III clinical trial so far. Analyzing the journey from the birth of PACA nanoparticles to their clinical evaluation, this paper highlights their remarkable adaptability to bypass various drug delivery challenges found on the way. At present, PACA nanoparticles include a wide range of nanoparticles that can associate drugs of different chemical nature and can be administered in vivo by different routes. The most recent technologies giving the nanoparticles customised functions could also be implemented on this family of nanoparticles. Through different examples, this paper discusses the seminal role of the PACA nanoparticles' family in the development of nanomedicines.

In vitro Pharmacokinetic Cell Culture System that Simulates Physiologic Drug and Nanoparticle Exposure to Macrophages

PURPOSE

An in vitro dynamic pharmacokinetic (PK) cell culture system was developed to more precisely simulate physiologic nanoparticle/drug exposure.

METHODS

A dynamic PK cell culture system was developed to more closely reflect physiologic nanoparticle/drug concentrations that are changing with time. Macrophages were cultured in standard static and PK cell culture systems with rifampin (RIF; 5 μg/ml) or β-glucan, chitosan coated, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (GLU-CS-PLGA) nanoparticles (RIF equivalent 5 μg/ml) for 6 h. Intracellular RIF concentrations were measured by UPLC/MS. Antimicrobial activity against M. smegmatis was tested in both PK and static systems.

RESULTS

The dynamic PK cell culture system mimics a one-compartment elimination pharmacokinetic profile to properly mimic in vivo extracellular exposure. GLU-CS-PLGA nanoparticles increased intracellular RIF concentration by 37% compared to free drug in the dynamic cell culture system. GLU-CS-PLGA nanoparticles decreased M. smegmatis colony forming units compared to free drug in the dynamic cell culture system.

CONCLUSIONS

The PK cell culture system developed herein enables more precise simulation of human PK exposure (i.e., drug dosing and drug elimination curves) based on previously obtained PK parameters.

Nanoparticle-based diagnostic and therapeutic systems for brain tumors

Many theranostic nanoparticles have been tailored for high-efficiency diagnostic or therapeutic agents or applied as carriers and might provide new possibilities for brain tumor diagnosis and treatment.

Biodegradable polyanhydride-based nanomedicines for blood to brain drug delivery

An urgent need to deliver therapeutics across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) underlies a paucity of effective therapies currently available for treatment of degenerative, infectious, traumatic, chemical, and metabolic disorders of the nervous system. With an eye toward achieving this goal, an in vitro BBB model was employed to simulate biodegradable polyanhydride nanoparticle-based drug delivery to the brain. Using a combination of confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and high performance liquid chromatography, we examined the potential of polyanhydride nanoparticles containing the anti-oxidant, mito-apocynin, to be internalized and then transferred from monocytes to human brain microvascular endothelial cells. The efficacy of this nanoparticle-based delivery platform was demonstrated by neuronal protection against oxidative stress. Taken together, this polyanhydride nanoparticle-based delivery system holds promise for enhancing neuroprotection by facilitating drug transport across the BBB. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 106A: 2881-2890, 2018.

Treatment of neurodegenerative disorders through the blood-brain barrier using nanocarriers

Neurodegenerative diseases refer to disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) that are caused by neuronal degradations, dysfunctions, or death. Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease (APHD) are regarded as the three major neurodegenerative diseases. There is a vast body of literature on the causes and treatments of these neurodegenerative diseases. However, the main obstacle in developing an effective treatment strategy is the permeability of the treatment components at the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Several strategies have been developed to improve this obstruction. For example, nanomaterials facilitate drug delivery to the BBB due to their size. They have been used widely in nanomedicine and as nanoprobes for diagnosis purposes among others in neuroscience. Nanomaterials in different forms, such as nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), and liposomes, have been used to treat neurodegenerative diseases. This review will cover the basic concepts and applications of nanomaterials in the therapy of APHD.

Efficacy of RNA interference knockdown using aerosolized short interfering RNAs bound to nanoparticles in three diverse aphid species

RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a promising method for validating gene function; however, its utility in nonmodel insects has proven problematic, with delivery methods being one of the main obstacles. This study investigates a novel method of RNAi delivery in aphids, the aerosolization of short interfering RNA (siRNA)-nanoparticle complexes. By using nanoparticles as a siRNA carrier, the likelihood of cellular uptake is increased, when compared to methods previously used in insects. To determine the efficacy of this RNAi delivery system, siRNAs were aerosolized with and without nanoparticles in three aphid species: Acyrthosiphon pisum, Aphis glycines and Schizaphis graminum. The genes targeted for knockdown were carotene dehydrogenase (tor), which is important for pigmentation in Ac. pisum, and branched chain-amino acid transaminase (bcat), which is essential in the metabolism of branched-chain amino acids in all three aphid species. Overall, we observed modest gene knockdown of tor in Ac. pisum and moderate gene knockdown of bcat in Ap. glycines along with its associated phenotype. We also determined that the nanoparticle emulsion significantly increased the efficacy of gene knockdown. Overall, these results suggest that the aerosolized siRNA-nanoparticle delivery method is a promising new high-throughput and non-invasive RNAi delivery method in some aphid species.

Mathematical Modeling and Experimental Validation of Nanoemulsion-Based Drug Transport across Cellular Barriers

PURPOSE

Nanoemulsions have shown potential in delivering drug across epithelial and endothelial cell barriers, which express efflux transporters. However, their transport mechanisms are not entirely understood. Our goal was to investigate the cellular permeability of nanoemulsion-encapsulated drugs and apply mathematical modeling to elucidate transport mechanisms and sensitive nanoemulsion attributes.

METHODS

Transport studies were performed in Caco-2 cells, using fish oil nanoemulsions and a model substrate, rhodamine-123. Permeability data was modeled using a semi-mechanistic approach, capturing the following cellular processes: endocytotic uptake of the nanoemulsion, release of rhodamine-123 from the nanoemulsion, efflux and passive permeability of rhodamine-123 in aqueous solution.

RESULTS

Nanoemulsions not only improved the permeability of rhodamine-123, but were also less sensitive to efflux transporters. The model captured bidirectional permeability results and identified sensitive processes, such as the release of the nanoemulsion-encapsulated drug and cellular uptake of the nanoemulsion.

CONCLUSIONS

Mathematical description of cellular processes, improved our understanding of transport mechanisms, such as nanoemulsions don't inhibit efflux to improve drug permeability. Instead, their endocytotic uptake, results in higher intracellular drug concentrations, thereby increasing the concentration gradient and transcellular permeability across biological barriers. Modeling results indicated optimizing nanoemulsion attributes like the droplet size and intracellular drug release rate, may further improve drug permeability.

Imaging the pharmacology of nanomaterials by intravital microscopy: Toward understanding their biological behavior

Therapeutic nanoparticles (NPs) can deliver cytotoxic chemotherapeutics and other drugs more safely and efficiently to patients; furthermore, selective delivery to target tissues can theoretically be accomplished actively through coating NPs with molecular ligands, and passively through exploiting physiological "enhanced permeability and retention" features. However, clinical trial results have been mixed in showing improved efficacy with drug nanoencapsulation, largely due to heterogeneous NP accumulation at target sites across patients. Thus, a clear need exists to better understand why many NP strategies fail in vivo and not result in significantly improved tumor uptake or therapeutic response. Multicolor in vivo confocal fluorescence imaging (intravital microscopy; IVM) enables integrated pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) measurement at the single-cell level, and has helped answer key questions regarding the biological mechanisms of in vivo NP behavior. This review summarizes progress to date and also describes useful technical strategies for successful IVM experimentation.

Analytical ultracentrifugation for analysis of doxorubicin loaded liposomes

Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) is a powerful tool for the study of particle size distributions and interactions with high accuracy and resolution. In this work, we show how the analysis of sedimentation velocity data from the AUC can be used to characterize nanocarrier drug delivery systems used in nanomedicine. Nanocarrier size distribution and the ratio of free versus nanoparticle-encapsulated drug in a commercially available liposomal doxorubicin formulation are determined using interference and absorbance based AUC measurements and compared with results generated with conventional techniques. Additionally, the potential of AUC in measuring particle density and the detection of nanocarrier sub-populations is discussed as well. The unique capability of AUC in providing reliable data for size and composition in a single measurement and without complex sample preparation makes this characterization technique a promising tool both in nanomedicine product development and quality control.

Neuronal protection against oxidative insult by polyanhydride nanoparticle-based mitochondria-targeted antioxidant therapy

A progressive loss of neuronal structure and function is a signature of many neurodegenerative conditions including chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Parkinson's, Huntington's and Alzheimer's diseases. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative and nitrative stress have been implicated as key pathological mechanisms underlying the neurodegenerative processes. However, current therapeutic approaches targeting oxidative damage are ineffective in preventing the progression of neurodegeneration. Mitochondria-targeted antioxidants were recently shown to alleviate oxidative damage. In this work, we investigated the delivery of biodegradable polyanhydride nanoparticles containing the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant apocynin to neuronal cells and the ability of the nano-formulation to protect cells against oxidative stress. The nano-formulated mitochondria-targeted apocynin provided excellent protection against oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal damage in a dopaminergic neuronal cell line, mouse primary cortical neurons, and a human mesencephalic cell line. Collectively, our results demonstrate that nano-formulated mitochondria-targeted apocynin may offer improved efficacy of mitochondria-targeted antioxidants to treat neurodegenerative disease.

Macrophage Targeted Nanoparticles for Antiretroviral (ARV) Delivery

OBJECTIVE

To reduce the amount of the antiretroviral (ARV) nevirapine necessary to achieve therapeutic concentrations using macrophage targeted nanoparticles.

METHODS

Core-shell nanoparticles were prepared from FDA approved, biodegradable and biocompatible polymers, with poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) as the core and chitosan (CS) as the shell using a water/oil/water method. Nevirapine was encapsulated in the core of the nanoparticles. β-glucan (GLU) was adsorbed to the surface of the nanoparticle. Macrophage uptake and intracellular nevirapine concentrations were determined by fluorescence imaging and ultra-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (UPLC-MS). Optical imaging was employed to characterize the biodistribution of nanoparticles following intravenous injection in CD-1 mice.

RESULTS

We synthesized spherical shaped 190 nm GLU-CS-PLGA nanoparticles that provide controlled release of nevirapine. In THP-1 macrophage the uptake of PLGA and CS- PLGA nanoparticles was less compared to targeted GLU-CS-PLGA nanoparticles. THP-1 macrophage were dosed with free nevirapine (10 μg/well) and GLU-CS- PLGA nanoparticles containing 1/10 the concentration of free nevirapine (1 μg nevirapine/well). The intracellular concentration of nevirapine was the same for both nanoparticles and free nevirapine at 2 and 24 hrs. No significant change in THP-1 macrophage viability was observed in the presence of nanoparticles relative to the control. Ex vivo imaging demonstrates that nanoparticles are predominantly found in the liver and kidney and at 24 hr there is still a large amount of nanoparticles in the body.

CONCLUSION

These data demonstrate that the total dose of nevirapine delivered by GLU-CS-PLGA nanoparticles can be greatly reduced, to limit side effects, while still providing maximal ARV activity in a known cellular reservoir.