Application of carbon nanotubes in cancer vaccines: Achievements, challenges and chances

Studying the Role of Novel Carbon Nano Tubes as a Therapeutic Agent to Treat Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) - an In Vitro and In Vivo Study

Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) is a malignant cancer with a very high mortality rate around the world. African American(AA) women are 28% more likely to die from triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) than white women with the same diagnosis. AA patients are also more likely to be diagnosed at a later stage of the disease and have the lowest survival rates for any stage of diagnosis; There are very few existing anti TNBC drugs with therapeutic efficacy hence newer anti TNBC drug design and investigation is needed. Carbon Nano Tubes(CNT) in recent years have shown effective anti-cancer properties in various types of cancers as reported in peer reviewed journals. Henceforth, we did an investigation to study the anticancer properties of a novel CNT in both in vitro and in vivo models of TNBC. We tested the CNT drug in vitro cytotoxicity studies on TNBC model MDA-MB-231 VIM RFP cell lines and Spheroid forming assays on the same cancer cells; we also did an in vivo study on TNBC model mice to study the therapeutic efficacy of this CNT drug in reducing the tumor load. Our initial studies showed increased cell death and reduction in spheroid numbers in the CNT treated cancer cells in comparison to control and a significant reduction in the tumor volume in the TNBC model mice than in untreated animals. Thus our initial studies have shown significant therapeutic efficacy of the novel CNT as an anti TNBC agent. Additional mechanistic studies need to be done to find out the cell death mechanisms, core canonical pathways involved, pharmacokinetic studies before translational research for this novel nanoparticle as a therapeutic agent from bench to bedside.

Nanoengineering-armed oncolytic viruses drive antitumor response: progress and challenges

Oncolytic viruses (OVs) have emerged as a powerful tool in cancer therapy. Characterized with the unique abilities to selectively target and lyse tumor cells, OVs can expedite the induction of cell death, thereby facilitating effective tumor eradication. Nanoengineering-derived OVs overcome traditional OV therapy limitations by enhancing the stability of viral circulation, and tumor targeting, promising improved clinical safety and efficacy and so on. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the multifaceted mechanisms through which engineered OVs can suppress tumor progression. It initiates with a concise delineation on the fundamental attributes of existing OVs, followed by the exploration of their mechanisms of the antitumor response. Amid rapid advancements in nanomedicine, this review presents an extensive overview of the latest developments in the synergy between nanomaterials, nanotechnologies, and OVs, highlighting the unique characteristics and properties of the nanomaterials employed and their potential to spur innovation in novel virus design. Additionally, it delves into the current challenges in this emerging field and proposes strategies to overcome these obstacles, aiming to spur innovation in the design and application of next-generation OVs.

Synergistic Enhancement of Carboplatin Efficacy through pH-Sensitive Nanoparticles Formulated Using Naturally Derived Boswellia Extract for Colorectal Cancer Therapy

Carboplatin (Cp) is a potent chemotherapeutic agent, but its effectiveness is constrained by its associated side effects. Frankincense, an oleo-gum resin from the Boswellia sacra tree, has demonstrated cytotoxic activity against cancer cells. This study explored the synergistic potential of nanoparticles formulated from Boswellia sacra methanolic extract (BME), to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of Cp at reduced doses. Nanoparticles were prepared via the nanoprecipitation method, loaded with Cp, and coated with positively charged chitosan (CS) for enhanced cell interaction, yielding Cp@CS/BME NPs with an average size of 160.2 ± 4.6 nm and a zeta potential of 12.7 ± 1.5 mV. In vitro release studies revealed a pH-sensitive release profile, with higher release rates at pH 5.4 than at pH 7.4, highlighting the potential for targeted drug delivery in acidic tumor environments. In vitro studies on HT-29 and Caco-2 colorectal cancer cell lines demonstrated the nanoformulation's ability to significantly increase Cp uptake and cytotoxic activity. Apoptosis assays further confirmed increased induction of cell death with Cp@CS/BME NPs. Cell-cycle analysis revealed that treatment with Cp@CS/BME NPs led to a significant increase in the sub-G1 phase, indicative of enhanced apoptosis, and a marked decrease in the G1-phase population coupled with an increased G2/M-phase arrest in both cell lines. Further gene expression analysis demonstrated a substantial downregulation of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2 and an upregulation of the pro-apoptotic genes Bax, PUMA, and BID following treatment with Cp@CS/BME NPs. Thus, this study presents a promising and innovative strategy for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents using naturally derived ingredients while limiting the side effects.

Regulatory insights into nanomedicine and gene vaccine innovation: Safety assessment, challenges, and regulatory perspectives

This analysis explores the principal regulatory concerns linked to nanomedicines and gene vaccines, including the complexities involved and the perspectives on how to navigate them. In the realm of nanomedicines, ensuring the safety of nanomaterials is paramount due to their unique characteristics and potential interactions with biological systems. Regulatory bodies are actively formulating guidelines and standards to assess the safety and risks associated with nanomedicine products, emphasizing the need for standardized characterization techniques to accurately gauge their safety and effectiveness. Regarding gene vaccines, regulatory frameworks must be tailored to address the distinct challenges posed by genetic interventions, necessitating special considerations in safety and efficacy evaluations, particularly concerning vector design, target specificity, and long-term patient monitoring. Ethical concerns such as patient autonomy, informed consent, and privacy also demand careful attention, alongside the intricate matter of intellectual property rights, which must be balanced against the imperative of ensuring widespread access to these life-saving treatments. Collaborative efforts among regulatory bodies, researchers, patent offices, and the private sector are essential to tackle these challenges effectively, with international cooperation being especially crucial given the global scope of nanomedicine and genetic vaccine development. Striking the right balance between safeguarding intellectual properties and promoting public health is vital for fostering innovation and ensuring equitable access to these ground-breaking technologies, underscoring the significance of addressing these regulatory hurdles to fully harness the potential benefits of nanomedicine and gene vaccines for enhancing healthcare outcomes on a global scale. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Several biomaterials are being proposed for the development of nanovaccines, from polymeric micelles, PLGA-/PEI-/PLL-nanoparticles, solid lipid nananoparticles, cationic lipoplexes, liposomes, hybrid materials, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, hydrogels, to quantum dots. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have gained tremendous attention since the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of Pfizer and Moderna's COVID-19 vaccines, raising public awareness to the regulatory challenges associated with nanomedicines and genetic vaccines. This review provides insights into the current perspectives and potential strategies for addressing these issues, including clinical trials. By navigating these regulatory landscapes effectively, we can unlock the full potential of nanomedicine and genetic vaccines using a range of promising biomaterials towards improving healthcare outcomes worldwide.

Advances in the variations and biomedical applications of stimuli-responsive nanodrug delivery systems

Chemotherapy is an important cancer treatment modality, but the clinical utility of chemotherapeutics is limited by their toxic side effects, inadequate distribution and insufficient intracellular concentrations. Nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) have shown significant advantages in cancer diagnosis and treatment. Variable NDDSs that respond to endogenous and exogenous triggers have attracted much research interest. Here, we summarized nanomaterials commonly used for tumor therapy, such as peptides, liposomes, and carbon nanotubes, as well as the responses of NDDSs to pH, enzymes, magnetic fields, light, and multiple stimuli. Specifically, well-designed NDDSs can change in size or morphology or rupture when induced by one or more stimuli. The varying responses of NDDSs to stimulation contribute to the molecular design and development of novel NDDSs, providing new ideas for improving drug penetration and accumulation, inhibiting tumor resistance and metastasis, and enhancing immunotherapy.

DNA nanostructures as biomolecular scaffolds for antigen display

Nanoparticle-based vaccines offer a multivalent approach for antigen display, efficiently activating T and B cells in the lymph nodes. Among various nanoparticle design strategies, DNA nanotechnology offers an innovative alternative platform, featuring high modularity, spatial addressing, nanoscale regulation, high functional group density, and lower self-antigenicity. This review delves into the potential of DNA nanostructures as biomolecular scaffolds for antigen display, addressing: (1) immunological mechanisms behind nanovaccines and commonly used nanoparticles in their design, (2) techniques for characterizing protein NP-antigen complexes, (3) advancements in DNA nanotechnology and DNA-protein assembly approach, (4) strategies for precise antigen presentation on DNA scaffolds, and (5) current applications and future possibilities of DNA scaffolds in antigen display. This analysis aims to highlight the transformative potential of DNA nanoscaffolds in immunology and vaccinology. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Nucleic Acid-Based Structures Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.

Nanotube breakthroughs: unveiling the potential of carbon nanotubes as a dual therapeutic arsenal for Alzheimer's disease and brain tumors

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and brain tumors are debilitating neurological conditions that pose significant challenges in current medical practices. Existing treatment options for AD primarily focus on symptom management, and brain tumors often require aggressive therapeutic approaches. Novel disease-modifying strategies and therapeutic agents are urgently needed to address the underlying causes of AD pathogenesis and improve brain tumor management. In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown promise as valuable tools in diagnosing and managing various brain disorders, including AD. Among these, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have garnered attention for their unique properties and biomedical potential. Their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) with ease opens up new possibilities for targeted drug delivery and neuroprotection. This literature review aims to explore the versatile nature of CNTs, which can be functionalized with various biomolecules or substances due to their sp2 hybridization. This adaptability enables them to specifically target cells and deliver medications under specific environmental conditions. Moreover, CNTs possess an exceptional capacity to penetrate cell membranes, making them valuable tools in the treatment of AD and brain tumors. By delving into the role of CNTs in biomedicine, this review sheds light on their potential in managing AD, offering a glimpse of hope for effective disease-modifying options. Understanding the mechanisms of CNTs' action and their capabilities in targeting and delivering medication to affected cells will pave the way for innovative therapeutic strategies that can improve the lives of those afflicted with these devastating neurological conditions. The exploration of CNTs as a dual therapeutic arsenal for both brain tumors and Alzheimer's disease holds great promise and may usher in a new era of effective treatment strategies for these challenging conditions.

Nanovaccine-based strategies for lymph node targeted delivery and imaging in tumor immunotherapy

Therapeutic tumor vaccines have attracted considerable attention in the past decade; they can induce tumor regression, eradicate minimal residual disease, establish lasting immune memory and avoid non-specific and adverse side effects. However, the challenge in the field of therapeutic tumor vaccines is ensuring the delivery of immune components to the lymph nodes (LNs) to activate immune cells. The clinical response rate of traditional therapeutic tumor vaccines falls short of expectations due to inadequate lymph node delivery. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, a large number of nanoplatform-based LN-targeting nanovaccines have been exploited for optimizing tumor immunotherapies. In addition, some nanovaccines possess non-invasive visualization performance, which is benefit for understanding the kinetics of nanovaccine exposure in LNs. Herein, we present the parameters of nanoplatforms, such as size, surface modification, shape, and deformability, which affect the LN-targeting functions of nanovaccines. The recent advances in nanoplatforms with different components promoting LN-targeting are also summarized. Furthermore, emerging LNs-targeting nanoplatform-mediated imaging strategies to both improve targeting performance and enhance the quality of LN imaging are discussed. Finally, we summarize the prospects and challenges of nanoplatform-based LN-targeting and /or imaging strategies, which optimize the clinical efficacy of nanovaccines in tumor immunotherapies.

A Recent Review on Cancer Nanomedicine

Cancer is one of the most prevalent diseases globally and is the second major cause of death in the United States. Despite the continuous efforts to understand tumor mechanisms and various approaches taken for treatment over decades, no significant improvements have been observed in cancer therapy. Lack of tumor specificity, dose-related toxicity, low bioavailability, and lack of stability of chemotherapeutics are major hindrances to cancer treatment. Nanomedicine has drawn the attention of many researchers due to its potential for tumor-specific delivery while minimizing unwanted side effects. The application of these nanoparticles is not limited to just therapeutic uses; some of them have shown to have extremely promising diagnostic potential. In this review, we describe and compare various types of nanoparticles and their role in advancing cancer treatment. We further highlight various nanoformulations currently approved for cancer therapy as well as under different phases of clinical trials. Finally, we discuss the prospect of nanomedicine in cancer management.

Biomaterial-based platforms for modulating immune components against cancer and cancer stem cells

Immunotherapy involves the therapeutic alteration of the patient's immune system to identify, target, and eliminate cancer cells. Dendritic cells, macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and regulatory T cells make up the tumor microenvironment. In cancer, these immune components (in association with some non-immune cell populations like cancer-associated fibroblasts) are directly altered at a cellular level. By dominating immune cells with molecular cross-talk, cancer cells can proliferate unchecked. Current clinical immunotherapy strategies are limited to conventional adoptive cell therapy or immune checkpoint blockade. Targeting and modulating key immune components presents an effective opportunity. Immunostimulatory drugs are a research hotspot, but their poor pharmacokinetics, low tumor accumulation, and non-specific systemic toxicity limit their use. This review describes the cutting-edge research undertaken in the field of nanotechnology and material science to develop biomaterials-based platforms as effective immunotherapeutics. Various biomaterial types (polymer-based, lipid-based, carbon-based, cell-derived, etc.) and functionalization methodologies for modulating tumor-associated immune/non-immune cells are explored. Additionally, emphasis has been laid on discussing how these platforms can be used against cancer stem cells, a fundamental contributor to chemoresistance, tumor relapse/metastasis, and failure of immunotherapy. Overall, this comprehensive review strives to provide up-to-date information to an audience working at the juncture of biomaterials and cancer immunotherapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Cancer immunotherapy possesses incredible potential and has successfully transitioned into a clinically lucrative alternative to conventional anti-cancer therapies. With new immunotherapeutics getting rapid clinical approval, fundamental problems associated with the dynamic nature of the immune system (like limited clinical response rates and autoimmunity-related adverse effects) have remained unanswered. In this context, treatment approaches that focus on modulating the compromised immune components within the tumor microenvironment have garnered significant attention amongst the scientific community. This review aims to provide a critical discussion on how various biomaterials (polymer-based, lipid-based, carbon-based, cell-derived, etc.) can be employed along with immunostimulatory agents to design innovative platforms for selective immunotherapy directed against cancer and cancer stem cells.

Vaccine-like nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy

The successful clinical application of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) therapeutics has attracted extensive attention to immunotherapy, however, their drawbacks such as limited specificity, persistence and toxicity haven't met the high expectations on efficient cancer treatments. Therapeutic cancer vaccines which instruct the immune system to capture tumor specific antigens, generate long-term immune memory and specifically eliminate cancer cells gradually become the most promising strategies to eradicate tumor. However, the disadvantages of some existing vaccines such as weak immunogenicity and in vivo instability have restricted their development. Nanotechnology has been recently incorporated into vaccine fabrication and exhibited promising results for cancer immunotherapy. Nanoparticles promote the stability of vaccines, as well as enhance antigen recognition and presentation owing to their nanometer size which promotes internalization of antigens by phagocytic cells. The surface modification with targeting units further permits the delivery of vaccines to specific cells. Meanwhile, nanocarriers with adjuvant effect can improve the efficacy of vaccines. In addition to classic vaccines composed of antigens and adjuvants, the nanoparticle-mediated chemotherapy, radiotherapy and certain other therapeutics could induce the release of tumor antigens in situ, which therefore effectively simulate antitumor immune responses. Such vaccine-like nanomedicine not only kills primary tumors, but also prevents tumor recurrence and helps eliminate metastatic tumors. Herein, we introduce recent developments in nanoparticle-based delivery systems for antigen delivery and in situ antitumor vaccination. We will also discuss the remaining opportunities and challenges of nanovaccine in clinical translation towards cancer treatment.

Nanosized drug delivery strategies in osteosarcoma chemotherapy

Despite recent developments worldwide in the therapeutic care of osteosarcoma (OS), the ongoing challenges in overcoming limitations and side effects of chemotherapy drugs warrant new strategies to improve overall patient survival. Spurred by rapid progress in biomedicine, nanobiotechnology, and materials chemistry, chemotherapeutic drug delivery in treatment of OS has become possible in recent years. Here, we review recent advances in the design of drug delivery system, especially for chemotherapeutic drugs in OS, and discuss the relative merits in trials along with future therapeutic options. These advances may pave the way for novel therapies requisite for patients with OS.

The Emergence of Carbon Nanomaterials as Effective Nano-Avenues to Fight against COVID-19

COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019), a viral respiratory ailment that was first identified in Wuhan, China, in 2019, and then expanded globally, was caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The severity of the illness necessitated quick action to cease the virus's spread. The best practices to avert the infection include early detection, the use of protective clothing, the consumption of antiviral medicines, and finally the immunization of the patients through vaccination. The family of carbon nanomaterials, which includes graphene, fullerene, carbon nanotube (CNT), and carbon dot (CD), has a great deal of potential to effectively contribute to each of the main trails in the battle against the coronavirus. Consequently, the recent advances in the application of carbon nanomaterials for containing and combating the SARS-CoV-2 virus are discussed herein, along with their associated challenges and futuristic applicability.

Recent applications of immunomodulatory biomaterials for disease immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is used to regulate systemic hyperactivation or hypoactivation to treat various diseases. Biomaterial-based immunotherapy systems can improve therapeutic effects through targeted drug delivery, immunoengineering, etc. However, the immunomodulatory effects of biomaterials themselves cannot be neglected. In this review, we outline biomaterials with immunomodulatory functions discovered in recent years and their applications in disease treatment. These biomaterials can treat inflammation, tumors, or autoimmune diseases by regulating immune cell function, exerting enzyme-like activity, neutralizing cytokines, etc. The prospects and challenges of biomaterial-based modulation of immunotherapy are also discussed.

Modulating the tumor immune microenvironment with nanoparticles: A sword for improving the efficiency of ovarian cancer immunotherapy

With encouraging antitumor effects, immunotherapy represented by immune checkpoint blockade has developed into a mainstream cancer therapeutic modality. However, only a minority of ovarian cancer (OC) patients could benefit from immunotherapy. The main reason is that most OC harbor a suppressive tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). Emerging studies suggest that M2 tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), T regulatory cells (Tregs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are enriched in OC. Thus, reversing the suppressive TIME is considered an ideal candidate for improving the efficiency of immunotherapy. Nanoparticles encapsulating immunoregulatory agents can regulate immunocytes and improve the TIME to boost the antitumor immune response. In addition, some nanoparticle-mediated photodynamic and photothermal therapy can directly kill tumor cells and induce tumor immunogenic cell death to activate antigen-presenting cells and promote T cell infiltration. These advantages make nanoparticles promising candidates for modulating the TIME and improving OC immunotherapy. In this review, we analyzed the composition and function of the TIME in OC and summarized the current clinical progress of OC immunotherapy. Then, we expounded on the promising advances in nanomaterial-mediated immunotherapy for modulating the TIME in OC. Finally, we discussed the obstacles and challenges in the clinical translation of this novel combination treatment regimen. We believe this resourceful strategy will open the door to effective immunotherapy of OC and benefit numerous patients.

Nano toolbox in immune modulation and nanovaccines

Despite the great success of vaccines over two centuries, the conventional strategy is based on attenuated/altered microorganisms. However, this is not effective for all microbes and often fails to elicit a protective immune response, and sometimes poses unexpected safety risks. The expanding nano toolbox may overcome some of the roadblocks in vaccine development given the plethora of unique nanoparticle (NP)-based platforms that can successfully induce specific immune responses leading to exciting and novel solutions. Nanovaccines necessitate a thorough understanding of the immunostimulatory effect of these nanotools. We present a comprehensive description of strategies in which nanotools have been used to elicit an immune response and provide a perspective on how nanotechnology can lead to future personalized nanovaccines.

Lymph node-targeting nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapies such as tumor vaccines, chimeric antigen receptor T cells and immune checkpoint blockades, have attracted tremendous attention. Among them, tumor vaccines prime immune response by delivering antigens and adjuvants to the antigen presenting cells (APCs), thus enhancing antitumor immunotherapy. Despite tumor vaccines have made considerable achievements in tumor immunotherapy, it remains challenging to efficiently deliver tumor vaccines to activate the dendritic cells (DCs) in lymph nodes (LNs). Rational design of nanovaccines on the basis of biomedical nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most promising strategies for boosting the outcomes of cancer immunotherapy. In recent years, great efforts have been made in exploiting various nanocarrier-based LNs-targeting tumor nanovaccines. In view of the rapid advances in this field, we here aim to summarize the latest progression in LNs-targeting nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy, with special attention to various nano-vehicles developed for LNs-targeting delivery of tumor vaccines, including lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanocarriers, inorganic nanocarriers and biomimetic nanosystems. Moreover, the recent trends in nanovaccines-based combination cancer immunotherapy are provided. Finally, the rationality, advantages and challenges of LNs-targeting nanovaccines for clinical translation and application are spotlighted.

Coronavirus and Carbon Nanotubes: Seeking Immunological Relationships to Discover Immunotherapeutic Possibilities

Since December 2019, the world has faced an unprecedented pandemic crisis due to a new coronavirus disease, coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), which has instigated intensive studies on prevention and treatment possibilities. Here, we investigate the relationships between the immune activation induced by three coronaviruses associated with recent outbreaks, with special attention to SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, and the immune activation induced by carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to understand the points of convergence in immune induction and modulation. Evidence suggests that CNTs are among the most promising materials for use as immunotherapeutic agents. Therefore, this investigation explores new possibilities of effective immunotherapies for COVID-19. This study aimed to raise interest and knowledge about the use of CNTs as immunotherapeutic agents in coronavirus treatment. Thus, we summarize the most important immunological aspects of various coronavirus infections and describe key advances and challenges in using CNTs as immunotherapeutic agents against viral infections and the activation of the immune response induced by CNTs, which can shed light on the immunotherapeutic possibilities of CNTs.

Nano dimensions/adjuvants in COVID-19 vaccines

A favorable outcome of the COVID-19 crisis might be achieved with massive vaccination. The proposed vaccines contain several different vaccine active principles (VAP), such as inactivated virus, antigen, mRNA, and DNA, which are associated with either standard adjuvants or nanomaterials (NM) such as liposomes in Moderna's and BioNTech/Pfizer's vaccines. COVID-19 vaccine adjuvants may be chosen among liposomes or other types of NM composed for example of graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, micelles, exosomes, membrane vesicles, polymers, or metallic NM, taking inspiration from cancer nano-vaccines, whose adjuvants may share some of their properties with those of viral vaccines. The mechanisms of action of nano-adjuvants are based on the facilitation by NM of targeting certain regions of immune interest such as the mucus, lymph nodes, and zones of infection or blood irrigation, the possible modulation of the type of attachment of the VAP to NM, in particular VAP positioning on the NM external surface to favor VAP presentation to antigen presenting cells (APC) or VAP encapsulation within NM to prevent VAP degradation, and the possibility to adjust the nature of the immune response by tuning the physico-chemical properties of NM such as their size, surface charge, or composition. The use of NM as adjuvants or the presence of nano-dimensions in COVID-19 vaccines does not only have the potential to improve the vaccine benefit/risk ratio, but also to reduce the dose of vaccine necessary to reach full efficacy. It could therefore ease the overall spread of COVID-19 vaccines within a sufficiently large portion of the world population to exit the current crisis.

Application of Non-Viral Vectors in Drug Delivery and Gene Therapy

Vectors and carriers play an indispensable role in gene therapy and drug delivery. Non-viral vectors are widely developed and applied in clinical practice due to their low immunogenicity, good biocompatibility, easy synthesis and modification, and low cost of production. This review summarized a variety of non-viral vectors and carriers including polymers, liposomes, gold nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes from the aspects of physicochemical characteristics, synthesis methods, functional modifications, and research applications. Notably, non-viral vectors can enhance the absorption of cargos, prolong the circulation time, improve therapeutic effects, and provide targeted delivery. Additional studies focused on recent innovation of novel synthesis techniques for vector materials. We also elaborated on the problems and future research directions in the development of non-viral vectors, which provided a theoretical basis for their broad applications.

Catalogue of self-targeting nano-medical inventions to accelerate clinical trials

Repetitive outbreaks and prolonged epidemics represent mortal threats to global health, creating chaos in our globalized world. To date, scientists have been compelled to follow FDA guidelines for conventional clinical trials, which decelerates the release of effective therapies to battle outbreaks and safeguard global health security. Developing multi-purpose platform nanotechnologies to self-target specific organs in response to the disease microenvironment could greatly help to rapidly anticipate and efficiently manage outbreaks. Nano-interventions in the form of self-targeting nanoparticles (NPs) could accelerate the clinical translation of potential drugs to fight future outbreaks via innovating their clinical trials. This review sets the foundation of the self-targeting concept to govern the in vivo fate of NPs without the need to complicate the engineering designs with targeting ligands. The proposed catalogue of accelerated nano-innovations offers self-targeting, physiological trafficking, bio-compliance, and controllable drug release in response to associated smart linkers.

Nitrogen-Doped Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Enhance Bone Remodeling through Immunomodulatory Functions

It has been reported that multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) can reportedly positively affect growth and differentiation of bone-related cells and therefore offer great potential in biomedical applications. To overcome negative immune responses that limit their application, specific doping and functionalization can improve their biocompatibility. Here, we demonstrated that nitrogen-doped carboxylate-functionalized MWCNTs (N-MWCNTs) enhance bone remodeling both in vitro and in vivo with excellent biocompatibility, via stimulation of both bone resorption and formation. We revealed that 0.2 μg/mL N-MWCNTs not only increase the transcription of osteoblastogenic and osteoclastogenic genes but also up-regulate the activities of both TRAP and AKP in the differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs). Additionally, intramuscular administration of N-MWCNTs at a dosage of 1.0 mg/kg body weight enhances bone mineral density and bone mass content in mice, as well as induces potentiated degree of TRAP- and ARS-positive staining in the femur. The positive regulation of N-MWCNTs on bone remodeling is initiated by macrophage phagocytosis, which induces altered production of inflammatory cytokines by immune response pathways, and consequently up-regulates IL1α, IL10, and IL16. These cytokines collectively regulate the central osteoclastogenic transcription factor NFATc1 and osteoblastogenic BMP signaling, the suppression of which confirmed that these factors respectively participate in N-MWCNT-mediated regulation of osteoclastic and osteoblastic bone marrow stem cell activities. These results suggest that N-MWCNTs can be readily generalized for use as biomaterials in bone tissue engineering for metabolic bone disorders.

An Overview of Nanocarrier-Based Adjuvants for Vaccine Delivery

The development of vaccines is one of the most significant medical accomplishments which has helped to eradicate a large number of diseases. It has undergone an evolutionary process from live attenuated pathogen vaccine to killed whole organisms or inactivated toxins (toxoids), each of them having its own advantages and disadvantages. The crucial parameters in vaccination are the generation of memory response and protection against infection, while an important aspect is the effective delivery of antigen in an intelligent manner to evoke a robust immune response. In this regard, nanotechnology is greatly contributing to developing efficient vaccine adjuvants and delivery systems. These can protect the encapsulated antigen from the host’s in-vivo environment and releasing it in a sustained manner to induce a long-lasting immunostimulatory effect. In view of this, the present review article summarizes nanoscale-based adjuvants and delivery vehicles such as viral vectors, virus-like particles and virosomes; non-viral vectors namely nanoemulsions, lipid nanocarriers, biodegradable and non-degradable nanoparticles, calcium phosphate nanoparticles, colloidally stable nanoparticles, proteosomes; and pattern recognition receptors covering c-type lectin receptors and toll-like receptors.

Cancer Vaccines: Adjuvant Potency, Importance of Age, Lifestyle, and Treatments

Although the discovery and characterization of multiple tumor antigens have sparked the development of many antigen/derived cancer vaccines, many are poorly immunogenic and thus, lack clinical efficacy. Adjuvants are therefore incorporated into vaccine formulations to trigger strong and long-lasting immune responses. Adjuvants have generally been classified into two categories: those that ‘depot’ antigens (e.g. mineral salts such as aluminum hydroxide, emulsions, liposomes) and those that act as immunostimulants (Toll Like Receptor agonists, saponins, cytokines). In addition, several novel technologies using vector-based delivery of antigens have been used. Unfortunately, the immune system declines with age, a phenomenon known as immunosenescence, and this is characterized by functional changes in both innate and adaptive cellular immunity systems as well as in lymph node architecture. While many of the immune functions decline over time, others paradoxically increase. Indeed, aging is known to be associated with a low level of chronic inflammation—inflamm-aging. Given that the median age of cancer diagnosis is 66 years and that immunotherapeutic interventions such as cancer vaccines are currently given in combination with or after other forms of treatments which themselves have immune-modulating potential such as surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, the choice of adjuvants requires careful consideration in order to achieve the maximum immune response in a compromised environment. In addition, more clinical trials need to be performed to carefully assess how less conventional form of immune adjuvants, such as exercise, diet and psychological care which have all be shown to influence immune responses can be incorporated to improve the efficacy of cancer vaccines. In this review, adjuvants will be discussed with respect to the above-mentioned important elements.

Nanoparticles in Combating Cancer: Opportunities and Limitations. A Brief Review

Nanomedicine is a good alternative to traditional methods of cancer treatment but does not solve all the limitations of oncology. Nanoparticles used in anticancer therapy can work as carriers of drugs, nucleic acids, imaging agents or they can sensitize cells to radiation. The present review focuses on the application of nanoparticles to treating cancer, as well as on its problems and limitations. Using nanoparticles as drug carriers, significant improvement in the efficiency of transport of compounds and their targeting directly to the tumour has been achieved; it also reduces the side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs on the body. However, nanoparticles do not significantly improve the effectiveness of the chemotherapeutic agent itself. Most nanodrugs can reduce the toxicity of chemotherapy, but do not significantly affect the effectiveness of treatment. Nanodrugs should be developed that can be effective as an anti-metastatic treatment, e.g. by enhancing the ability of nanoparticles to transport chemotherapeutic loads to sentinel lymph nodes using the immune system and developing chemotherapy in specific metastatic areas. Gene therapy, however, is the most modern method of treating cancer, the cause of cancer being tackled by altering genetic material. Other applications of nanoparticles for radiotherapy and diagnostics are discussed.

Present trends in the encapsulation of anticancer drugs

Different nanomedicine devices that were developed during the recent years can be suitable candidates for their application in the treatment of various deadly diseases such as cancer. From all the explored devices, the nanoencapsulation of several anticancer medicines is a very promising approach to overcome some drawbacks of traditional medicines: administered dose of the drugs, drug toxicity, low solubility of drugs, uncontrolled drug delivery, resistance offered by the physiological barriers in the body to drugs, among others. In this chapter, the most important and recent progress in the encapsulation of anticancer medicines is examined: methods of preparation of distinct nanoparticles (inorganic nanoparticles, dendrimers, biopolymeric nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, liposomes, polymersomes, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, and hybrid nanoparticles), drug loading and drug release mechanisms. Furthermore, the possible applications in cancer prevention, diagnosis, and cancer therapy of some of these nanoparticles have been highlighted.

Potentiometric Study of Carbon Nanotube/Surfactant Interactions by Ion-Selective Electrodes. Driving Forces in the Adsorption and Dispersion Processes

The interaction (adsorption process) of commercial ionic surfactants with non-functionalized and functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has been studied by potentiometric measurements based on the use of ion-selective electrodes. The goal of this work was to investigate the role of the CNTs' charge and structure in the CNT/surfactant interactions. Non-functionalized single- (SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), and amine functionalized SWCNT were used. The influence of the surfactant architecture on the CNT/surfactant interactions was also studied. Surfactants with different charge and hydrophobic tail length (sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), octyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (OTAB), dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (DoTAB) and hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB)) were studied. According to the results, the adsorption process shows a cooperative character, with the hydrophobic interaction contribution playing a key role. This is made evident by the correlation between the free surfactant concentration (at a fixed [CNT]) and the critical micellar concentration, cmc, found for all the CNTs and surfactants investigated. The electrostatic interactions mainly determine the CNT dispersion, although hydrophobic interactions also contribute to this process.

Potential small-molecule drugs as available weapons to fight novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV): A review

Since the new coronavirus known as 2019‐nCoV (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, SARS‐CoV‐2) has widely spread in Wuhan, China, with severe pneumonia, scientists and physicians have made remarkable efforts to use various options such as monoclonal antibodies, peptides, vaccines, small‐molecule drugs and interferon therapies to control, prevent or treatment infections of 2019‐nCoV. However, no vaccine or drug has yet been confirmed to completely treat 2019‐nCoV. In this review, we focus on the use of potential available small‐molecule drug candidates for treating infections caused by 2019‐nCoV.

Magnetic nanoparticles coated with polyphenols for spatio-temporally controlled cancer photothermal/immunotherapy

As the combination of photothermal therapy (PTT) with immunotherapy provides an effective strategy in cancer treatment, a magnetic nanoparticle delivery system was constructed to load indocyanine green (ICG) and immunostimulator R837 hydrochloride (R837) for spatio-temporally PTT/immunotherapy synergism in cancer. This delivery system is composed of Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanoparticles (MPs) as the core to load ICG and polyethylene glycol polyphenols (DPA-PEG) as the coating layer to load R837, which formed R837 loaded polyphenols coating ICG loaded magnetic nanoparticles (MIRDs). After intravenous injection, the formed MIRDs resulted in long circulation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) guides, and magnetic targeting. Once targeting to the tumor, the MIRDs with the near-infrared (NIR) irradiation caused tumor ablation and resulted in tumor-associated antigens releasing to induce the body's immunological response, which was markedly improved it to attack the tumors with the R837 releasing from the outer DPA-PEG. In this case, the synergism of the PTT and immunotherapy inhibited tumor growth, metastasis and recurrence, which resulted in potent anticancer therapeutic effects with few side effect.

Recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy, which utilizes the patient’s own immune system to fight against cancer, further results in durable antitumor responses and reduces metastasis and recurrence, has become one of the most effective and important cancer therapies along with surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Nanomaterials with the advantages of large specific surface, delivery function, and controllable surface chemistry are used to deliver antigens or adjuvants, or both, help to boost immune responses with the imaging function or just act as adjuvants themselves and modulate tumor microenvironment (TME). In this review, recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy including delivery systems based on nanomaterials, uniting imaging, self-adjuvants, targeting functions, artificial antigen presenting cells, and TME modulation are focused and discussed.

Hemocompatibility of Carbon Nanostructures

Carbon nanostructures (CNs), such as carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, carbon dots, nanodiamonds as well as graphene and its derivatives present a tremendous potential for various biomedical applications, ranging from sensing to drug delivery and gene therapy, biomedical imaging and tissue engineering. Since most of these applications encompass blood contact or intravenous injection, hemocompatibility is a critical aspect that must be carefully considered to take advantage of CN exceptional characteristics while allowing their safe use. This review discusses the hemocompatibility of different classes of CNs with the purpose of providing biomaterial scientists with a comprehensive vision of the interactions between CNs and blood components. The various complex mechanisms involved in blood compatibility, including coagulation, hemolysis, as well as the activation of complement, platelets, and leukocytes will be considered. Special attention will be paid to the role of CN size, structure, and surface properties in the formation of the protein corona and in the processes that drive blood response. The aim of this review is to emphasize the importance of hemocompatibility for CNs intended for biomedical applications and to provide some valuable insights for the development of new generation particles with improved performance and safety in the physiological environment.

The role of antibody delivery formation in cancer therapy

Cancer has become one of the major threats to human survival. Because of antibodies specificity and low toxicity, it is the primary choice to diagnose and treat cancer. It is easy to be cleared from the blood circulation or distributing throughout the body and causes unnecessary side effects. It is necessary to delivery antibodies to the tumour region in a stable, safe and effective manner. In this review, we discuss the latest studies that aimed to delivery antibodies to tumour sites via several vector forms, such as liposomes, carbon nanomaterials, and gold nanomaterials. How to deliver antibodies to the target site is a difficulty for antibody therapy. This review summarises the antibody's therapeutic forms and carrier materials in recent years, and to explore how antibodies can be safely and stably delivered to the target site.

Targeted Delivery of Mannosylated Nanoparticles Improve Prophylactic Efficacy of Immersion Vaccine against Fish Viral Disease

Immersion vaccination is considered as the most effective method for juvenile fish in preventing viral disease, due to its convenience for mass vaccination and stress-free administration. However, immune responses following immersion vaccination are generally less robust and of shorter duration than those induced through intraperitoneal injection. Herein, to improve the efficacy of the immersion vaccine, we constructed a targeted single-walled carbon nanotubes-based immersion vaccine delivery system (CNTs-M-VP7), the surface of which are modified with mannose to allow antigen-presenting cells' (APCs) targeting. The targeting ability of CNTs-M-VP7 was confirmed in vivo and in vitro. Critically, this immersion CNTs-M-VP7 vaccine could cross into the fish body through mucosal tissues (skin, gill, and intestine), and then present to immune-related tissues. Moreover, CNTs-M-VP7 could significantly induce the maturation and presenting process of APCs, which would then trigger robust immune responses. Altogether, this study demonstrates that the single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)-based targeted nanovaccine delivery system shows the potential to be an effective prophylactic against fish viral disease.

Balanced Th1/Th2 immune response induced by MSP1a functional motif coupled to multiwalled carbon nanotubes as anti-anaplasmosis vaccine in murine model

Anaplasmosis is one of the most prevalent tick-borne diseases of cattle caused by Anaplasma marginale. MSP1a surface protein has been shown to be involved in eliciting immunity to infected cattle. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has been increasingly highlighted due to their needle like structure, which contain multiple attachment sites for biomolecules and may interact with or cross biological membranes, increasing antigen availability to immune system. Here, we have successfully designed a nanocomplex of a synthetic peptide noncovalently attached to multiwalled CNT (MWCNT). Peptide comprising the core motif of the MSP1a was efficiently adsorb onto the nanoparticle surface. The MWCNT-Am1 nanocomplex exhibited high stability and good dispersibility and in vivo immunization showed high levels of IgG1 and IgG2a, followed by increased expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. This is a proof-of-concept of a nanovaccine that was able to generate a strong immune response compared to the common antigen-adjuvant vaccine without the nanoparticles.

Antigen-Inorganic Hybrid Flowers-Based Vaccines with Enhanced Room Temperature Stability and Effective Anticancer Immunity

Particle-based antigen carriers as adjuvants play an important role in vaccine development. Herein, an antigen-inorganic hybrid flower-like particle is developed as a novel vaccine carrier. Model antigen ovalbumin (OVA)-copper (II) sulfate hybrid vaccines (OVA-Cu-HVs) are mildly and facilely constructed through a biomimetic mineralization process. OVA-Cu-HVs facilitate cellular uptake in antigen-presenting cells and the internalization of OVA-Cu-HVs involves macropinocytosis-mediated endocytosis. OVA-Cu-HVs can release OVA in a pH-responsive behavior and promote cytosolic release of antigen to enhance antigen cross-presentation. Immunization with OVA-Cu-HVs promotes the maturation of dendritic cells in draining lymph nodes, induces robust antigen-specific T lymphocyte response, and inhibits tumor growth in vivo. In addition, OVA-Cu-HVs are efficacious after being stored for 4 weeks at room temperature and are expected to simplify vaccine storage and lower the cost of cold storage for transportation. Looking forward, OVA-Cu-HVs may hold strong potential to be as an effective vaccine delivery platform, which will facilitate the application of organic-inorganic hybrid flowers in biomedical areas.

Co-delivery of D-(KLAKLAK)2 Peptide and Chlorin e6 using a Liposomal Complex for Synergistic Cancer Therapy

Nanotechnology-based photo-chemo combination therapy has been extensively investigated to improve therapeutic outcomes in anticancer treatment. Specifically, with the help of a singlet oxygen generated by the photosensitizer, the endocytosed nanoparticles are allowed to escape from the endosomal compartment, which is currently an obstacle in nanotechnology-based anticancer therapy. In this study, a liposomal complex system (Lipo (Pep, Ce6)), composed of a chlorin e6-conjugated di-block copolymer (PEG-PLL(-g-Ce6)) and a D-(KLAKLAK)2 peptide loading liposome (Lipo (Pep)), was developed and evaluated for its anticancer activity. Due to the membrane lytic ability of the D-(KLAKLAK)2 peptide and the membrane disruptive effect of the singlet oxygen generated from chlorin e6, Lipo (Pep, Ce6) accelerated the disruption of the endosomal compartment, and exhibited strong synergistic anticancer activity in vitro. The prepared liposomal complex system could potentially maximize the efficacy of the nanotechnology-based photo-chemo combination therapy, and can be regarded as a novel, versatile strategy in advanced tumor therapy.

Co-delivery of d-(KLAKLAK)2 peptide and doxorubicin using a pH-sensitive nanocarrier for synergistic anticancer treatment

Currently, one of the most important challenges in the development of nanotechnology-based anticancer treatments is the failure of nanoparticles to escape from the endo-lysosomal compartment.