Anti-inflammatory evaluation of gardenia extract, geniposide and genipin

Genipin's potential as an anti-cancer agent: from phytochemical origins to clinical prospects

This comprehensive review delves into the multifaceted aspects of genipin, a bioactive compound derived from medicinal plants, focusing on its anti-cancer potential. The review begins by detailing the sources and phytochemical properties of genipin, underscoring its significance in traditional medicine and its transition into contemporary cancer research. It then explores the intricate relationship between genipin's chemical structure and its observed anti-cancer activity, highlighting the molecular underpinnings contributing to its therapeutic potential. This is complemented by a thorough analysis of preclinical studies, which investigates genipin's efficacy against various cancer cell lines and its mechanisms of action at the cellular level. A crucial component of the review is the examination of genipin's bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, providing insights into how the compound is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted in the body. Then, this review offers a general and updated overview of the anti-cancer studies of genipin and its derivatives based on its basic molecular mechanisms, induction of apoptosis, inhibition of cell proliferation, and disruption of cancer cell signaling pathways. We include information that complements the genipin study, such as toxicity data, and we differentiate this review by including commercial status, disposition, and regulation. Also, this review of genipin stands out for incorporating information on proposals for a technological approach through its load in nanotechnology to improve its bioavailability. The culmination of this information positions genipin as a promising candidate for developing novel anti-cancer drugs capable of supplementing or enhancing current cancer therapies.

Effects of medicine food homologous materials on food allergy-associated factors: intestinal oxidative stress, intestinal inflammation and Th2 immune response

BACKGROUND

Food allergies could be regulated via Th1/Th2 balance, intestinal oxidative stress and inflammation, which were considered as food allergy-associated factors. Medicine-food homologous materials (MFHM) were considered as a significant factor with respect to preventing human diseases. To evaluate the associations between MFHM and food allergy-associated factors, two types of MFHM with the remarkable function of anti-oxidation and anti-inflammation, Gardeniae fructus (Gar) and Sophorae glos (Sop), were chosen.

RESULTS

By constructing an H2O2-induced oxidative stress model of Caco-2 cells and an intestinal inflammatory cell model of Caco-2 cells with tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin (IL)-13, the contents of anti-oxidative enzymes (SOD and GSH), inflammatory factor (IL-8) and tight junction proteins (zonula occludens-1, occludin and claudin-1) in Caco-2 cells were determined. Moreover, the anti-allergic effects of digestive Sop and Gar were evaluated by measuring the levels of Th1/Th2/Treg cytokines in the spleen cells of sensitized mice. The results showed that the SOD and GSH were obviously increased and the gene and protein expression of IL-8 and claudin-1 were improved with the incubation of digested Sop. Th2 cytokine was reduced and Th1/Th2 balance was promoted on coincubation with ovalbumin (OVA) and digested Sop in the splenocytes. However, the digested Gar had no effect.

CONCLUSION

The digested Sop not only had suppressive effects on intestinal oxidative stress and inflammation, but also had regulative effects on Th1/Th2 balance. This finding demonstrated that not all of the MFHM with anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects have anti-allergic activities. The present study may be contributing toward establishing a screening model to identify the anti-allergic MFHM. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Investigation of Liquid Collagen Ink for Three-Dimensional Printing

Three-dimensional printing provides more versatility in the fabrication of scaffold materials for hard and soft tissue replacement, but a critical component is the ink. The ink solution should be biocompatible, stable, and able to maintain scaffold shape, size, and function once printed. This paper describes the development of a collagen ink that remains in a liquid pre-fibrillized state prior to printing. The liquid stability occurs due to the incorporation of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) during dialysis of the collagen. Collagen inks were 3D-printed using two different printers. The resulting scaffolds were further processed using two different chemical crosslinkers, 1-Ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]carbodiimide hydrochloride)/N-hydroxysuccinimide (EDC/NHS) and genipin; gold nanoparticles were conjugated to the scaffolds. The 3D-printed scaffolds were characterized to determine their extrudability, stability, amount of AuNP conjugated, and overall biocompatibility via cell culture studies using fibroblast cells and stroma cells. The results demonstrated that the liquid collagen ink was amendable to 3D printing and was able to maintain its 3D shape. The scaffolds could be conjugated with gold nanoparticles and demonstrated enhanced biocompatibility. It was concluded that the liquid collagen ink is a good candidate material for the 3D printing of tissue scaffolds.

Alleviative Effect of Geniposide on Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Macrophages via Calcium Pathway

In this study, we investigated how geniposide (a bioactive ingredient of gardenia fruit) acts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. Griess reagent assay, Fluo-4 calcium assay, dihydrorhodamine 123 assay, multiplex cytokine assay, quantitative RT-PCR, and flow cytometry assay were used for this study. Data showed that geniposide at concentrations of 10, 25, and 50 μM reduced significantly the levels of nitric oxide, intracellular Ca2+, and hydrogen peroxide in LPS-activated RAW 264.7. Multiplex cytokine assay showed that geniposide at concentrations of 10, 25, and 50 μM meaningfully suppressed levels of IL-6, G-CSF, MCP-1, and MIP-1α in RAW 264.7 provoked by LPS; additionally, geniposide at concentrations of 25 and 50 μM meaningfully suppressed the levels of TNF-α, IP-10, GM-CSF, and MIP-1β. Flow cytometry assay showed that geniposide reduces significantly the level of activated P38 MAPK in RAW 264.7 provoked by LPS. Geniposide meaningfully suppressed LPS-induced transcription of inflammatory target genes, such as Chop, Jak2, Fas, c-Jun, c-Fos, Stat3, Nos2, Ptgs2, Gadd34, Asc, Xbp1, Nlrp3, and Par-2. Taken together, geniposide exerts alleviative effects in LPS-stimulated macrophages via the calcium pathway.

Phytoimmunomodulators: A review of natural modulators for complex immune system

In the past few decades, the medicinal properties of plants and their effects on the human immune system are being studied extensively. Plants are an incredible source of traditional medicines that help cure various diseases, including altered immune mechanisms and are economical and benign compared to allopathic medicines. Reported data in written documents such as Traditional Chinese medicine, Indian Ayurvedic medicine support the supplementation of botanicals for immune defense reactions in the body and can lead to safe and effective immunity responses. Additionally, some botanicals are well-identified as magical herbal remedies because they act upon the pathogen directly and help boost the immunity of the host. Chemical compounds, also known as phytochemicals, obtained from these botanicals looked promising due to their effects on the human immune system by modulating the lymphocytes which subsequently reduce the chances of getting infected. This paper summarises most documented phytochemicals and how they act on the immune system, their properties and possible mechanisms, screening conventions, formulation guidelines, comparison with synthetic immunity-enhancers, marketed immunity-boosting products, and immune-booster role in the ongoing ghastly corona virus wave. However, it focuses mainly on plant metabolites as immunomodulators. In addition, it also sheds light on the current advancements and future possibilities in this field. From this thorough study, it can be stated that the plant-based secondary metabolites contribute significantly to immunity building and could prove to be valuable medicaments for the design and development of novel immunomodulators even for a pandemic like COVID-19.

Therapeutic potentials of iridoids derived from Rubiaceae against in vitro and in vivo inflammation: A scoping review

Acute inflammation may develop into chronic, life-threatening inflammation-related diseases if left untreated or if there are persistent triggering factors. Cancer, diabetes mellitus, stroke, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders are some of the inflammation-related diseases affecting millions of people worldwide. Despite that, conventional medical therapy such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is associated with serious adverse effects; hence, there is an urgent need for a newer and safer therapeutic alternative from natural sources. Iridoids are naturally occurring heterocyclic monoterpenoids commonly found in Rubiaceae plants. Plant extracts from the Rubiaceae family were demonstrated to have medicinal benefits against neurodegeneration, inflammation, oxidative stress, hyperglycaemia, and cancer. However, the therapeutic effects of natural iridoids derived from Rubiaceae as well as their prospective impacts on inflammation in vitro and in vivo have not been thoroughly explored. The databases of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for pertinent articles in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A total of 31 pertinent articles from in vitro and in vivo studies on the anti-inflammatory potentials of iridoids from Rubiaceae were identified. According to current research, genipin, geniposide, and monotropein are the most researched iridoids from Rubiaceae that reduce inflammation. These iridoids primarily act by attenuating inflammatory cytokines and mediators via inhibition of the NF-κB signalling pathway in various disease models. A comprehensive overview of the current research on the anti-inflammatory properties of iridoids from the Rubiaceae family is presented in this review, highlighting the characteristics of the experimental models used as well as the mechanisms of action of these iridoids. To develop an alternative therapeutic agent from iridoids, more studies are needed to elucidate the effects and mechanism of action of iridoids in a wide variety of experimental models as well as in clinical studies pertaining to inflammation-related diseases.

Recent Advances in Biologically Active Ingredients from Natural Drugs for Sepsis Treatment

Sepsis refers to the dysregulated host response to infection; its incidence and mortality rates are high. It is a worldwide medical problem but there is no specific drug for it. In recent years, clinical and experimental studies have found that many monomer components of traditional Chinese medicine have certain effects on the treatment of sepsis. This paper reviews the advances in research on the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine involved in the treatment of sepsis in recent years according to their chemical structure; it could provide ideas and references for further research and development in Chinese materia medica for the treatment of sepsis.

GENIPOSIDE IMPROVES CLP-INDUCED SEPSIS MODEL PROGNOSIS BY UPREGULATING PPARγ TO MODULATE MONOCYTE PHENOTYPE AND CYTOKINE NETWORK

ABSTRACT

Background : We explored the efficacy and main biological mechanism of geniposide intervention in sepsis. Methods : A sepsis model was established in male BALB/c mice through cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Different doses of geniposide (20 or 40 mg/kg) were administered intravenously at 0 and/or 24 h after CLP surgery. The survival rate of different groups was observed. In addition, the expression levels of CD16 and major histocompatibility complex class II in monocytes were assessed using flow cytometry. The concentrations of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 in the serum were measured by ELISA. We also observed the biological effects of geniposide on CD16 and MHC-II expression levels in RAW264.7 cells, as well as the secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 in the LPS-induced RAW264.7 cell model. The PPARγ levels were determined using western blot analysis. Results : Intravenous administration of 40 mg/kg of geniposide at 0 h after CLP significantly improved the survival outcomes in the septic mouse model, with no significant benefits from low dosing (20 mg/kg) or delayed administration (24 h). The effective dose of geniposide significantly decreased the serum cytokine TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 concentrations in septic mice ( P < 0.05). Notably, in vitro assays showed that geniposide specifically increased the IL-10 level. Geniposide significantly reduced the CD16 expression ( P < 0.05) and increased MHC-II expression in monocytes ( P < 0.05). In addition, geniposide elevated the PPARγ level in monocytes ( P < 0.05). Conclusions : High-dose early-stage geniposide administration significantly improved the survival rate in a CLP mouse sepsis model by modulating the monocyte phenotype and regulating the cytokine network (IL-6/IL-10 levels). The pharmacological mechanism of geniposide action might be exerted primarily through PPARγ upregulation.

Alleviate oxidative stress in diabetic retinopathy: antioxidant therapeutic strategies

OBJECTIVES

This review outlines the function of oxidative stress in DR and discusses therapeutic strategies to treat DR with antioxidants.

METHODS

Published papers on oxidative stress in DR and therapeutic strategies to treat DR with antioxidants were collected and reviewed via database searching on PubMed.

RESULTS

The abnormal development of DR is a complicated process. The pathogenesis of DR has been reported to involve oxidative stress, despite the fact that the mechanisms underlying this are still not fully understood. Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation can damage retina, eventually leading to DR. Increasing evidence have demonstrated that antioxidant therapy can alleviate the degeneration of retinal capillaries in DR.

CONCLUSION

Oxidative stress can play an important contributor in the pathogenesis of DR. Furthermore, animal experiments have shown that antioxidants are a beneficial therapy for treating DR, but more clinical trial data is needed.

Improved Physiochemical Properties of Chitosan@PCL Nerve Conduits by Natural Molecule Crosslinking

Nerve conduits may represent a valuable alternative to autograft for the regeneration of long-gap damages. However, no NCs have currently reached market approval for the regeneration of limiting gap lesions, which still represents the very bottleneck of this technology. In recent years, a strong effort has been made to envision an engineered graft to tackle this issue. In our recent work, we presented a novel design of porous/3D-printed chitosan/poly-ε-caprolactone conduits, coupling freeze drying and additive manufacturing technologies to yield conduits with good structural properties. In this work, we studied genipin crosslinking as strategy to improve the physiochemical properties of our conduit. Genipin is a natural molecule with very low toxicity that has been used to crosslink chitosan porous matrix by binding the primary amino group of chitosan chains. Our characterization evidenced a stabilizing effect of genipin crosslinking towards the chitosan matrix, with reported modified porosity and ameliorated mechanical properties. Given the reported results, this method has the potential to improve the performance of our conduits for the regeneration of long-gap nerve injuries.

Multi-omics analysis reveals the molecular basis of flavonoid accumulation in fructus of Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis)

BACKGROUND

The fruits of Gardenia are rich in flavonoids and geniposides, which have various pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer. In this study, we analyzed the transcriptome and metabolome of gardenia peel and kernel at different growth stages, revealed the regulatory network related to flavonoid synthesis, and identified the key regulatory genes.

RESULTS

The results showed that in terms of flavonoid metabolic pathways, gardenia fruits mainly synthesized cinnamic acid through the phenylpropanoid pathway, and then synthesized flavonoids through the action of catalytic enzymes such as 4-coumaroyl-CoA ligase, chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase and flavanol synthase, respectively. In addition, we found that the metabolomics data showed a certain spatial and temporal pattern in the expression of genes related to the flavonoid metabolism pathway and the relative content of metabolites, which was related to the development and ripening process of the fruit.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, this study successfully screened out the key genes related to the biosynthesis metabolism of flavonoids in gardenia through the joint analysis of transcriptome and metabolome. This is of certain significance to the in-depth study of the formation mechanism of gardenia efficacy components and the improvement of quality.

New cycloartane coronalyl acetate and other terpenoids with anti-inflammatory activity from the leaves of Vietnamese Gardenia philastrei

Phytochemical study on the methanolic extract of the leaves of Vietnamese plant Gardenia philastrei Pierre ex Pit. has led to the isolation of a new cycloartane coronalyl acetate (1) together with six known ones, coronlolide methyl ester (2), sootepin D (3), coronalolide (4), coronalolic acid (5), sootepin G (6) and 23-deoxojessic acid (7). Their structures were elucidated by a combination of 2 D NMR and HR-ESI-MS spectroscopies. These compounds (1-7) were tested for their anti-inflammatory activity. The result showed that six compounds (1-6) inhibit LPS-induced nitric oxide production in RAW264.7 macrophages with their IC50 values ranging from 3.76 - 75.47 µg/mL. This is the first report on the chemical constituents and anti-inflammatory activity of the G. philastrei.

Transcriptome and metabolome analysis revealed the changes of Geniposide and Crocin content in Gardenia jasminoides fruit

BACKGROUND

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a perennial evergreen shrub of G. jasminoides of Rubiaceae. Geniposide and Crocin are important components in the fruit of G. jasminoides. In addition to being used as medicinal materials, they are also widely used in food, medicine, cosmetics, and other fields. They have high medicinal value, economic value, and ornamental value. However, at present, the utilization rate of G. jasminoides resources is low, mainly focused on germplasm cultivation, primary processing, and clinical pharmacology, and there are few studies on the quality of Gardenia fruit.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Based on transcriptome sequencing and metabolic group analysis, the morphological and structural changes of Gardenia fruit with young fruit, middle fruit, and ripe fruit were analyzed, and the formation mechanism and content changes of Geniposide and Crocin in Gardenia fruit were studied. The content of Geniposide decreased with the development of fruit, so did the expression of the main structural gene GES, G10H, and IS in its synthesis pathway, while the content of Crocin increased with the development of fruit, and the expression of the main structural gene CCD, ALDH, and UGT in its synthesis pathway also increased. The relationship between the morphological structure of G. jasminoides and the accumulation of Geniposide and Crocin was summarized.

CONCLUSIONS

This study not only provides a theoretical basis for the mining and utilization of Geniposide and Crocin, but also provides a theoretical basis for genetic background for the identification and cloning of bioactive substances in gardenia fruit in future. At the same time, it provides support for increasing the dual-use value of G. jasminoides and breeding excellent germplasm resources.

Geniposide-Rich Gardenia jasminoides Ellis Fruit Extract Increases Healthspan in Caenorhabditis elegans

The human life span has been markedly extended since the 1900s, but it has not brought healthy aging to everyone. This increase in life expectancy without an increase in healthspan is a major global concern that imposes considerable health care budgets and degrades the quality of life of older adults. Dietary interventions are a promising strategy to increase healthspan. In this study, we evaluated whether a Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit ethanol extract (GFE) increases the life span of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Treatment with 10 mg/mL GFE increased the life span by 27.1% when compared to the vehicle group. GFE (10 mg/mL) treatment improved healthspan-related markers (pharyngeal pumping, muscle quality, age-pigment, and reactive oxygen species accumulation) and exerted a protective effect against amyloid β 1-42 toxicity. These effects of GFE are related to the inhibition of insulin/IGF-1 signaling and activation of SKN-1/Nrf, thereby promoting the expression of stress resistance-related genes. In addition, treatment with 10 mM geniposide, the most abundant component of GFE, improved healthspan-related markers and increased life span by 18.55% when compared to the vehicle group. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that GFE and its component geniposide increase the life span along with healthspan in C. elegans.

Twelve-month in utero safety assessment of gardenia blue, a natural food colorant

Toxicity assessment of the food colorant Gardenia jasminoides Ellis at dietary exposures of 0.0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.5%, 3.0% and 5.0% included measures of T-cell- dependent antibody response, neurotoxicity, and clinical and anatomic pathology in Sprague Dawley rats during mating, gestation, lactation, postnatal development, and following weaning for up to 12 months including 3- and 6-month interim evaluations. Blue coloration of the gastrointestinal tract, mesenteric lymph nodes and kidneys was present in treated rats only at necropsy with minimal blue coloration at the lowest dose and without histopathological correlates in any of the tissues. There was good survival with no consistent treatment-related changes in hematology, clinical chemistry, enhanced evaluation of lymphoid tissues, or tissue histopathology at interim and final time points. T-cell dependent antibody response and neurotoxicity screening were negative in treated rats. The no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) was determined to be 5.0% gardenia blue (2,854.5 and 3,465.4 mg/kg/day in parental males and females, respectively, prior to mating; 3,113.5 and 4,049.6 mg/kg/day in male and female offspring, respectively, following up to 12 months of exposure.

Geniposide alleviates pressure overload in cardiac fibrosis with suppressed TGF-β1 pathway

BACKGROUND

Cardiac fibrosis is one of the main contributors to the pathogenesis of heart failure. Geniposide (GE), a major iridoid in gardenia fruit extract, has recently been reported to improve skeletal muscle fibrosis through the modulation of inflammation response. This investigation aimed to illuminate the cardio-protective effect and the potential mechanism of GE in cardiac fibrosis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A transverse aortic contraction (TAC) induction mice model was established and GE (0 mg/kg; 10 mg/kg; 20 mg/kg; 40 mg/kg) was administered by oral gavage daily for 4 weeks. Hemodynamic parameters, Masson's trichrome stain, and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining were estimated and cardiomyocyte fibrosis, interstitial collagen levels, and hypertrophic markers were analyzed using qPCR and western blot. In vitro, H9C2 cells were exposed to the Ang II (1 μM) pretreated with GE (0.1 μM, 1 μM, and 10 μM). Cardiomyocyte apoptosis was detected. Moreover, the transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1)/Smad2 pathway was assessed in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

GE significantly ameliorated TAC-induced cardiac hypertrophy, ventricular remodeling, myocardial fibrosis, and improved cardiac function in vivo, and it inhibited Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis in vitro. We further observed that the inflammatory channel TGF-β1/Smad2 pathway was suppressed by GE both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that GE inhibited myocardial fibrosis and improved hypertrophic cardiomyocytes with attenuated the TGF-β1/Smad2 pathway and proposed to be an important therapeutic of cardiac fibrosis reduced by TAC.

Natural products in attenuating renal inflammation via inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome in diabetic kidney disease

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a prevalent and severe complications of diabetes and serves as the primary cause of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) globally. Increasing evidence indicates that renal inflammation is critical in the pathogenesis of DKD. The nucleotide - binding oligomerization domain (NOD) - like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is the most extensively researched inflammasome complex and is considered a crucial regulator in the pathogenesis of DKD. The activation of NLRP3 inflammasome is regulated by various signaling pathways, including NF- κB, thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP), and non-coding RNAs (ncRNA), among others. Natural products are chemicals extracted from living organisms in nature, and they typically possess pharmacological and biological activities. They are invaluable sources for drug design and development. Research has demonstrated that many natural products can alleviate DKD by targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome. In this review, we highlight the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in DKD, and the pathways by which natural products fight against DKD via inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome activation, so as to provide novel insights for the treatment of DKD.

Genipin Analogue (G300) Inhibits Adipogenic Differentiation of Human Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells through the Suppression of Adipogenic Promoting Factors

While obesity is a well-known health threatening condition worldwide, effective pharmacological interventions for obesity suppression have been limited due to adverse effects. Therefore, it is important to explore alternative medical treatments for combating obesity. Inhibition of the adipogenesis process and lipid accumulation are critical targets for controlling and treating obesity. Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a traditional herbal remedy for various ailments. A natural product from its fruit, genipin, has major pharmacological properties; it is anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic. We investigated the effects of a genipin analogue, G300, on adipogenic differentiation in human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs). G300 suppressed the expression of adipogenic marker genes and adipokines secreted by adipocytes at concentrations of 10 and 20 μM, which effectively reduced the adipogenic differentiation of hBM-MSCs and lipid accumulation in adipocytes. It also improved adipocyte function by lowering inflammatory cytokine secretion and increasing glucose uptake. For the first time, we show that G300 has the potential to be a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of obesity and its related disorders.

Genipin modified lyophilized platelet-rich fibrin scaffold for sustained release of growth factors to promote bone regeneration

Lyophilized platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF) was shown to further activate resident platelets in platelet-rich fibrin causing a higher amount of growth factors release. However, it still required further experimental studies to resolve the uncontrolled degradation and burst release problem. In this study, the nature crosslinker genipin is introduced to improve the performance of L-PRF scaffold. We used a series of gradient concentration genipin solutions to react with L-PRF. The crosslinking degree, micro morphology, mean pore size, water absorption and mechanical properties of the crosslinked scaffold were evaluated. In order to study the effect of genipin modification on the release kinetics of growth factors from L-PRF, we detected the release of platelet-derived growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor in vitro by ELISA. To investigate the biodegradability of the crosslinked L-PRF in vivo, the scaffolds were transplanted subcutaneously into backs of rats, and the materials were recovered at 1, 2 and 4 weeks after implantation. The biodegradation, inflammatory reaction and biocompatibility of the scaffolds were examined by histological staining. Finally, the genipin crosslinked/uncrosslinked L- Platelet-rich fibrin scaffolds were implanted with freshly prepared SHED cell sheets into rat critical size calvarial defects and the skull samples were recovered to examine the treatment efficacy of genipin crosslinked L-PRF by histologic and radiographic approaches. Results of this study indicated that genipin can be used to modify L-PRF at room temperature at a very low concentration. Genipin-modified L-PRF shows better biomechanical performance, slower biodegradation, good bioavailable and sustained release of growth factors. The 0.01% w/v and 0.1% w/v genipin crosslinked L-PRF have good porous structure and significantly promote cell proliferation and enhance the expression of key genes in osteogenesis in vitro, and work best in promoting bone regeneration in vivo.

Quality Grade Evaluation of Niuhuang Qingwei Pills Based on UPLC and TCM Reference Drug—A Novel Principle of Analysis of Multiple Components in Ready-Made Chinese Herbal Medicine

Ready-made Chinese herbal medicine (RMCHM) is one of the most common types of synergistic herbal medicine used worldwide. It is based on composite herbal formulae (CHF), which makes quality control of this kind of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) difficult, let alone distinguishing the good from the bad. Taking Niuhuang Qingwei Pills (NHQWP) as an example, this study reported the development of a novel principle of analysis of multiple components in RMCHM. Experimental procedures involved the selection of high-quality Chinese materia medica (CMM, individual medicinal plant parts used in the NHQWP) to prepare three batches of TCM reference drugs (TCMRD). Pure compounds of the active ingredients identified in the herbal formula including berberine hydrochloride, geniposide, forsythiaside A, 3,5-O-dicaffeoyl quinic acid, hesperidin, baicalin, glycyrrhizic acid, and chrysophanol in the three TCMRDs were analyzed as well as those in 49 batches of commercial products from 18 manufacturers by ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) method combined with wavelength switching. Using the TCMRD as the scientific ruler, quality grade specifications of NHQWP were proposed by comprehensive analysis of multiple components. Accordingly, 13, 28, and 8 batches of samples were primarily rated as first-grade, second-grade, and unqualified, respectively.

Integrated SMRT and Illumina Sequencing Provide New Insights into Crocin Biosynthesis of Gardenia jasminoides

Crocins are valuable bioactive components of gardenia fruit, and their biosynthesis and accumulation have attracted widespread interest. Studies have investigated the biosynthesis and accumulation of crocin based on Illumina sequencing, but there is a lack of reports based on full-length transcriptome sequencing. Utilising SMRT sequencing and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), we explored crocin biosynthesis and accumulation in the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides. HPLC analysis showed that crocins specifically exist in fruit and that the content of crocins increases gradually during fruit development. SMRT sequencing generated 46,715 high-quality full-length isoforms, including 5230 novel isoforms that are not present in the G. jasminoides genome. Furthermore, a total of 46 genes and 91 lncRNAs were involved in the biosynthesis and accumulation of crocin. The qRT-PCR indicated that genes involved in crocin biosynthesis reached a peak in the NOV stage. These findings contributed to our understanding of crocin biosynthesis and accumulation.

The Role of Natural Products in Treatment of Depressive Disorder

Depressive disorder is one of the most common psychiatric syndromes that, if left untreated, can cause many disturbances in a person's life. Numerous factors are involved in depression, including inflammation, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), GABAergic system, hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal (HPA) Axis, monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin (5-HT), noradrenaline, and dopamine). Common treatments for depression are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors, but these drugs have several side effects such as anxiety, diarrhea, constipation, weight loss, and sexual dysfunctions. These agents only reduce the symptoms and temporarily reduce the rate of cognitive impairment associated with depression. As a result, extensive research has recently been conducted on the potential use of antidepressant and sedative herbs. According to the available data, herbs used in traditional medicine can be significantly effective in reducing depression, depressive symptoms and improving patients' performance. The present study provides a summary of biomarkers and therapeutic goals of depression and shows that natural products such as saffron or genipin have antidepressant effects. Some of the useful natural products and their mechanisms were evaluated. Data on various herbs and natural isolated compounds reported to prevent and reduce depressive symptoms is also discussed.

Hydrogel based on nanocellulose/polydopamine/gelatin are used for the treatment of MRSA infected wound with broad-spectrum antibacterial, antioxidant property and tissue suitability

Most wound dressings have a series of problems when dealing with bacterial infection of wounds, for example, for lack of sufficient antibacterial and antioxidant capacity, comfort and mechanical properties are...

In Vitro and In Vivo Antidiabetic Potential of Monoterpenoids: An Update

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic condition characterized by persistent hyperglycemia due to insufficient insulin levels or insulin resistance. Despite the availability of several oral and injectable hypoglycemic agents, their use is associated with a wide range of side effects. Monoterpenes are compounds extracted from different plants including herbs, vegetables, and fruits and they contribute to their aroma and flavor. Based on their chemical structure, monoterpenes are classified into acyclic, monocyclic, and bicyclic monoterpenes. They have been found to exhibit numerous biological and medicinal effects such as antipruritic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activities. Therefore, monoterpenes emerged as promising molecules that can be used therapeutically to treat a vast range of diseases. Additionally, monoterpenes were found to modulate enzymes and proteins that contribute to insulin resistance and other pathological events caused by DM. In this review, we highlight the different mechanisms by which monoterpenes can be used in the pharmacological intervention of DM via the alteration of certain enzymes, proteins, and pathways involved in the pathophysiology of DM. Based on the fact that monoterpenes have multiple mechanisms of action on different targets in in vitro and in vivo studies, they can be considered as lead compounds for developing effective hypoglycemic agents. Incorporating these compounds in clinical trials is needed to investigate their actions in diabetic patients in order to confirm their ability in controlling hyperglycemia.

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis Fruit Extracts Attenuated Colitis in 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid-Induced Rats

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a relapsing inflammatory disease with an unknown precise etiology. The purpose of this study is to investigate the protective effects of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit extracts (GFE) on 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats. GFE (50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg) were administered orally for 7 days after induction. Meanwhile, the chemical components of GFE were performed by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. GFE significantly decreased DAI scores and ameliorated macroscopic and histologic damage. It also reduced the levels of MPO, NO, MDA, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6, while increasing the level of SOD. Moreover, 56 components were identified in GFE using a UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS method, which can be categorized into six structural groups. Our results indicated that GFE has an ameliorative effect on TNBS-induced colitis in rats, which may further verify its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties. Therefore, GFE can be a promising protective agent of colitis that deserves further investigation.

Geniposide Attenuates Hyperglycemia-Induced Oxidative Stress and Inflammation by Activating the Nrf2 Signaling Pathway in Experimental Diabetic Retinopathy

Geniposide (GEN) is a natural antioxidant and anti-inflammatory product and plays an important role in the treatment of diabetes and diabetic complications. To explore the biological functions and mechanism of GEN in diabetic retinopathy (DR), we constructed the in vitro and in vivo model of DR by using primary cultured mouse retinal Müller cells and C57BL/6 mice, respectively. We found that GEN inhibited ROS accumulation, NF-κB activation, Müller cell activation, and inflammatory cytokine secretion both in vitro and in vivo, which is probably mediated through the Nrf2 pathway. Exendin (9-39) (EX-9), an antagonist of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R), abolished the protective effect of GEN on high glucose- (HG-) induced Müller cells. Additionally, GEN decreased hyperglycemia-induced damage to Müller cells and blood-retinal barrier in the retinas of mice with DR. We demonstrated that GEN was capable of protecting Müller cells and mice from HG-induced oxidative stress and inflammation, which is mostly dependent on the Nrf2 signaling pathway through GLP-1R. GEN may be an effective approach for the treatment of DR.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of the Oleoresin from the Amazonian Tree Copaifera reticulata with an Unusual Chemical Composition in Rats

Copaifera reticulata Ducke is a popularly known species known as copaíba that is widely spread throughout the Amazon region. The tree yields an oleoresin which is extensively used in local traditional medicine mainly as an anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive agent. The aim of the present study was to assess the anti-inflammatory potential of this oleoresin obtained from a national forest in the central Amazon which presented an unusual chemical composition. The chemical composition of volatile compounds of oleoresin was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The acute toxicity assay was performed with a single dose of 2000 mg/kg. The anti-inflammatory potential was evaluated by carrageenan-induced paw edema and air pouch assays using four different C. reticulata oleoresin concentrations (10, 100, and 400 mg/kg). The exudate was evaluated for nitrite concentration through the colorimetric method and for TNF-α, IL-1β, and PGE₂ by ELISA. C. reticulata oleoresin collected in the Amazonian summer contained six major sesquiterpene compounds (β-bisabolene, cis-eudesma-6,11-diene, trans-α-bergamotene, β-selinene, α-selinene, and β-elemene) and was nontoxic at a dose of 2000 mg/kg, showing low acute toxicity. Different from oleoresin obtained from other sites of the Brazilian Amazon, the major volatile compound found was β-Bisabolene with 25.15%. This β-Bisabolene-rich oleoresin reduced the formation of paw edema induced by carrageenan and reduced the global number of cells in the air pouch assay, as well as exudate volume and nitrite, TNF-α, IL-1β, and prostaglandin E₂ levels (p < 0.05). C. reticulata oleoresin with a high β-Bisabolene concentration showed anti-inflammatory activity, reducing vascular permeability and consequently edema formation, and thus reducing cell migration and the production of inflammatory cytokine, confirming its traditional use by local Amazonian communities.

Geniposide exerts protective effects on spinal cord injury in rats by inhibiting the IKKs/NF-κB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a traumatic condition of the central nervous system , which can cause nerve injury and affect nerve regeneration, thus leading to severe dysfunction of motor and sensory pathways, and unfortunately these effects are irreversible. Inflammatory response constitutes one of the important mechanisms of spinal cord secondary injury. Geniposide (Gen) is reported to possess anti-inflammation and neuronal repair capacities.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effect and mechanism of Gen on motor function and inflammatory response in SCI rats.

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly grouped, and the SCI model was established by Allen's method. The motor function of rats was evaluated by the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) scale. The protective effect of Gen on the injured spinal cord tissues was evaluated by measuring the water content, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and IL-6. Moreover, the protein level of the inflammation-related pathway was detected by spectrometry and Western blot assays.

RESULTS

Gen significantly promoted the recovery of SCI rats, decreased the edema of spinal cord tissues, reduced the area of cavity, increased the number of NF-200-positive neurons, as well as increased the number of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) retrograde tracing-positive neurons and regenerated axons with myelin sheath. Additionally, compared with the control group, the neutrophil infiltration, contents of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, the activity of inhibitor of nuclear factor κB kinase subunit β (IKKβ) kinase, and protein levels of (nuclear factor κB) NF-κB p65 and phosphorylated inhibitor of NF-κB (p-I-κB) in the Gen experimental group were significantly decreased.

CONCLUSION

Gen effectively alleviated inflammatory response after SCI by inhibiting the IKKs/NF-κB signaling pathway and promoted the recovery of motor function and axon regeneration in rats.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study can provide novel insights for the early and effective intervention of SCI and confer basic data for the treatment of spinal cord secondary injury.

Geniposide protects pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells from lipopolysaccharide-induced injury via α7nAchR-mediated TLR-4/MyD88 signaling

Geniposide is a bioactive iridoid glucoside derived from Gardenia jasminoides that has proven anti-inflammatory effects against acute lung injury. The aim of this study was to determine whether geniposide could protect pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced injury and to explore the participation of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR), which was previously reported to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokine production in LPS-stimulated macrophages. In the present study, rat PASMCs were isolated and stimulated using LPS. The effect of geniposide on LPS-induced PASMC injury was then explored. Geniposide exerted anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-treated PASMCs, as demonstrated by the downregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins and pro-inflammatory cytokines, respectively. Furthermore, the α7nAChR agonist PNU282987 accentuated the protective effect of geniposide against LPS-induced injury in PASMCs by inhibiting toll-like receptor-4/myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (TLR-4/MyD88) signaling and downregulating nuclear factor (NF)-κB expression. Conversely, methyllycaconitine, an inhibitor of α7nAChR, attenuated the effects of geniposide. These findings collectively suggested that in conjunction with geniposide, the activation of α7nAChR may contribute to further mitigating LPS-induced PASMC apoptosis and inflammation. In addition, the underlying mechanisms critically involve the NF-κB/MyD88 signaling axis. These results may provide novel insights into the treatment and management of lung diseases via geniposide administration.

Genipin guides and sustains the polarization of macrophages to the pro-regenerative M2 subtype via activation of the pSTAT6-PPAR-gamma pathway

M2 macrophages are associated with deposition of interstitial collagen and other extracellular matrix proteins during the course wound healing and also inflammatory response to biomaterials. Developing advanced biomaterials to promote the M2 subtype may be an effective way to improve tissue reinforcement surgery outcomes. In this study, the effect of genipin, a naturally derived crosslinking agent, on M0 → M2-polarization was investigated. Genipin was introduced either indirectly by seeding cells on aligned collagen biotextiles that are crosslinked by the agent or in soluble form by direct addition to the culture medium. Cellular elongation effects on macrophage polarization induced by the collagen biotextile were also investigated as a potential inducer of macrophage polarization. M0 and M2 macrophages demonstrated significant elongation on the surface of aligned collagen threads, while cells of the M1 subtype-maintained a round phenotype. M0 → M2 polarization, as reflected by arginase and Ym-1 production, was observed on collagen threads only when the threads were crosslinked by genipin, implicating genipin as a more potent inducer of the regenerative phenotype compared to cytoskeletal elongation. The addition of genipin to the culture medium directly also drove the emergence of pro-regenerative phenotype as measured by the markers (arginase and Ym-1) and through the activation of the pSTAT6-PPAR-gamma pathway. This study indicates that genipin-crosslinked collagen biotextiles can be used as a delivery platform to promote regenerative response after biomaterial implantation. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The immune response is one of the key determinants of tissue repair and regeneration rate, and outcome. The M2 macrophage subtype is known to resolve the inflammatory response and support tissue repair by producing pro-regenerative factors. Therefore, a biomaterial that promotes M2 sub-type can be a viable strategy to enhance tissue regeneration. In this study, we investigated genipin-crosslinked electrochemically aligned collagen biotextiles for their capacity to induce pro-regenerative polarization of M0 macrophages. The results demonstrated that genipin, rather than matrix-induced cellular elongation, was responsible for M0 → M2 polarization in the absence of other bioinductive factors and maintaining the M2 polarized status of macrophages. Furthermore, we identified that genipin polarizes the M2 macrophage phenotype via activation of the pSTAT6-PPAR-gamma pathway.

Three-Dimensional Printability of an ECM-Based Gelatin Methacryloyl (GelMA) Biomaterial for Potential Neuroregeneration

The current study introduces two novel, smart polymer three-dimensional (3D)-printable interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) hydrogel biomaterials with favorable chemical, mechanical, and morphological properties for potential applications in traumatic brain injury (TBI) such as potentially assisting in the restoration of neurological function through closure of the wound deficit and neural tissue regeneration. Additionally, removal of injury matter to allow for the appropriate scaffold grafting may assist in providing a TBI treatment. Furthermore, due to the 3D printability of the IPN biomaterials, complex structures can be designed and fabricated to mimic the native shape and structure of the injury sight, which can potentially assist with neural tissue regeneration after TBI. In this study, a peptide-only approach was employed, wherein collagen and elastin in a blend with gelatin methacryloyl were prepared and crosslinked using either Irgacure or Irgacure and Genipin to form either a semi or full IPN hydrogel 3D-printable neuromimicking platform system, respectively. The scaffolds displayed favorable thermal stability and were amorphous in nature with high full width at half-maximum values. Furthermore, no alteration to the peptide secondary structure was noted using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The IPN biomaterials have a stiffness of around 600 Pa and are suitable for softer tissue engineering applications-that is, the brain. Scanning electron micrographs indicated that the IPN biomaterials had a morphological structure with a significant resemblance to the native rat cortex. Both biomaterial scaffolds were shown to support the growth of PC12 cells over a 72 h period. Furthermore, the increased nuclear eccentricity and nuclear area were shown to support the postulation that the IPN biomaterials maintain the cells in a healthy state encouraging cellular mitosis and proliferation. The Genipin component of the full IPN was further shown to exhibit antimicrobial properties and this suggests that Genipin can prevent the growth of pathogens associated with postsurgical brain infections. In addition to these findings, the study presents an anomaly, wherein the full IPN is found to be more brittle than the semi IPN, a finding that is in contradiction with the literature. This research, therefore, contributes to the collection of potential biomaterials for TBI applications coupled with 3D printing and can assist in the progression of neural treatments toward patient-specific scaffolds through the development of custom scaffolds.

Therapeutic potential of catalpol and geniposide in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases: A snapshot of their underlying mechanisms

Rehmannia glutinosa, the fresh or dried root of Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) Libosch. ex Fisch. & Mey., and Gardenia, the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis from Rubiaceae, both are famous traditional Chinese medicines that have been traditionally used in China. Catalpol and geniposide, as two kinds of iridoid glycosides with high activities, are the main bioactive components in Rehmannia glutinosa and Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, respectively. Over the past few decades, catalpol and geniposide have been widely studied for their therapeutic effects. The preclinical experiments demonstrated that they possessed significant neuroprotective activities against Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, and depression, etc. In this paper, the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of catalpol and geniposide on Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease from 2005 to now were systematically summarized and comprehensively analyzed. At the same time, the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the analyzed compounds were also described, hoping to provide some enlightenment for the design, research, and development of iridoid glycosides.

Antileishmanial effect of the natural immunomodulator genipin through suppression of host negative regulatory protein UCP2

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the antileishmanial efficacy of genipin, which specifically inhibits uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) that is induced in leishmaniasis to neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS).

METHODS

The effect of genipin was assessed against intracellular parasites in cultured macrophages and in suppressing spleen and liver parasite burdens in a BALB/c mouse model of visceral leishmaniasis by microscopic evaluation of intracellular amastigotes stained with Giemsa. ROS and mitochondrial membrane potential were measured by H2DCFDA- and JC-1-based fluorometric analysis. ELISA was performed for various Th1 and Th2 cytokines in both in vitro and in vivo infected conditions to evaluate the type of immunological responses. The role of UCP2 was assessed by lipofectamine-mediated transfection and overexpression in macrophages and short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown of UCP2 in infected animals.

RESULTS

Genipin reduced the infection-induced UCP2 levels in macrophages, with optimum effect at 100 μM. Genipin reversed parasite-induced ROS suppression and mitochondrial membrane potential disruption. It has no inhibitory effect on promastigote or axenic amastigote forms, but markedly suppressed amastigote multiplication within macrophages, which was reversed by the ROS scavenger N-acetyl cysteine. Genipin administration (30 mg/kg/day) in infected mice showed significant suppression of liver and spleen parasite burdens with an enhanced host-favourable cytokine balance in a ROS-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent manner. Co-treatment with genipin plus a sublethal dose of sodium antimony gluconate (SAG50) showed almost a curative reduction in spleen and liver parasite burden.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest the effectiveness of genipin as a synergistic agent for the front-line antileishmanial drug SAG in circumventing the resistance and toxicity problems associated with its high curative dose.

Characterization of βN-Octadecanoyl-5-hydroxytryptamide Anti-Inflammatory Effect

Background: N-octadecanoyl-5-hydroxytryptamide (C₁₈-5HT) is an amide that can be obtained by the coupling of serotonin and octadecanoic acid. This study aims to characterize the in vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of C₁₈-5HT. Methods: A subcutaneous air pouch model (SAP) was used. The exudates were collected from SAP after carrageenan injection to assess cell migration and inflammatory mediators production. RAW 264.7 cells were used for in vitro assays. Results: C₁₈-5HT significantly inhibited leukocyte migration into the SAP as well as nitric oxide (NO) and cytokines production and protein extravasation. We also observed an reduction in some cytokines and an increase in IL-10 production. Assays conducted with RAW 264.7 cells indicated that C₁₈-5HT inhibited NO and cytokine produced. Conclusions: Taken together, our data suggest that C₁₈-5HT presents a significant effect in different cell types (leukocytes collected from exudate, mainly polumorphonuclear leukocytes and cell culture macrophages) and is a promising compound for further studies for the development of a new anti-inflammatory drug.

Anti-inflammatory activities of Gardenia jasminoides extracts in retinal pigment epithelial cells and zebrafish embryos

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the most common cause of visual impairment in developed countries. Inflammation serves a critical role in the pathogenesis of AMD. Gardenia jasminoides is found in several regions of China and is traditionally used as an organic yellow dye but has also been widely used as a therapeutic agent in numerous diseases, including inflammation, depression, hepatic and vascular disorders, which may reflect the variability of functional compounds that are present in Gardenia jasminoides extracts (GJE). To investigate the therapeutic potential of GJE for AMD, ARPE-19 cells were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or LPS plus GJE. GJE significantly decreased LPS-induced expression of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. In the in vivo study, GJE inhibited CuSO4-induced migration of primitive macrophages to the lateral line in zebrafish embryos. GJE also attenuated expression of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α), NFKB activating protein (nkap) and TLR4 in ARPE-19 cells. The results of the present study demonstrated the anti-inflammatory potential of GJE in vitro and in vivo, and suggested GJE as a therapeutic candidate for AMD.

Disease Status-Dependent Drug-Herb Interactions: NASH Lowered the Risk of Hepatotoxicity in Rats Coadministered With Simvastatin and Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis

Concurrent use of simvastatin (SV) and Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (GJ) was adopted in patients with multi-morbidity, such as stroke rehabilitation patients with NASH. Although hepatotoxicity has been reported in both of them and NASH could alter the pharmacokinetics of drugs/herbs, the interaction between SV and GJ and the related hepatotoxicity remained uninvestigated under neither healthy nor NASH condition. The current study aimed to evaluate the potential hepatotoxicity resulted from the interactions between SV and GJ in both healthy and NASH rats. Both healthy and NASH rats received two-week SV (p. o., 8.66 mg/kg, once daily) and/or GJ (p.o., 325 mg/kg, twice daily). Pharmacokinetic profiles of SV, simvastatin acid (SVA, active metabolite of SV), and geniposide (major component in GJ); hepatic Cyp2c11/Oatp1b2/P-gp expression; and biomarker levels of liver function, lipid levels, and liver histology were compared to demonstrate the interactions in rats. To explore the mechanism of the interaction-mediated hepatotoxicity, hepatic genipin-protein adduct content and iNOS/COX-1/COX-2 expressions from related groups were compared. Moreover, liver histology of healthy/NASH rats at 90 days after discontinuation of two-week GJ in the absence and presence of SV was evaluated to estimate the long-term impact of the interactions. GJ reduced the systemic exposures of SV and SVA by up-regulating the hepatic P-gp expression in healthy but not NASH rats. Meanwhile, SV increased the systemic exposure of geniposide via inhibiting the activity of P-gp in both healthy and NASH rats. Although neither SV nor GJ induced hepatotoxicity in healthy rats, their co-treatment elevated serum ALT and AST levels, which may attribute to the aggravated genipin-protein adduct formation, inflammation infiltration, and iNOS/COX-1 expressions in the liver. In NASH rats, SV and/or GJ reduced serum ALT, AST, LDL/vLDL, and TC levels via alleviating hepatic inflammation infiltration and iNOS/COX-1 expressions. Moreover, in comparison to NASH rats, more severe fibrosis was observed in the livers of healthy rats at 90 days after discontinuation of two-week SV and GJ coadministration. Although interactions between SV and GJ induced short-term and long-term liver injuries in healthy rats, NASH condition in rats could lower such risk.

Neuroprotective Effect for Cerebral Ischemia by Natural Products: A Review

Natural products have a significant role in the prevention of disease and boosting of health in humans and animals. Stroke is a disease with high prevalence and incidence, the pathogenesis is a complex cascade reaction. In recent years, it’s reported that a vast number of natural products have demonstrated beneficial effects on stroke worldwide. Natural products have been discovered to modulate activities with multiple targets and signaling pathways to exert neuroprotection via direct or indirect effects on enzymes, such as kinases, regulatory receptors, and proteins. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the established pharmacological effects and multiple target mechanisms of natural products for cerebral ischemic injury in vitro and in vivo preclinical models, and their potential neuro-therapeutic applications. In addition, the biological activity of natural products is closely related to their structure, and the structure-activity relationship of most natural products in neuroprotection is lacking, which should be further explored in future. Overall, we stress on natural products for their role in neuroprotection, and this wide band of pharmacological or biological activities has made them suitable candidates for the treatment of stroke.

Medicinal plants and bioactive natural products as inhibitors of NLRP3 inflammasome

The NLR family, pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a multiprotein complex that induces caspase-1 activation and the downstream substrates involved with the processing and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α). The NLRP3 inflammasome is activated by a wide range of danger signals that derive from metabolic dysregulation. Activation of this complex often involves the adaptor ASC and upstream sensors including NLRP1, NLRP3, NLRC4, AIM2, and pyrin, which are activated by different stimuli including infectious agents and changes in cell homeostasis. It has been shown that nutraceuticals and medicinal plants have antiinflammatory properties and could be used as complementary therapy in the treatment of several chronic diseases that are related to inflammation, for example, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes mellitus. Herb-based medicine has demonstrated protective effects against NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Therefore, this review focuses on the effects of nutraceuticals and bioactive compounds derived from medicinal plants on NLRP3 inflammasome activation and the possible mechanisms of action of these natural products. Thus, herb-based, natural products/compounds can be considered novel, practical, and accessible agents in chronic inflammatory diseases by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Crosslinking strategies for silk fibroin hydrogels: promising biomedical materials

Due to their strong biomimetic potential, silk fibroin (SF) hydrogels are impressive candidates for tissue engineering, due to their tunable mechanical properties, biocompatibility, low immunotoxicity, controllable biodegradability, and a remarkable capacity for biomaterial modification and the realization of a specific molecular structure. The fundamental chemical and physical structure of SF allows its structure to be altered using various crosslinking strategies. The established crosslinking methods enable the formation of three-dimensional (3D) networks under physiological conditions. There are different chemical and physical crosslinking mechanisms available for the generation of SF hydrogels (SFHs). These methods, either chemical or physical, change the structure of SF and improve its mechanical stability, although each method has its advantages and disadvantages. While chemical crosslinking agents guarantee the mechanical strength of SFH through the generation of covalent bonds, they could cause some toxicity, and their usage is not compatible with a cell-friendly technology. On the other hand, physical crosslinking approaches have been implemented in the absence of chemical solvents by the induction of β-sheet conformation in the SF structure. Unfortunately, it is not easy to control the shape and properties of SFHs when using this method. The current review discusses the different crosslinking mechanisms of SFH in detail, in order to support the development of engineered SFHs for biomedical applications.

Predicting a Potential Link to Antidepressant Effect: Neuroprotection of Zhi-zi-chi Decoction on Glutamate-induced Cytotoxicity in PC12 Cells

Zhi-zi-chi Decoction (ZZCD), composed of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhizi in Chinese, ZZ in brief) and Semen sojae praeparatum (Dandouchi in Chinese, DDC in brief), has been used as a drug therapy for depression for thousands of years in China. However, the antidepressant mechanism of ZZCD still remains unknown. This study was aimed at exploring antidepressant effects of ZZCD from the aspect of neuroprotection based on herb compatibility. Glutamate-treated PC12 cells and chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced rats were established as models of depression in vitro and in vivo respectively. Cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), apoptosis rate, reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione reductase (GR) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and the expressions of Bax, Bcl-2 and cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element binding protein (CREB) were measured to compare neuroprotection among single herbs and the formula in vitro. Behavior tests were conducted to validate antidepressant effects of ZZCD in vivo. Results showed that the compatibility of ZZ and DDC increased cell viability and activities of GR and SOD, and decreased the levels of LDH, apoptosis cells and ROS. Besides, the expressions of Bcl-2 and CREB were up-regulated while that of Bax was down-regulated by ZZCD. Furthermore, the compatibility of ZZ and DDC reversed abnormal behaviors in CUMS-induced rats and displayed higher efficacy than any of the single herbs. This study revealed that the antidepressant effects of ZZCD were closely associated with neuroprotection and elucidated synergistic effects of the compatibility of ZZ and DDC based on it.

Impact of Digestive Inflammatory Environment and Genipin Crosslinking on Immunomodulatory Capacity of Injectable Musculoskeletal Tissue Scaffold

The paracrine and autocrine processes of the host response play an integral role in the success of scaffold-based tissue regeneration. Recently, the immunomodulatory scaffolds have received huge attention for modulating inflammation around the host tissue through releasing anti-inflammatory cytokine. However, controlling the inflammation and providing a sustained release of anti-inflammatory cytokine from the scaffold in the digestive inflammatory environment are predicated upon a comprehensive understanding of three fundamental questions. (1) How does the release rate of cytokine from the scaffold change in the digestive inflammatory environment? (2) Can we prevent the premature scaffold degradation and burst release of the loaded cytokine in the digestive inflammatory environment? (3) How does the scaffold degradation prevention technique affect the immunomodulatory capacity of the scaffold? This study investigated the impacts of the digestive inflammatory environment on scaffold degradation and how pre-mature degradation can be prevented using genipin crosslinking and how genipin crosslinking affects the interleukin-4 (IL-4) release from the scaffold and differentiation of naïve macrophages (M0). Our results demonstrated that the digestive inflammatory environment (DIE) attenuates protein retention within the scaffold. Over 14 days, the encapsulated protein released 46% more in DIE than in phosphate buffer saline (PBS), which was improved through genipin crosslinking. We have identified the 0.5 (w/v) genipin concentration as an optimal concentration for improved IL-4 released from the scaffold, cell viability, mechanical strength, and scaffold porosity, and immunomodulation studies. The IL-4 released from the injectable scaffold could differentiate naïve macrophages to an anti-inflammatory (M2) lineage; however, upon genipin crosslinking, the immunomodulatory capacity of the scaffold diminished significantly, and pro-inflammatory markers were expressed dominantly.

Analysis of the chemical composition changes of Gardeniae Fructus before and after processing based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Gardeniae Fructus, the dry fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, has been widely used for the treatment of different diseases. Although four types of processed Gardeniae Fructus products, characterized by differing effects, are available for clinical use, little is known regarding the respective processing mechanisms. In this study, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry combined with multivariate statistical analysis was applied to characterize the chemical profiles of the differently processed Gardeniae Fructus products and to determine differences in their chemical compositions, thereby enabling us to identify those active compounds associated with the observed clinical effects. A total of 125 compounds were accordingly identified, among which, 56 were established as primary contributors to the significant differences (P < 0.01) between crude and processed Gardeniae Fructus, based on t-test analysis. Furthermore, the potential mechanisms underlying the chemical transformations that occurred during processing were discussed. The findings of this study may not only contribute to the more effective quality control of Gardeniae Fructus but also provide basic information for elucidating the mechanisms underlying the changes in chemical constituents in response to processing, and provide a basis for further investigations of Gardeniae Fructus processing mechanisms.

Genipin and insulin combined treatment improves implant osseointegration in type 2 diabetic rats

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has a harmful effect on the stability and osseointegration of dental implants. T2DM induces mitochondrial damage by inhibiting AMPK signaling, resulting in oxidative stress and poor osteogenesis in the peri-implant bone area. Genipin is a major component of gardenia fruits with strong antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and antidiabetic actions, and it also can activate mitochondrial quality control via the AMPK pathway. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of genipin and insulin treatment on implant osseointegration in T2DM rats and explore the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats received implant surgery in their femurs and were then assigned to five groups that were subjected to different treatments for three months: control group, T2DM group, insulin-treated T2DM group (10 IU/kg), genipin-treated T2DM group (50 mg/kg), and the genipin and insulin combination-treated T2DM group. Then, we regularly assessed the weight and glucose levels of the animals. Rats were euthanized at 3 months after the implantation procedure, and the femora were harvested for microscopic computerized tomography analysis, biomechanical tests, and different histomorphometric assessment.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the highest blood glucose and oxidative stress levels were measured for the T2DM group, resulting in the poorest osseointegration. The combination-treated T2DM group mitigated hyperglycemia and normalized, reactivated AMPK signaling, and alleviated oxidative stress as well as reversed the negative effect of osseointegration. There were beneficial changes observed in the T2DM-genipin and T2DM-insulin groups, but these were less in comparison to the combination treatment group.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that treatment with genipin in combination with insulin could be an effective method for promoting implant osseointegration in T2DM rats, which may be related to AMPK signaling.

Extraction of Natural Pigments from Gardenia Jasminoides J.Ellis Fruit Pulp Using CO2-Expanded Liquids and Direct Sonication

In this work, a carbon dioxide-expanded liquid (CXL) extraction system was used with or without direct sonication for the extraction of highly polar natural pigments (crocin-1 and crocin-2) from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit pulp. The effects of different parameters, including modifiers (ethanol, water, aqueous ethanol), temperature (5–25 °C), pressure (8–14 MPa), and sonication time (0–200 s) on extraction concentrations were examined using the CXL system. Aqueous ethanol (50% or 80%, v/v) was selected for the CXL system as a modifier due to its efficiency. The best conditions for extraction were found at 25 °C and 10 MPa. The CXE 80% extraction system with direct sonication extracted a significantly higher amount of crocin-1 and crocin-2, 13.63 ± 0.5 and 0.51 ± 0.05 μg/mL, respectively, compared to conventional solid–liquid methanol extraction (10.43 ± 0.3 and 0.37 ± 0.02 μg/mL, respectively). Under these conditions, a water-rich phase, an ethanol-rich phase, and a CO2-rich gas phase coexisted in the high-pressure cell in the CXE 80% extraction system, which was vigorously disrupted by the addition of sonication, resulting in a compressed aqueous ethanol phase and an aqueous ethanol-modified CO2-rich phase, and may have a positive influence on extraction.

Levels of phenylpropanoids and iridoids in extracts and infusions of Verbena minutiflora

Herein we report for the first time the levels of phenylpropanoids and iridoids in extracts and infusions of V. minutiflora consumed in Brazil to treat urinary and infectious disorders. An in house validation study demonstrated good accuracy and precision to determine the bioactive compounds in V. minutiflora by HPLC-DAD. Phenylpropanoids varied in the extracts (leaves 139.70 to 221.20 mg g-1, flowers 106.43 to 227.22 mg g-1, stems 42.18 to 56.48 mg g-1). Verbascoside occurred in higher concentration in extracts of leaves (87.66 - 136.16) mg g-1 and flowers (58.12 - 148.96) mg g-1 than in stems (19.24 - 24.62) mg g-1. Iridoids in extracts were as follows: leaves (46.60 - 54.79) mg g-1, flowers (55.88 - 93.87) mg g-1 and stems (40.05 to 61.74) mg g-1. High levels of iridoids (314.70 - 415.10) μg mL-1, phenylpropanoids (1996.39 - 2674.13) μg mL-1 and verbascoside (1029.38 - 1456.42 μg mL-1) in infusions support the popular consume of V. minutiflora.