Nanobiotechnology-assisted therapies to manage brain cancer in personalized manner

Enhancing glioblastoma cytotoxicity through encapsulating O6-benzylguanine and temozolomide in PEGylated liposomal nanocarrier: an in vitro study

Glioblastoma (GBM) (grade IV glioma) is the most fatal brain tumor, with a median survival of just 14 months despite current treatments. Temozolomide (TMZ), an alkylating agent used with radiation, faces challenges such as systemic toxicity, poor absorption, and drug resistance. To enhance TMZ effectiveness, we developed poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) liposomes co-loaded with TMZ and O6-benzylguanine (O6-BG) for targeted glioma therapy. These liposomes, prepared using the thin-layer hydration method, had an average size of 146.33 ± 6.75 nm and a negative zeta potential (-49.6 ± 3.1 mV). Drug release was slower at physiological pH, with 66.84 ± 4.62% of TMZ and 69.70 ± 2.88% of O6-BG released, indicating stability at physiological conditions. The liposomes showed significantly higher cellular uptake (p < 0.05) than the free dye. The dual drug-loaded liposomes exhibited superior cytotoxicity against U87 glioma cells, with a lower IC50 value (3.99µg/mL) than the free drug combination, demonstrating enhanced anticancer efficacy. The liposome formulation induced higher apoptosis (19.42 ± 3.5%) by causing sub-G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. The novelty of our study lies in co-encapsulating TMZ and O6-BG within PEGylated liposomes, effectively overcoming drug resistance and improving targeted delivery for glioma treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-024-04123-2.

Advances in Intrathecal Nanoparticle Delivery: Targeting the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier for Enhanced CNS Drug Delivery

The blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) tightly regulates molecular exchanges between the bloodstream and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), creating challenges for effective central nervous system (CNS) drug delivery. This review assesses intrathecal (IT) nanoparticle (NP) delivery systems that aim to enhance drug delivery by circumventing the BCSFB, complementing approaches that target the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) face hurdles like restricted CNS distribution and rapid clearance, which diminish the efficacy of IT therapies. NPs can be engineered to extend drug circulation times, improve CNS penetration, and facilitate sustained release. This review discusses key pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters essential for the effectiveness of these systems. NPs can quickly traverse the subarachnoid space and remain within the leptomeninges for extended periods, often exceeding three weeks. Some designs enable deeper brain parenchyma penetration. Approximately 80% of NPs in the CSF are cleared through the perivascular glymphatic pathway, with microglia-mediated transport significantly contributing to their paravascular clearance. This review synthesizes recent progress in IT-NP delivery across the BCSFB, highlighting critical findings, ongoing challenges, and the therapeutic potential of surface modifications and targeted delivery strategies.

Current advance of nanotechnology in diagnosis and treatment for malignant tumors

Cancer remains a significant risk to human health. Nanomedicine is a new multidisciplinary field that is garnering a lot of interest and investigation. Nanomedicine shows great potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Specifically engineered nanoparticles can be employed as contrast agents in cancer diagnostics to enable high sensitivity and high-resolution tumor detection by imaging examinations. Novel approaches for tumor labeling and detection are also made possible by the use of nanoprobes and nanobiosensors. The achievement of targeted medication delivery in cancer therapy can be accomplished through the rational design and manufacture of nanodrug carriers. Nanoparticles have the capability to effectively transport medications or gene fragments to tumor tissues via passive or active targeting processes, thus enhancing treatment outcomes while minimizing harm to healthy tissues. Simultaneously, nanoparticles can be employed in the context of radiation sensitization and photothermal therapy to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of malignant tumors. This review presents a literature overview and summary of how nanotechnology is used in the diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors. According to oncological diseases originating from different systems of the body and combining the pathophysiological features of cancers at different sites, we review the most recent developments in nanotechnology applications. Finally, we briefly discuss the prospects and challenges of nanotechnology in cancer.

Nanocarriers for the treatment of glioblastoma multiforme: A succinct review of conventional and repositioned drugs in the last decade

Glioblastoma multiforme is a very combative and threatening type of cancer. The standard course of treatment involves excising the tumor surgically, then administering chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier and the unique characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, chemotherapy is extremely difficult and has a high incidence of relapse. With their capacity to precisely target and transport therapeutic medications to the tumor while overcoming the challenges provided by invasive and infiltrative gliomas, nanocarriers offer a potentially beneficial treatment option for gliomas. Drug repositioning or, in other words, finding novel therapeutic uses for medications that have received approval for previous uses has also recently emerged to provide alternative treatments for many diseases, with glioblastoma being among them. In this article, our goal is to shed light on the pathogenesis of glioma and summarize the proposed treatment approaches in the last decade, highlighting how combining repositioned drugs and nanocarriers technology can reduce drug resistance and improve therapeutic efficacy in primary glioma.

Exploring fetal brain tumor glioblastoma symptom verification with self organizing maps and vulnerability data analysis

Brain tumor glioblastoma is a disease that is caused for a child who has abnormal cells in the brain, which is found using MRI "Magnetic Resonance Imaging" brain image using a powerful magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer to produce detailed images of the body's internal structures it is a standard diagnostic tool for a wide range of medical conditions, from detecting brain and spinal cord injuries to identifying tumors and also in evaluating joint problems. This is treatable, and by enabling the factor for happening, the factor for dissolving the dead tissues. If the brain tumor glioblastoma is untreated, the child will go to death; to avoid this, the child has to treat the brain problem using the scan of MRI images. Using the neural network, brain-related difficulties have to be resolved. It is identified to make the diagnosis of glioblastoma. This research deals with the techniques of max rationalizing and min rationalizing images, and the method of boosted division time attribute extraction has been involved in diagnosing glioblastoma. The process of maximum and min rationalization is used to recognize the Brain tumor glioblastoma in the brain images for treatment efficiency. The image segment is created for image recognition. The method of boosted division time attribute extraction is used in image recognition with the help of MRI for image extraction. The proposed boosted division time attribute extraction method helps to recognize the fetal images and find Brain tumor glioblastoma with feasible accuracy using image rationalization against the brain tumor glioblastoma diagnosis. In addition, 45% of adults are affected by the tumor, 40% of children and 5% are in death situations. To reduce this ratio, in this study, the Brain tumor glioblastoma is identified and segmented to recognize the fetal images and find the Brain tumor glioblastoma diagnosis. Then the tumor grades were analyzed using the efficient method for the imaging MRI with the diagnosis result of partially high. The accuracy of the proposed TAE-PIS system is 98.12% which is higher when compared to other methods like Genetic algorithm, Convolution neural network, fuzzy-based minimum and maximum neural network and kernel-based support vector machine respectively. Experimental results show that the proposed method archives rate of 98.12% accuracy with low response time and compared with the Genetic algorithm (GA), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), fuzzy-based minimum and maximum neural network (Fuzzy min-max NN), and kernel-based support vector machine. Specifically, the proposed method achieves a substantial improvement of 80.82%, 82.13%, 85.61%, and 87.03% compared to GA, CNN, Fuzzy min-max NN, and kernel-based support vector machine, respectively.

Brain Delivery of Biomimetic Phosphorus Dendrimer/Antibody Nanocomplexes for Enhanced Glioma Immunotherapy via Immune Modulation of T Cells and Natural Killer Cells

Fully mobilizing the activities of multiple immune cells is crucial to achieve the desired tumor immunotherapeutic efficacy yet still remains challenging. Herein, we report a nanomedicine formulation based on phosphorus dendrimer (termed AK128)/programmed cell death protein 1 antibody (aPD1) nanocomplexes (NCs) that are camouflaged with M1-type macrophage cell membranes (M1m) for enhanced immunotherapy of orthotopic glioma. The constructed AK128-aPD1@M1m NCs with a mean particle size of 160.3 nm possess good stability and cytocompatibility. By virtue of the decorated M1m having α4 and β1 integrins, the NCs are able to penetrate the blood-brain barrier to codeliver both AK128 with intrinsic immunomodulatory activity and aPD1 to the orthotopic glioma with prolonged blood circulation time. We show that the phosphorus dendrimer AK128 can boost natural killer (NK) cell proliferation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, while the delivered aPD1 enables immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) to restore the cytotoxic T cells and NK cells, thus promoting tumor cell apoptosis and simultaneously decreasing the tumor distribution of regulatory T cells vastly for improved glioma immunotherapy. The developed nanomedicine formulation with a simple composition achieves multiple modulations of immune cells by utilizing the immunomodulatory activity of nanocarrier and antibody-mediated ICB therapy, providing an effective strategy for cancer immunotherapy.

An Update on Emergent Nano-Therapeutic Strategies against Pediatric Brain Tumors

Pediatric brain tumors are the major cause of pediatric cancer mortality. They comprise a diverse group of tumors with different developmental origins, genetic profiles, therapeutic options, and outcomes. Despite many technological advancements, the treatment of pediatric brain cancers has remained a challenge. Treatment options for pediatric brain cancers have been ineffective due to non-specificity, inability to cross the blood-brain barrier, and causing off-target side effects. In recent years, nanotechnological advancements in the medical field have proven to be effective in curing challenging cancers like brain tumors. Moreover, nanoparticles have emerged successfully, particularly in carrying larger payloads, as well as their stability, safety, and efficacy monitoring. In the present review, we will emphasize pediatric brain cancers, barriers to treating these cancers, and novel treatment options.

DSPE-PEG2000-methotrexate nanoparticles encapsulating phenobarbital sodium kill cancer cells by inducing pyroptosis

Cancer is a life-threatening disease worldwide. Nanomedicine and nanodelivery systems are recently developed scientific field that employs specific materials in the nanoscale range to deliver drugs. Lipid-based nanoparticles are an ideal delivery system since they exhibit many advantages, including high bioavailability, self-assembly, formulation simplicity, and the ability to exhibit a plethora of physicochemical properties. Herein, we report that phenobarbital sodium can kill cancer cells by using the DSPE-PEG2000-methotrexate nanoparticle delivery system, which can target folate receptors that are usually overexpressed on a variety of cancer cells. The released phenobarbital then executes cancer cells by inducing pyroptosis. Results from our animal model further indicate that the nanomedicine of nanoparticle-encapsulated phenobarbital sodium is a promising anticancer therapy.

Emergence and impact of theranostic-nanoformulation of triple therapeutics for combination cancer therapy

Cancer remains a major global health threat necessitating the multipronged approaches for its prevention and management. Traditional approaches in the form of chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy are often encountered with poor patient outcomes evidenced by high mortality and morbidity, compelling the need for precision medicine for cancer patients to enable personalized and targeted cancer treatment. There has been an emergence of smart multimodal theranostic nanoformulation for triple combination cancer therapy in the last few years, which dramatically enhances the overall safety of the nanoformulation for in vivo and potential clinical applications with minimal toxicity. However, it is imperative to gain insight into the limitations of this system in terms of clinical translation, cost-effectiveness, accessibility, and multidisciplinary collaboration. This review paper aims to highlight and compare the impact of the recent theranostic nanoformulations of triple therapeutics in a single nanocarrier for effective management of cancer and provide a new dimension for diagnostic and treatment simultaneously.

Tailored Drug Delivery Platforms: Stimulus-Responsive Core-Shell Structured Nanocarriers

Core-shell structured nanocarriers have come into the scientific spotlight in recent years due to their intriguing properties and wide applications in materials chemistry, biology, and biomedicine. Tailored core-shell structures to achieve desired performance have emerged as a research frontier in the development of smart drug delivery system. However, systematic reviews on the design and loading/release mechanisms of stimulus-responsive core-shell structured nanocarriers are uncommon. This review starts with the categories of core-shell structured nanocarriers with different means of drug payload, and then highlights the controlled release mechanism realized through stimulus-response processes triggered under different environments. Finally, some multifaceted perspectives on the design of core-shell structured materials as drug carriers are addressed. This work aims to provide new enlightenments and prospects in the drug delivery field for further developing advanced and smart nanocarriers.

Overview of therapeutic drug monitoring and clinical practice

With the rapid development of clinical pharmacy in China, therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) has become an essential tool for guiding rational clinical drug use and is widely concerned. TDM is a tool that combines pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic knowledge to optimize personalized drug therapy, which can improve treatment outcomes, reduce drug-drug toxicity, and avoid the risk of developing drug resistance. To effectively implement TDM, accurate and sophisticated analytical methods are required. By researching the literature published in recent years, we summarize the types of commonly monitored drugs, therapeutic windows, and clinical assays and track the trends and hot spots of therapeutic drug monitoring. The purpose is to provide guidelines for clinical blood drug concentration monitoring, to implement individualized drug delivery programs better, to ensure the rational use of drugs for patients, and to provide a reference for the group to carry out related topics in the future.

Self-driven bioactive hybrids co-deliver doxorubicin and indocyanine green nanoparticles for chemo/photothermal therapy of breast cancer

Breast cancer is characterized by insidious onset, rapid progression, easy recurrence, and metastasis. Conventional monotherapies are usually ineffective due to insufficient drug delivery. Therefore, the combination of multimodal therapy with tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive nanoplatforms is increasingly being considered for the targeted treatment of breast cancer. We synthesized bioactive hybrid nanoparticles for synergistic chemotherapy and photothermal therapy. Briefly, doxorubicin (DOX) and indocyanine green (ICG)-loaded nanoparticles (DI) of average particle size 113.58 ± 2.14 nm were synthesized, and their surface were modified with polydopamine (PDA) and attached to the anaerobic probiotic Bifidobacterium infantis (Bif). The bioactive Bif@DIP hybrid showed good photothermal conversion efficiency of about 38.04%. In addition, the self-driving ability of Bif allowed targeted delivery of the PDA-coated DI nanoparticles (DIP) to the hypoxic regions of the tumor. The low pH and high GSH levels in the TME stimulated the controlled release of DOX and ICG from the Bif@DIP hybrid, which then triggered apoptosis of tumor cells and induced immunogenic cell death (ICD), resulting in effective and sustained anti-tumor effect with minimum systemic toxicity. Thus, the self-driven Bif@DIP hybrid is a promising nanodrug for the targeted chemotherapy and photothermal therapy against solid cancers.

Layered double hydroxides and their tailored hybrids/composites: Progressive trends for delivery of natural/synthetic-drug/cosmetic biomolecules

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are well-known and important class of hydrotalcite-type anionic clays (HTs) materials that are cost-effective with additional advantages of facile synthesis, composition, tenability, and reusability. These convincing characteristics are liable for their applications in various fields related to energy, environment, catalysis, biomedical, and biotechnology. HTs/LDHs are generally synthesized from low cost abundantly available chemical precursors through the aqueous synthetic pathways under mild reaction conditions. These materials can be termed green materials based on their non-toxic nature, availability of precursors, facile and low-cost production using aqueous medium conditions with less hazardous effluents. Diverse and fascinating characteristics have been attributed to HTs/LDHs like anion exchange ability, surface basicity, biocompatibility, controlled release of the anion specific area, porosity, easy surface modification, and pH dependent biodegradability. Hence, HTs/LDHs and their modified and/or functionalized nanohybrids/nanocomposites are reported as the potential drug delivery carriers with a capability to stabilize the susceptible bioactive molecules, may enhance the solubility of poorly soluble drugs along with controlled drug/bioactive molecule release and delivery. These clay and bioactive hybrid materials have good biocompatibility, less cytotoxicity, and better site-targeting with improved cellular uptake than that of free parent biomolecules. These lamellar solids of micro/nanostructure are compatible, host-guest materials and able to fabricate with drugs/cosmeceutical/bio- or synthetic polymers without any change in their molecular structure and reactivity along with improvement in their stabilities. Other important features are facile synthesis, basicity, high stability with easy storage, and efficient administration with low bio-toxicity. This study enlightens the applications of HTs/LDHs along with their hybrids/composites in the field of drug/cosmeceutical/gene delivery systems of natural/synthetic biomolecules.

Joining Forces: The Combined Application of Therapeutic Viruses and Nanomaterials in Cancer Therapy

Cancer, on a global scale, presents a monumental challenge to our healthcare systems, posing a significant threat to human health. Despite the considerable progress we have made in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, realizing precision cancer therapy, reducing side effects, and enhancing efficacy remain daunting tasks. Fortunately, the emergence of therapeutic viruses and nanomaterials provides new possibilities for tackling these issues. Therapeutic viruses possess the ability to accurately locate and attack tumor cells, while nanomaterials serve as efficient drug carriers, delivering medication precisely to tumor tissues. The synergy of these two elements has led to a novel approach to cancer treatment-the combination of therapeutic viruses and nanomaterials. This advantageous combination has overcome the limitations associated with the side effects of oncolytic viruses and the insufficient tumoricidal capacity of nanomedicines, enabling the oncolytic viruses to more effectively breach the tumor's immune barrier. It focuses on the lesion site and even allows for real-time monitoring of the distribution of therapeutic viruses and drug release, achieving a synergistic effect. This article comprehensively explores the application of therapeutic viruses and nanomaterials in tumor treatment, dissecting their working mechanisms, and integrating the latest scientific advancements to predict future development trends. This approach, which combines viral therapy with the application of nanomaterials, represents an innovative and more effective treatment strategy, offering new perspectives in the field of tumor therapy.

Graphene- and MXene-based materials for neuroscience: diagnostic and therapeutic applications

MXenes and graphene are two-dimensional materials that have gained increasing attention in neuroscience, particularly in sensing, theranostics, and biomedical engineering. Various composites of graphene and MXenes with fascinating thermal, optical, magnetic, mechanical, and electrical properties have been introduced to develop advanced nanosystems for diagnostic and therapeutic applications, as exemplified in the case of biosensors for neurotransmitter detection. These biosensors display high sensitivity, selectivity, and stability, making them promising tools for neuroscience research. MXenes have been employed to create high-resolution neural interfaces for neuroelectronic devices, develop neuro-receptor-mediated synapse devices, and stimulate the electrophysiological maturation of neural circuits. On the other hand, graphene/derivatives exhibit therapeutic applicability in neuroscience, as exemplified in the case of graphene oxide for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to the brain. While MXenes and graphene have potential benefits in neuroscience, there are also challenges/limitations associated with their use, such as toxicity, environmental impacts, and limited understanding of their properties. In addition, large-scale production and commercialization as well as optimization of reaction/synthesis conditions and clinical translation studies are very important aspects. Thus, it is important to consider the use of these materials in neuroscience research and conduct further research to obtain an in-depth understanding of their properties and potential applications. By addressing issues related to biocompatibility, long-term stability, targeted delivery, electrical interfaces, scalability, and cost-effectiveness, MXenes and graphene have the potential to greatly advance the field of neuroscience and pave the way for innovative diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for neurological disorders. Herein, recent advances in therapeutic and diagnostic applications of graphene- and MXene-based materials in neuroscience are discussed, focusing on important challenges and future prospects.

Liposome-Derived Nanosystems for the Treatment of Behavioral and Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Promise of Niosomes, Transfersomes, and Ethosomes for Increased Brain Drug Bioavailability

Psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders are amongst the most prevalent and debilitating diseases, but current treatments either have low success rates, greatly due to the low permeability of the blood-brain barrier, and/or are connected to severe side effects. Hence, new strategies are extremely important, and here is where liposome-derived nanosystems come in. Niosomes, transfersomes, and ethosomes are nanometric vesicular structures that allow drug encapsulation, protecting them from degradation, and increasing their solubility, permeability, brain targeting, and bioavailability. This review highlighted the great potential of these nanosystems for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, anxiety, and depression. Studies regarding the encapsulation of synthetic and natural-derived molecules in these systems, for intravenous, oral, transdermal, or intranasal administration, have led to an increased brain bioavailability when compared to conventional pharmaceutical forms. Moreover, the developed formulations proved to have neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects, including brain neurotransmitter level restoration and brain oxidative status improvement, and improved locomotor activity or enhancement of recognition and working memories in animal models. Hence, albeit being relatively new technologies, niosomes, transfersomes, and ethosomes have already proven to increase the brain bioavailability of psychoactive drugs, leading to increased effectiveness and decreased side effects, showing promise as future therapeutics.

Neural stem cells for Parkinson’s disease management: Challenges, nanobased support, and prospects

Parkinson’s disease (PD), characterized by loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons, is one of the most predominant neurodegenerative diseases affecting the elderly population worldwide. The concept of stem cell therapy in managing neurodegenerative diseases has evolved over the years and has recently rapidly progressed. Neural stem cells (NSCs) have a few key features, including self-renewal, proliferation, and multipotency, which make them a promising agent targeting neurodegeneration. It is generally agreed that challenges for NSC-based therapy are present at every stage of the transplantation process, including preoperative cell preparation and quality control, perioperative procedures, and postoperative graft preservation, adherence, and overall therapy success. In this review, we provided a comprehensive, careful, and critical discussion of experimental and clinical data alongside the pros and cons of NSC-based therapy in PD. Given the state-of-the-art accomplishments of stem cell therapy, gene therapy, and nanotechnology, we shed light on the perspective of complementing the advantages of each process by developing nano-stem cell therapy, which is currently a research hotspot. Although various obstacles and challenges remain, nano-stem cell therapy holds promise to cure PD, however, continuous improvement and development from the stage of laboratory experiments to the clinical application are necessary.

Metal-Organic Frameworks-Based Nanoplatforms for the Theranostic Applications of Neurological Diseases

Neurological diseases are the foremost cause of disability and the second leading cause of death worldwide. Owing to the special microenvironment of neural tissues and biological characteristics of neural cells, a considerable number of neurological disorders are currently incurable. In the past few years, the development of nanoplatforms based on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) has broadened opportunities for offering sensitive diagnosis/monitoring and effective therapy of neurology-related diseases. In this article, the obstacles for neurotherapeutics, including delayed diagnosis and misdiagnosis, the existence of blood brain barrier (BBB), off-target treatment, irrepressible inflammatory storm/oxidative stress, and irreversible nerve cell death are summarized. Correspondingly, MOFs-based diagnostic/monitoring strategies such as neuroimaging and biosensors (electrochemistry, fluorometry, colorimetry, electrochemiluminescence, etc.) and MOFs-based therapeutic strategies including higher BBB permeability, targeting specific lesion sites, attenuation of neuroinflammation/oxidative stress as well as regeneration of nerve cells, are extensively highlighted for the management of neurological diseases. Finally, the challenges of the present research from perspective of clinical translation are discussed, hoping to facilitate interdisciplinary studies at the intersections between MOFs-based nanoplatforms and neurotheranostics.

TPGS Decorated Liposomes as Multifunctional Nano-Delivery Systems

Liposomes are sphere-shaped vesicles that can capture therapeutics either in the outer phospholipid bilayer or inner aqueous core. Liposomes, especially when surface-modified with functional materials, have been used to achieve many benefits in drug delivery, including improving drug solubility, oral bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and delivery to disease target sites such as cancers. Among the functional materials used to modify the surface of liposomes, the FDA-approved non-ionic surfactant D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS) is increasingly being applied due to its biocompatibility, lack of toxicity, applicability to various administration routes and ability to enhance solubilization, stability, penetration and overall pharmacokinetics. TPGS decorated liposomes are emerging as a promising drug delivery system for various diseases and are expected to enter the market in the coming years. In this review article, we focus on the multifunctional properties of TPGS-coated liposomes and their beneficial therapeutic applications, including for oral drug delivery, vaccine delivery, ocular administration, and the treatment of various cancers. We also suggest future directions to optimise the manufacture and performance of TPGS liposomes and, thus, the delivery and effect of encapsulated diagnostics and therapeutics.

Bioengineered Carboxymethylcellulose-Peptide Hybrid Nanozyme Cascade for Targeted Intracellular Biocatalytic-Magnetothermal Therapy of Brain Cancer Cells

Glioblastoma remains the most lethal form of brain cancer, where hybrid nanomaterials biofunctionalized with polysaccharide peptides offer disruptive strategies relying on passive/active targeting and multimodal therapy for killing cancer cells. Thus, in this research, we report for the first time the rational design and synthesis of novel hybrid colloidal nanostructures composed of gold nanoparticles stabilized by trisodium citrate (AuNP@TSC) as the oxidase-like nanozyme, coupled with cobalt-doped superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles stabilized by carboxymethylcellulose ligands (Co-MION@CMC) as the peroxidase-like nanozyme. They formed inorganic-inorganic dual-nanozyme systems functionalized by a carboxymethylcellulose biopolymer organic shell, which can trigger a biocatalytic cascade reaction in the cancer tumor microenvironment for the combination of magnetothermal-chemodynamic therapy. These nanoassemblies were produced through a green aqueous process under mild conditions and chemically biofunctionalized with integrin-targeting peptide (iRDG), creating bioengineered nanocarriers. The results demonstrated that the oxidase-like nanozyme (AuNP) was produced with a crystalline face-centered cubic nanostructure, spherical morphology (diameter = 16 ± 3 nm), zeta potential (ZP) of -50 ± 5 mV, and hydrodynamic diameter (DH) of 15 ± 1 nm. The peroxide-like nanostructure (POD, Co-MION@CMC) contained an inorganic crystalline core of magnetite and had a uniform spherical shape (2R = 7 ± 1 nm) which, summed to the contribution of the CMC shell, rendered a hydrodynamic diameter of 45 ± 4 nm and a negative surface charge (ZP = -41 ± 5 mV). Upon coupling both nanozymes, water-dispersible colloidal supramolecular vesicle-like organic-inorganic nanostructures were produced (AuNP//Co-MION@CMC, ZP = -45 ± 4 mV and DH = 28 ± 3 nm). They confirmed dual-nanozyme cascade biocatalytic activity targeted by polymer-peptide conjugates (AuNP//Co-MION@CMC_iRGD, ZP = -29 ± 3 mV and DH = 60 ± 4 nm) to kill brain cancer cells (i.e., bioenergy "starvation" by glucose deprivation and oxidative stress through reactive oxygen species generation), which was boosted by the magneto-hyperthermotherapy effect when submitted to the alternating magnetic field (i.e., induced local thermal stress by "nanoheaters"). This groundwork offers a wide avenue of opportunities to develop innovative theranostic nanoplatforms with multiple integrated functionalities for fighting cancer and reducing the harsh side effects of conventional chemotherapy.

Hydrogel on a Smart Nanomaterial Interface to Carry Therapeutics for Digitalized Glioma Treatment

Glioma is considered the primary brain tumor to cause brain illnesses, and it is difficult to treat and shows resistance to various routine therapeutics. The most common treatments to cure glioma are the surgical removal of tumors followed by adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy. The latest biocompatible interfaces have been incorporated into therapeutic modalities such as the targeted delivery of drugs using hydrogels to treat and manage brain glioma. This review illustrates the applications of the multimodal hydrogel as the carrier of therapeutics, gene therapy, therapeutic tactics, and glioma devices. The scientific articles were retrieved from 2019 to 2022 on Google Scholar and the Scopus database and screened to determine whether they were suitable for review. The 20 articles that fit the study are summarized in this review. These studies indicated that the sizes of the hydrogel range from 28 nm to 500 nm. There are 16 out of 20 articles that also explain the post-surgical application of hydrogels, and 13 out of 20 articles are employed in 3D culture and other structural manifestations of hydrogels. The pros of the hydrogel include the quick formulation for a sufficient filling of irregular damage sites, solubilizing hydrophobic drugs, continuously slowing drug release, provision of a 3D cell growth environment, improving efficacy, targetability of soluble biomolecules, increasing patient compliance, and decreased side effects. The cons of the hydrogel include difficult real-time monitoring, genetic manipulations, the cumbersome synchronized release of components, and lack of safety data. The prospects of the hydrogel may include the development of electronic hydrogel sensors that can be used to enhance guidance for the precise targeting patterns using patient-specific pathological idiosyncrasies. This technology has the potential to revolutionize the precision medicine approaches that would aid in the early detection and management of solid brain tumors.

Nanotherapeutic treatment of the invasive glioblastoma tumor microenvironment

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant adult brain cancer with no curative treatment strategy. A significant hurdle in GBM treatment is effective therapeutic delivery to the brain-invading tumor cells that remain following surgery within functioning brain regions. Developing therapies that can either directly target these brain-invading tumor cells or act on other cell types and molecular processes supporting tumor cell invasion and recurrence are essential steps in advancing new treatments in the clinic. This review highlights some of the drug delivery strategies and nanotherapeutic technologies that are designed to target brain-invading GBM cells or non-neoplastic, invasion-supporting cells residing within the GBM tumor microenvironment.

In Vitro Models of the Blood–Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier and Their Applications in the Development and Research of (Neuro)Pharmaceuticals

The pharmaceutical research sector has been facing the challenge of neurotherapeutics development and its inherited high-risk and high-failure-rate nature for decades. This hurdle is partly attributable to the presence of brain barriers, considered both as obstacles and opportunities for the entry of drug substances. The blood–cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier (BCSFB), an under-studied brain barrier site compared to the blood–brain barrier (BBB), can be considered a potential therapeutic target to improve the delivery of CNS therapeutics and provide brain protection measures. Therefore, leveraging robust and authentic in vitro models of the BCSFB can diminish the time and effort spent on unproductive or redundant development activities by a preliminary assessment of the desired physiochemical behavior of an agent toward this barrier. To this end, the current review summarizes the efforts and progresses made to this research area with a notable focus on the attribution of these models and applied techniques to the pharmaceutical sector and the development of neuropharmacological therapeutics and diagnostics. A survey of available in vitro models, with their advantages and limitations and cell lines in hand will be provided, followed by highlighting the potential applications of such models in the (neuro)therapeutics discovery and development pipelines.

QbD-based rivastigmine tartrate-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for enhanced intranasal delivery to the brain for Alzheimer's therapeutics

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects a wide range of populations and is the primary cause of death in various countries. The treatment of AD is still restricted to oral conventional medicines that act only superficially. Fabrication of intranasal solid lipid nanoparticulate system for the uptake of therapeutic agents will act as a convincing approach with limited off-site toxicity and increased pharmacological activity. The objective of this study was to formulate, optimize, and evaluate the efficiency of rivastigmine tartrate (RT)-loaded intranasal solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) employing the solvent-evaporation diffusion method. To optimize the formulation parameters, the central composite design (CCD) was used. Lipid concentration (X1) and surfactant concentration (X2) were considered to be independent variables, while particle size (Y1), percentage entrapment efficiency (Y2), and percentage drug release (Y3) were considered as responses. The solid lipid was glyceryl monostearate, while the surfactant was polysorbate 80. The optimized formulation has a particle size of 110.2 nm, % entrapment efficiency of 82.56%, and % drug release of 94.86%. The incompatibility of drug excipients was established by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Nasal histopathology tests on sheep mucosa revealed that the developed SLNs were safe to utilize for intranasal delivery with no toxicity. Ex vivo permeation investigations revealed that the flux and diffusion coefficients for RT solid lipid nanoparticles and RT solution were 3.378 g/cm2 /h and 0.310-3 cm2 /h, respectively. Stability studies demonstrated that the developed SLNs were stable when stored under various storage conditions. The viability and vitality of adopting a lipid particle delivery system for improved bioavailability via the intranasal route were also established in the in vivo pharmacokinetic investigations. According to the histopathological and pharmacokinetic investigations, the developed formulations were safe, non-lethal, efficient, and robust. These results suggest the potentiality provided by rivastigmine tartrate-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for nasal delivery.

Nano-Neurogenesis for CNS Diseases and Disorders

Neurogenesis encompasses the formation and development of neurons in the mammalian brain, mainly occurring in hippocampus and the olfactory system. This process is rapid, accurate, and very sensitive to the external stressors including environment, diet, age, anxiety, stress, depression, diet, and hormones. The range of stressors is big and directly impacts the generation, maturation and migration, efficacy, and myelination of the neuronal cells. The field of regenerative medicine focuses on combating the direct or indirect effects of these stressors on the process of neurogenesis, and ensures increased general and neuronal communications and functioning. Understanding the deep secrets of brain signaling and devising ways to increase drug availability is tough, considering the complexity and intricate details of the neuronal networks and signaling in the CNS. It is imperative to understand this complexity and introduce potent and efficacious ways to combat diseases. This perspective offers an insight into how neurogenesis could be aided by nanotechnology and what plausible nanomaterials are available to culminate neurogenesis-related neurological disorders. The nanomaterials are promising as they are minute, robust, and effective and help in diagnostics and therapeutics such as drug delivery, maturation and neuroprotection, neurogenesis, imaging, and neurosurgery.

Nanotechnology-Assisted Metered-Dose Inhalers (MDIs) for High-Performance Pulmonary Drug Delivery Applications

PURPOSE

Respiratory disorders pose a major threat to the morbidity and mortality to public health. Here we reviewed the nanotechnology based pulmonary drug delivery using metered dose inhalers.

METHODS

Major respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), asthma, acute lower respiratory tract infections, tuberculosis (TB) and lung cancer. At present, common treatments for respiratory disorders include surgery, radiation, immunotherapy, and chemotherapy or a combination. The major challenge is development of systemic delivery of the chemotherapeutic agents to the respiratory system. Conventional delivery of chemotherapy has various limitation and adverse side effected. Hence, targeted, and systemic delivery need to be developed. Towards this direction nanotechnology, based controlled, targeted, and systemic drug delivery systems are potential candidate to enhance therapeutic efficacy with minimum side effect. Among different route of administration, pulmonary delivery has unique benefits such as circumvents first pass hepatic metabolism and reduces dose and side effects.

RESULTS

Respiratory disorders pose a major threat to the morbidity and mortality to public health globally. Pulmonary delivery can be achieved through various drug delivery devices such as nebulizers, dry powder inhalers, and metered dose inhalers. Among them, metered dose inhalers are the most interesting and first choice of clinician over others. This review focused on nanotechnology based pulmonary drug delivery using metered dose inhalers. This report focused on delivery of various types of therapeutics using nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles and micelles, dendrimers, lipid nanocarriers such as liposomes, solid lipid nanostructures and nanostructured lipid carriers, and other using metered dose inhalers discussed comprehensively. This report provides insight about the effect of parameters of MDI such as co-solvent, propellants, actuators shape, nozzle diameters, and jet lengths, and respiratory flow rate, and particle size of co-suspension of drug on aerodynamics and lung deposition of formulation. This review also provided the insight about various metered dose inhalers market scenario and digital metered dose inhalers.

CONCLUSION

This report concluded the clinical potential of metered dose inhalers, summary of current progress and future perspectives towards the smart digital metered dose inhalers development.

Lanthanide-Doped Upconversion Luminescent Nanoparticles-Evolving Role in Bioimaging, Biosensing, and Drug Delivery

Upconverting luminescent nanoparticles (UCNPs) are "new generation fluorophores" with an evolving landscape of applications in diverse industries, especially life sciences and healthcare. The anti-Stokes emission accompanied by long luminescence lifetimes, multiple absorptions, emission bands, and good photostability, enables background-free and multiplexed detection in deep tissues for enhanced imaging contrast. Their properties such as high color purity, high resistance to photobleaching, less photodamage to biological samples, attractive physical and chemical stability, and low toxicity are affected by the chemical composition; nanoparticle crystal structure, size, shape and the route; reagents; and procedure used in their synthesis. A wide range of hosts and lanthanide ion (Ln3+) types have been used to control the luminescent properties of nanosystems. By modification of these properties, the performance of UCNPs can be designed for anticipated end-use applications such as photodynamic therapy (PDT), high-resolution displays, bioimaging, biosensors, and drug delivery. The application landscape of inorganic nanomaterials in biological environments can be expanded by bridging the gap between nanoparticles and biomolecules via surface modifications and appropriate functionalization. This review highlights the synthesis, surface modification, and biomedical applications of UCNPs, such as bioimaging and drug delivery, and presents the scope and future perspective on Ln-doped UCNPs in biomedical applications.

Borophene as an emerging 2D flatland for biomedical applications: current challenges and future prospects

Recently, two-dimensional (2D)-borophene has emerged as a remarkable translational nanomaterial substituting its predecessors in the field of biomedical sensors, diagnostic tools, high-performance healthcare devices, super-capacitors, and energy storage devices. Borophene justifies its demand due to high-performance and controlled optical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and magnetic properties as compared with other 2D-nanomaterials. However, continuous efforts are being made to translate theoretical and experimental knowledge into pragmatic platforms. To cover the associated knowledge gap, this review explores the computational and experimental chemistry needed to optimize borophene with desired properties. High electrical conductivity due to destabilization of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), nano-engineering at the monolayer level, chemistry-oriented biocompatibility, and photo-induced features project borophene for biosensing, bioimaging, cancer treatment, and theragnostic applications. Besides, the polymorphs of borophene have been useful to develop specific bonding for DNA sequencing and high-performance medical equipment. In this review, an overall critical and careful discussion of systematic advancements in borophene-based futuristic biomedical applications including artificial intelligence (AI), Internet-of-Things (IoT), and Internet-of-Medical Things (IoMT) assisted smart devices in healthcare to develop high-performance biomedical systems along with challenges and prospects is extensively addressed. Consequently, this review will serve as a key supportive platform as it explores borophene for next-generation biomedical applications. Finally, we have proposed the potential use of borophene in healthcare management strategies.

Exploring nano-enabled CRISPR-Cas-powered strategies for efficient diagnostics and treatment of infectious diseases

Biomedical researchers have subsequently been inspired the development of new approaches for precisely changing an organism's genomic DNA in order to investigate customized diagnostics and therapeutics utilizing genetic engineering techniques. Clustered Regulatory Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) is one such technique that has emerged as a safe, targeted, and effective pharmaceutical treatment against a wide range of disease-causing organisms, including bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, as well as genetic abnormalities. The recent discovery of very flexible engineered nucleic acid binding proteins has changed the scientific area of genome editing in a revolutionary way. Since current genetic engineering technique relies on viral vectors, issues about immunogenicity, insertional oncogenesis, retention, and targeted delivery remain unanswered. The use of nanotechnology has the potential to improve the safety and efficacy of CRISPR/Cas9 component distribution by employing tailored polymeric nanoparticles. The combination of two (CRISPR/Cas9 and nanotechnology) offers the potential to open new therapeutic paths. Considering the benefits, demand, and constraints, the goal of this research is to acquire more about the biology of CRISPR technology, as well as aspects of selective and effective diagnostics and therapies for infectious illnesses and other metabolic disorders. This review advocated combining nanomedicine (nanomedicine) with a CRISPR/Cas enabled sensing system to perform early-stage diagnostics and selective therapy of specific infectious disorders. Such a Nano-CRISPR-powered nanomedicine and sensing system would allow for successful infectious illness control, even on a personal level. This comprehensive study also discusses the current obstacles and potential of the predicted technology.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40097-022-00472-7.

An Insight to Brain Targeting Utilizing Polymeric Nanoparticles: Effective Treatment Modalities for Neurological Disorders and Brain Tumor

The delivery of therapeutic molecules to the brain remains an unsolved problem to the researchers due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which halts the entry of unwanted substances to the brain. Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, mainly Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, brain tumors, and stroke, are highly prevalent globally and are a growing concern for researchers due to restricting the delivery of pharmaceutical drugs to the brain. So effective treatment modalities are essential to combat the growing epidemic of CNS diseases. Recently, the growing attention in the field of nanotechnology has gained the faith of researchers for the delivery of therapeutics to the brain by targeting them to the specific target site. Polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) emerge out to be an instrumental approach in drug targeting to the brain by overcoming the physiological barrier, biomedical barrier, and BBB. Preclinical discovery has shown the tremendous potential and versatility of PNPs in encapsulating several drugs and their targeting to the deepest regions of the brain, thus improving therapeutic intervention of CNS disorders. The current review will summarize advances in the development of PNPs for targeting therapeutics to the brain and the functional and molecular effects obtained in the preclinical model of most common CNS diseases. The advancement of PNPs in clinical practice and their prospect in brain targeting will also be discussed briefly.

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery for the treatment of CNS disorders

Approximately 6.8 million people die annually because of problems related to the central nervous system (CNS), and out of them, approximately 1 million people are affected by neurodegenerative diseases that include Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and Parkinson's disease. CNS problems are a primary concern because of the complexity of the brain. There are various drugs available to treat CNS disorders and overcome problems with toxicity, specificity, and delivery. Barriers like the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are a challenge, as they do not allow therapeutic drugs to cross and reach their target. Researchers have been searching for ways to allow drugs to pass through the BBB and reach the target sites. These problems highlight the need of nanotechnology to alter or manipulate various processes at the cellular level to achieve the desired attributes. Due to their nanosize, nanoparticles are able to pass through the BBB and are an effective alternative to drug administration and other approaches. Nanotechnology has the potential to improve treatment and diagnostic techniques for CNS disorders and facilitate effective drug transfer. With the aid of nanoengineering, drugs could be modified to perform functions like transference across the BBB, altering signaling pathways, targeting specific cells, effective gene transfer, and promoting regeneration and preservation of nerve cells. The involvement of a nanocarrier framework inside the delivery of several neurotherapeutic agents used in the treatment of neurological diseases is reviewed in this study.

Applying Synthetic Biology with Rational Design to Nature’s Greatest Challenges: Bioengineering Immunotherapeutics for the Treatment of Glioblastoma

Improvements in bioengineering methodology and tools have allowed for significant progress in the development of therapeutics and diagnostics in medicine, as well as progress in many other diverse industries, such as materials manufacturing, food and agriculture, and consumer goods. Glioblastomas present significant challenges to adequate treatment, in part due to their immune-evasive and manipulative nature. Rational-design bioengineering using novel scaffolds, biomaterials, and inspiration across disciplines can push the boundaries in treatment development to create effective therapeutics for glioblastomas. In this review, we will discuss bioengineering strategies currently applied across diseases and disciplines to inspire creative development for GBM immunotherapies.

Brain Pathogenesis and Potential Therapeutic Strategies in Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is the most common muscular dystrophy that affects multiple systems including the muscle and heart. The mutant CTG expansion at the 3'-UTR of the DMPK gene causes the expression of toxic RNA that aggregate as nuclear foci. The foci then interfere with RNA-binding proteins, affecting hundreds of mis-spliced effector genes, leading to aberrant alternative splicing and loss of effector gene product functions, ultimately resulting in systemic disorders. In recent years, increasing clinical, imaging, and pathological evidence have indicated that DM1, though to a lesser extent, could also be recognized as true brain diseases, with more and more researchers dedicating to develop novel therapeutic tools dealing with it. In this review, we summarize the current advances in the pathogenesis and pathology of central nervous system (CNS) deficits in DM1, intervention measures currently being investigated are also highlighted, aiming to promote novel and cutting-edge therapeutic investigations.

Using Graphene-Based Biosensors to Detect Dopamine for Efficient Parkinson's Disease Diagnostics

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease in which the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) depletes due to the progressive loss of nigrostriatal neurons. Therefore, DA measurement might be a useful diagnostic tool for targeting the early stages of PD, as well as helping to optimize DA replacement therapy. Moreover, DA sensing appears to be a useful analytical tool in complex biological systems in PD studies. To support the feasibility of this concept, this mini-review explores the currently developed graphene-based biosensors dedicated to DA detection. We discuss various graphene modifications designed for high-performance DA sensing electrodes alongside their analytical performances and interference studies, which we listed based on their limit of detection in biological samples. Moreover, graphene-based biosensors for optical DA detection are also presented herein. Regarding clinical relevance, we explored the development trends of graphene-based electrochemical sensing of DA as they relate to point-of-care testing suitable for the site-of-location diagnostics needed for personalized PD management. In this field, the biosensors are developed into smartphone-connected systems for intelligent disease management. However, we highlighted that the focus should be on the clinical utility rather than analytical and technical performance.