Tocols stability during bread, water biscuit and pasta processing from wheat flours

Effect of replacing durum wheat semolina with Tenebrio molitor larvae powder on the techno-functional properties of the binary blends

Tenebrio molitor (TM) larvae, due to their high nutritional value, are gaining growing attention in food and feed sectors. Although few studies dealt with wheat-based products functionalized with TM larvae powder, there is a lack of comprehensive characterization of the raw materials to optimize the formulations for end-product recommendation. This study aimed at investigating the effects of partial replacement of durum wheat semolina with increasing amounts of TM larvae powder (5-30%) on the techno-functional properties of the binary blends. Color, granulometry, hydration properties, pasting characteristics, spectral characteristics (FTIR), reducing sugar content, and bioactivity in terms of total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (FRAP, DPPH, ABTS) were assessed in the resulting blends. The increasing insect powder decreased the lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) but increased the redness (a*) of the samples. In turn, the addition of insect powder did not negatively alter the hydration properties, which were comparable to those detected for semolina. Higher amounts of insect powder led to increased protein and lipid contents, as corroborated by the FTIR spectra, and decreased pasting parameters, with stronger starch granule stability detected when 20% and 30% of insect powder were added to the formulation. Significant increases in TPC and antioxidant activity were observed with increasing amount of insect powder (up to 87%, 78%, 2-fold, 67%, for TPC, FRAP, DPPH, and ABTS, respectively, compared to semolina). Therefore, these promising results have highlighted the possibility of using TM larvae powder as an unconventional ingredient for wheat-based products, by enhancing the nutritional and health-promoting values.

Pasta Enriched with Carrot and Olive Leaf Flour Retains High Levels of Accessible Bioactives after In Vitro Digestion

The aim of this research was to evaluate the levels of antioxidants and polyphenols in pasta enriched with either carrot or olive leaf flours after simulating gastrointestinal digestion. Pasta samples were prepared with fixed amounts of carrot and olive leaf flours (15% and 6% of the total mixture, respectively). We measured the antioxidant capacity and polyphenol content at different stages of the pasta production process, starting from the initial flour to the cooked pasta, and tested samples of the liquid component and solid waste resulting from the digestion process. The antioxidant activity was measured by the FRAP method, while the polyphenol content was measured by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Vitamin E contents were measured by HPLC. The pasta enriched with carrot (1.26 ± 0.05 mmol/100 g) and olive leaf (2.9 ± 0.07 mmol/100 g) exhibited higher antioxidant power compared to the unenriched pasta (0.8 ± 0.1 mmol/100 g). The polyphenol content followed a similar trend, with values of 131.23 ± 3.08 for olive flour-enriched pasta, 79.15 ± 1.11 for carrot flour-enriched pasta, and 67.5 ± 1.39 for the wheat-only pasta. The pasta samples maintained their antioxidant and polyphenol levels even after undergoing the simulated digestion process. Significantly, the liquid component of the pasta with olive leaf flours had the highest levels of antioxidants and polyphenols during all stages of the digestion process. According to the results of this study, pasta enriched with carrot and olive leaf flours shows promising potential for improving nutritional and functional properties by increasing antioxidant and polyphenol content. The samples were also evaluated by a sensory panel, which showed that fortification modified the perception of some organoleptic attributes without affecting the overall taste of the pasta.

Breadmaking Performance of Elite Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum) Lines: Evaluation of Flour, Dough and Bread Characteristics

Einkorn flour, rich in proteins, carotenoids, and other antioxidants, generally has poor breadmaking value. In this research, the composition and technological characteristics of the flours and breads of two elite einkorns (Monlis and ID331) and a bread wheat (Blasco), cropped in four different environments, were evaluated. The einkorns confirmed better flour composition than bread wheat for proteins (on average, 16.5 vs. 10.5 g/100 g), soluble pentosans (1.03 vs. 0.85 g/100 g), and yellow pigment (10.0 vs. 1.0 mg/kg). Technologically, they had better SDS sedimentation values (89 vs. 66 mL), lower farinographic water absorption (52.6 vs. 58.8%), and a similar development time, stability, and degree of softening. Viscoelasticity tests showed lower storage and loss moduli and more prevalent elastic behaviour for Blasco, while rheofermentographic tests showed an anticipated development time (120.8 vs. 175.0 min), higher maximum height (73.0 vs. 63.0 mm), and superior retention coefficient (99.1 vs. 88.7%), but a lower CO₂ total (1152 vs. 1713 mL) for einkorn doughs. Einkorn breads were bigger than the control (736 vs. 671 cm³); crumb pores percentage was similar, but medium-size pores were scarcer. Finally, a 52-h shelf-life trial demonstrated that einkorn bread had a softer texture, maintained for a longer time, and a slower retrogradation than the control. Therefore, choice of appropriate varieties and process optimisation allows the production of excellent einkorn breads with a superior nutritional value and longer shelf life.

Factors Affecting the Nutritional, Health, and Technological Quality of Durum Wheat for Pasta-Making: A Systematic Literature Review

Durum wheat is one of the most important food sources in the world, playing a key role in human nutrition, as well as in the economy of the different countries in which its production areas are concentrated. Its grain also represents a staple and highly versatile ingredient in the development of health foods. Nonetheless, the aspects determining durum wheat's health quality and their interactions are many, complex, and not entirely known. Therefore, the present systematic literature review aims at advancing the understanding of the relationships among nutritional, health, and technological properties of durum wheat grain, semolina, and pasta, by evaluating the factors that, either positively or negatively, can affect the quality of the products. Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases were systematically searched utilising sets of keywords following the PRISMA guidelines, and the relevant results of the definitive 154 eligible studies were presented and discussed. Thus, the review identified the most promising strategies to improve durum wheat quality and highlighted the importance of adopting multidisciplinary approaches for such purposes.

Antioxidant Properties of Gluten-Free Pasta Enriched with Vegetable By-Products

The only therapy for coeliac disease patients is to completely avoid foods containing gluten, a protein complex common in several small-grain cereals. However, many alternative gluten-free foods available on the market present nutritional deficiencies. Therefore, the aim of this research was to evaluate the composition and the antioxidant properties of gluten-free pasta enriched with 10% or 15% of tomato waste or linseed meal, two food industry by-products. The traits analysed were protein, lipid, ash and fibre content, heat damage, tocols, carotenoids and phenolics composition (by HPLC), antioxidant capacity, and pasta fracturability. The enriched pastas contained more fibre and lipids than the control, while the protein and ash values were similar. The addition of tomato and linseed waste improved tocols concentration but had no effect on carotenoids content. The free soluble polyphenols increase was similar for both by-products and proportional to the enrichment percentage, while the bound insoluble polyphenols were higher in linseed-enriched pastas. The samples with linseed meal showed the greatest antioxidant capacity and, at 10% addition, the highest fracturability value. In conclusion, the addition of tomato and linseed by-products significantly increases the presence of bioactive compounds (particularly polyphenols), improving the nutritional value of gluten-free pasta.

Effect of Tomato Pomace Addition on Chemical, Technological, Nutritional, and Sensorial Properties of Cream Crackers

The aim of this research was to determine the influence of tomato pomace (TP) addition on the chemical, nutritional, and technological characteristics of cream crackers made from wheat flour and 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10% TP. The TP-enriched cream crackers showed progressively increasing ash (from 0.69 of the control to 1.22 g/100 g dry matter of the 10% TP sample), fat (from 11.39 to 13.04 g/100 g), protein (from 13.53 to 15.60 g/100 g), total dietary fibre (from 4.08 to 7.80), carotenoids (from 0.55 to 8.56 mg/kg), tocols (from 57.59 to 71.63 mg/kg), free phenolic acids (from 100.08 to 277.37 mg/kg), free flavonoids (from 0.0 to 45.28 mg/kg), bound flavonoids (from 0.0 to 27.71 mg/kg), and fatty acids contents, antioxidant activity and dough viscosity. The colour coordinates increased via augmenting the amounts of TP. Thickness, volume, and specific volume decreased gradually with increasing TP; the enrichment reduced cracker hardness from 65.42 N (control) to 26.28 N (crackers with 10% TP), while the snapping force rose. Cream crackers with 8% TP showed the best sensory quality. Tomato pomace addition improves the nutritional quality of foods; furthermore, its recycling will help to solve the problems linked to the disposal of this industry waste.

Variation in the Content and Composition of Tocols in a Wheat Population

Wheat is a well-known source of B vitamins but also contains significant amounts of vitamin E and related tocols, which have a number of positive health benefits. However, there are no reports on increasing the tocol content of wheat. A prerequisite for increasing the tocol content is the identification of variation in its amount within wheat and related cereals. We therefore determined the tocol content and composition in the grain of 230 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) of a diverse biparental wheat population (Mv Toborzó/Tommi), showing variation in the total content from 13.69 to 45.18 μg/g d.m. The total content also showed transgressive segregation in the population. The effect of the genotype on the variance components of tocols was studied, and the broad-sense heritability was calculated to be 0.71. The lines were also grouped based on their tocol content and analyzed for their chemical composition and breadmaking quality. The high heritability value and the wide variation found in the total amount indicate that increasing the content of tocols is a possible breeding strategy.

Chemical Composition, Tocopherol and Carotenoid Content of Seeds from Different Andean Lupin (Lupinus mutabilis) Ecotypes

Andean lupin (Lupinus mutabilis) seeds are appreciated for their high protein and lipid contents and have potential applications as ingredients in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. Nevertheless, the information about the seed composition (especially in lipophilic antioxidants) of ecotypes from distinct cropping areas is currently limited. Thus, the aim of the present research was to assess the morphological characteristics, chemical composition, tocopherol and carotenoid contents of the seeds of 33 Andean lupin ecotypes from different Peruvian regions, along with three L. albus, one L. angustifolius and one L. luteus controls. Significant differences were noted among the Andean ecotypes for all analyzed features. The protein, lipid and ash contents were 32.0-46.9, 13.6-18.6 and 2.7-4.4 g/100 g dry matter (DM), respectively. The seeds were rich in tocopherols (172.1-249.8 mg/kg DM; γ-tocopherol was 98% of total tocols) and low in carotenoids (0.69-2.89 mg/kg DM). Debittering increased the tocopherol content (227.0-378.2 mg/kg DM), probably because of the soluble components loss, although the carotenoid concentration remained unchanged. The Andean lupins had higher protein, lipid and tocopherol contents than L. albus and L. angustifolius; the L. luteus values were within the L. mutabilis range. These results suggest that L. mutabilis harbors nutritional characteristics that are well suited to modern food trends.

Phenolic acid content and in vitro antioxidant capacity of einkorn water biscuits as affected by baking time

Aim of this research was to study the evolution of heat damage, phenolic acid content and in vitro antioxidant capacity of whole meal einkorn water biscuits baked at 205 °C for increasing times (10 min steps) from 25 to 75 min. The heat damage was gauged by determining furosine, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), furfural and glucosylisomaltol (GLI) contents. Furosine increased up to 50 min baking, when HMF started to form; furfural augmented only after 65 min treatment, whereas GLI did not change. An unknown compound, apparently related to the severity of the heat load, aroses through the aldolic condensation of HMF with the acetone used for the extraction of phenolic acids; hence the use of acetone-based solvents in thermally processed cereal products should be avoided. The conjugated phenolic acids ferulic, vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric, p-hydroxybenzoic and syringaldehyde and the bound phenolic acids ferulic, p-coumaric, syringic, and p-hydroxybenzoic were identified in water biscuits. The stronger heating treatments led to an increase of the soluble conjugated compounds, but did not influence the bound fraction. The in vitro antioxidant capacity of water biscuits augmented significantly as baking time increased, likely for the formation of antioxidant compounds as a consequence of heat damage.

Microencapsulates and extracts from red beetroot pomace modify antioxidant capacity, heat damage and colour of pseudocereals-enriched einkorn water biscuits

Cereals supply humankind with carbohydrates, proteins and several health-enhancing compounds, including antioxidants. Pomace, a by-product of beetroot juice preparation, is rich in antioxidants (phenolic compounds and betalains). The aim of this work was to study the effect of pomace extract addition, either pure or microencapsulated, on antioxidant properties, heat damage and colour of einkorn water biscuits enriched with pseudocereals. Pomace extract addition had different effects on total polyphenol contents and antioxidant capacity (FRAP and ABTS) in diverse blends. In bread, wheat and einkorn matrices, a significant increase was observed, while in pseudocereals-enriched blends, richer in antioxidants, only microencapsulation improved their content. Pomace extract addition led to furosine reduction and hydroxymethylfurfural increase. Microencapsulate-enriched WB were richest in betanin, isobetanin, total phenolics and antioxidant capacity. In conclusion, pomace extracts, by-products of juice manufacturing, significantly improve some nutritional characteristics of baked products, especially when conveyed as microencapsulates.

Physical and Bioactive Properties of Muffins Enriched with Raspberry and Cranberry Pomace Powder: A Promising Application of Fruit By-Products Rich in Biocompounds

The objective of this study was to determine the effects on quality of incorporating raspberry and cranberry pomaces into American-style muffins prepared under various baking conditions. The different baking conditions did not affect the texture or microstructure of the control muffins. The enhanced samples baked at 140 °C for 30 min were characterized by a harder texture than the control muffins and by a distributed protein matrix and distorted starch granules, while those baked at 240 °C for 15 min had a moist texture and showed incomplete starch gelatinization. The mean percent recovery of ellagic acid, flavonols, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and anthocyanins after baking were 156, 53, 48, 43, and 22 %, respectively. Lower baking temperature was better for ellagic acid and tocotrienols, but worse for flavonols, tocopherols, and anthocyanins. It seems that, for the enhanced samples, the intermediate baking conditions (180 °C for 20 min) guarantee the best microstructure and texture and the appropriate retention of phytochemicals in muffins.

The Content of Tocols in South African Wheat; Impact on Nutritional Benefits

Wheat is a major component within human consumption, and due to the large intake of wheat, it has an impact on human nutritional health. This study aimed at an increased understanding of how the content and composition of tocols may be governed for increased nutritional benefit of wheat consumption. Therefore, ten South African wheat cultivars from three locations were fractionated into white and whole flour, the content and concentration of tocols were evaluated by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and vitamin E activity was determined. The content and composition of tocols and vitamin E activity differed with fractionation, genotype, environment, and their interaction. The highest tocol content (59.8 mg kg^-1) was obtained in whole flour for the cultivar Elands grown in Ladybrand, while whole Caledon flour from Clarence resulted in the highest vitamin E activity (16.3 mg kg^-1). The lowest vitamin E activity (1.9 mg kg^-1) was found in the cultivar C1PAN3118 from Ladybrand. High values of tocotrienols were obtained in whole flour of the cultivars Caledon (30.5 mg kg^-1 in Clarens), Elands (35.5 mg kg^-1 in Ladybrand), and Limpopo (33.7 mg kg^-1 in Bultfontein). The highest tocotrienol to tocopherol ratio was found in white flour (2.83) due to higher reduction of tocotrienols than of tocopherols at fractionation. The quantity and composition of tocols can be governed in wheat flour, primarily by the selection of fractionation method at flour production, but also complemented by selection of genetic material and the growing environment.

Development of Lipophilic Antioxidants and Chloroplasts during the Sprouting of Diverse Triticum spp

The influence of sprouting times and illumination conditions on lipophilic antioxidants (carotenoids, tocochromanols, alkylresorcinols, and steryl ferulates), chlorophylls, and α-amylase activity was investigated using four varieties each of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum), spelt (T. aestivum ssp. spelta), durum (T. durum), emmer (T. dicoccum), and einkorn (T. monococcum). Carotenoid levels significantly increased during sprouting, particularly, under light exposure. In contrast, concentrations of other lipophilic antioxidants were affected to a lesser extent. Moreover, the quantitative development of lipophilic antioxidants was evidently determined by genotype. On the basis of the levels of carotenoids newly synthesized during sprouting, a chloroplast development index indicated that chloroplast ontogenesis during sprouting occurred at different species-dependent rates. Thermal degradation of carotenoids, tocochromanols, chlorophylls, and α-amylase activity was observed during the drying of sprouts at 40 and 90 °C, while alkylresorcinol and steryl ferulate levels remained unaffected. Wheat sprouts were shown to be potential functional ingredients to increase the nutritional value of cereal products.

Influence of water biscuit processing and kernel puffing on the phenolic acid content and the antioxidant activity of einkorn and bread wheat

The whole meal flour of wheat is rich in phenolic acids, which provide a relevant antioxidant activity to food products. Aim of this research was to assess the influence of processing on phenolic acid content and antioxidant activity of whole meal flour water biscuits and puffed kernels of einkorn and bread wheat. To this end, the evolution of syringaldehyde, ferulic, vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric, p-hydroxybenzoic, and caffeic acids was studied during manufacturing. Overall, from flour to water biscuit, the total soluble conjugated phenolic acids increased slightly in einkorn, while the insoluble bound phenolic acids decreased in all the accessions as a consequence of losses during the mixing step. In the puffed kernels, instead, the total soluble conjugated phenolic acids increased markedly, while the bound phenolics did not show any clear change, evidencing their high thermal stability. The antioxidant activity, measured by FRAP and ABTS, increased during processing and was highest under the most drastic puffing conditions.

Structure and quality of pasta enriched with functional ingredients

In this article we review current knowledge on the fate of those functional components that have been more widely studied, how they may interact during pasta processing and what impact they may have on quality pasta attributes.

Crossability of Triticum urartu and Triticum monococcum wheats, homoeologous recombination, and description of a panel of interspecific introgression lines

Triticum monococcum (genome A^m) and T. urartu (genome A^u) are diploid wheats, with the first having been domesticated in the Neolithic Era and the second being a wild species. In a germplasm collection, rare wild T. urartu lines with the presence of T. monococcum alleles were found. This stimulated our interest to develop interspecific introgression lines of T. urartu in T. monococcum, a breeding tool currently implemented in several crop species. Moreover, the experiments reported were designed to reveal the existence in nature of A^m/A^u intermediate forms and to clarify whether the two species are at least marginally sexually compatible. From hand-made interspecific crosses, almost-sterile F₁ plants were obtained when the seed-bearing parent was T. monococcum. A high degree of fertility was, however, evident in some advanced generations, particularly when T. urartu donors were molecularly more related to T. monococcum. Analysis of the marker populations demonstrated chromosome pairing and recombination in F₁ hybrid plants. Forty-six introgression lines were developed using a line of T. monococcum with several positive agronomic traits as a recurrent parent. Microsatellite markers were tested on A^u and A^m genomes, ordered in a T. monococcum molecular map, and used to characterize the exotic DNA fragments present in each introgression line. In a test based on 28 interspecific introgression lines, the existence of genetic variation associated with T. urartu chromosome fragments was proven for the seed content of carotenoids, lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, and zinc. The molecular state of available introgression lines is summarized.

Nutritional properties of einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum L.)

The hulled wheat einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. ssp. monococcum), a staple food of early farmers for many thousand years, today is cropped only in small areas of the Mediterranean region and continental Europe. Increasing attention to the nutritional quality of foods has fostered renewed interest in this low-impact crop. The reappraisal of einkorn quality evidenced that this ancient wheat has some dietary advantages over polyploid wheats. Einkorn wholemeal is poor in dietary fibre but rich in proteins, lipids (mostly unsaturated fatty acids), fructans and trace elements (including zinc and iron). The good concentration of several antioxidant compounds (carotenoids, tocols, conjugated polyphenols, alkylresorcinols and phytosterols) and low β-amylase and lipoxygenase activities (which limit antioxidant degradation during food processing) contribute to the excellent nutritional properties of its flour, superior to those of other wheats. Conversely, einkorn has relatively low bound polyphenol content and high polyphenol oxidase activity. In spite of eliciting weaker toxic reactions than other Triticum species, einkorn is not suitable for coeliacs. Current trends towards the consumption of functional foods suggest that this cereal may still play a significant role in human consumption, especially in the development of new or special foods with superior nutritional quality.

Heat damage of water biscuits from einkorn, durum and bread wheat flours

To limit heat damage and improve the nutritional properties of bakery products, furosine, glucosylisomaltol, hydroxymethylfurfural, furfural, sugars, α-amylase, β-amylase and colour were assessed during the production of water biscuits from three einkorn, three bread and one durum wheat flours. Heat damage indices, colour and aw development during baking (from 25 to 75min duration) of water biscuits from one bread wheat were also studied. Furosine was more abundant in durum (86.0±6.29mg/100g protein) and bread wheat (42.5±6.93) than in einkorn (15.7±3.92) water biscuits, while GLI was detected only in durum (10.0±2.02mg/kgDM) and bread wheat (5.2±1.52) products; hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural were always absent. The limited heat damage of Triticum monococcum products was probably due to the moderate β-amylase activity of einkorn, and hence to the low maltose content of its mixes. The colour was correlated to heat damage, as einkorn water biscuits were lighter than those from other wheats.