Characterization of the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of fractions obtained from Copaifera multijuga Hayne

Mechanisms of action of ethyl acetate fractions of Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl. as potential central anti-nociceptive agents

Opioids/non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are used to alleviate pain; however, they are expensive and can have adverse effects, especially when used over extended periods. Therefore, there is immense demand for innovative, non-addictive analgesics. Here, we report a novel plant-derived central anti-nociceptive agent, Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl. (LN), validated in animal pain models. Ethyl acetate fractions of L. nervosa (EALN) exhibited central anti-nociceptive activity in hot plate, tail immersion, formalin-induced paw oedema, and acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing tests. The chemical composition of the EALN was determined using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Reserpine (monoamine transmitter-depleting agent) and naltrexone (opioid antagonist) partially suppressed the anti-nociceptive effect of EALN in both phases of the formalin test. Oral administration of EALN activated the endogenous opioid and central descending inhibitory systems by increasing β-endorphin, 5-hydroxytryptamine, and norepinephrine expression. EALN treatment increased the expression of γ-aminobutyric acid B; inhibited the expression of prostaglandin E2, substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and c-Fos; and blocked the transmission of pain signals in the spinal cord. EALN treatment reduced the activity of nitric oxide and nitric oxide synthase in the central region and inhibited the nitric oxide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate signal transduction pathway, thereby attenuating the transmission of nociceptive information in the descending inhibitory pathways. The central anti-nociceptive effect of EALN was achieved by integrating these pathways. This study provides new insights into the pharmacologic action of LN and provide a therapeutic approach as a promising candidate for central anti-nociceptive agents.

Copaiba Oleoresin Improves Weight Gain and IL-10 Concentration, with No Impact on Hepatic Histology, in Liver Cirrhosis

Copaifera sp. is a native tree in the Amazon region. Copaiba oleoresin has components such as sesquiterpenes, which have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential. Liver cirrhosis is the end stage of liver disease with limited therapeutic options. We aimed to evaluate the effect of copaiba oleoresin supplementation on the liver of animals with thioacetamide (TAA)-induced cirrhosis. For the induction of liver cirrhosis, 100 mg/kg of TAA was administered intraperitoneally twice a week for 8 weeks. A total of 200 mg/kg/day of copaiba oleoresin was administered via gavage for the same period. Copaiba oleoresin supplementation improved cirrhosis-associated cachexia by increasing weight gain and body fat. In addition, copaiba oleoresin attenuated systemic inflammation, as shown by the decrease in the circulating C-reactive protein. In the liver, the copaiba oleoresin decreased carbonyl proteins and increased IL-10 compared with TAA-treated rats. TAA groups demonstrated increased SOD, catalase, GST, and GSH activity in the liver. In conclusion, the supplementation of copaiba oleoresin demonstrated a beneficial systemic effect in alleviating cirrhotic cachexia and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action in the liver. However, it failed to improve the serological and histological markers of liver damage, which could be associated with the advanced stage of the disease.

Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. tree oleoresin-induced antinociception recruits µ1- and κ -opioid receptors in the ventrolateral columns of the periaqueductal gray matter

Popular medicine has been using oleoresin from several species of copaíba tree for the treatment of various diseases and its clinical administration potentially causes antinociception. Electrical stimulation of ventrolateral (vlPAG) and dorsolateral (dlPAG) columns of the periaqueductal gray matter also causes antinociception. The aim this study was to verify the antinociceptive effect of oleoresin extracted from Copaifera langsdorffii tree and to test the hypothesis that oleoresin-induced antinociception is mediated by µ1- and κ-opioid receptors in the vlPAG and dlPAG. Nociceptive thresholds were determined by the tail-flick test in Wistar rats. The copaíba tree oleoresin was administered at different doses (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) through the gavage technique. After the specification of the most effective dose of copaíba tree oleoresin (200 mg/kg), rats were pretreated with either the µ1-opioid receptor selective antagonist naloxonazine (at 0.05, 0.5 and 5 µg/ 0.2 µl in vlPAG, and 5 µg/ 0.2 µl in dlPAG) or the κ-opioid receptor selective antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (at 1, 3 and 9 nmol/ 0.2 µl in vlPAG, and 9 nmol/ 0.2 µl in dlPAG). The blockade of µ1 and κ opioid receptors of vlPAG decreased the antinociception produced by copaíba tree oleoresin. However, the blockade of these receptors in dlPAG did not alter copaíba tree oleoresin-induced antinociception. These data suggest that vlPAG µ1 and κ opioid receptors are critically recruited in the antinociceptive effect produced by oleoresin extracted from Copaifera langsdorffii.

Anti-inflammatory and wound healing effect of Copaiba Oleoresin on the oral cavity: A systematic review

Copaiba oleoresin has been related to properties including healing and anti-inflammatory effects, making it a potential candidate to treat oral lesions. We aimed to define the benefits related to the anti-inflammatory and healing capacity of Copaiba-based formulations on the oral cavity. This is a systematic review, conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, Scielo, Cochrane Library, BVS, and Google Scholar databases selecting full articles in English, Portuguese, or Spanish, until March 3^rd, 2021. Pre-clinical, clinical, or randomized clinical trials, cohort and case-control in vivo studies were included; studies with other designs, in vitro, and those that did not match the PICO question were excluded (PROSPERO: CRD42021244938). Data was collected and synthesized descriptively through a specific form. The risk of bias was evaluated by SYRCLE's RoB Tool. So, five studies were included. Two reported beneficial wound healing effects, such as early reduction in the wound area and greater immature bone formation in the rats' mandibles; and two related benefic anti-inflammatory effects, like reduced acute inflammatory reaction and more advanced tissue repair stage, early formation of collagen fibrils, with greater quantity, thickness and better organization, and more expressive anti-inflammatory activity, reduction of the edema intensity and the CD68 + macrophages concentration. Based on the articles, benefits related to the wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects in the oral cavity of rats treated with Copaiba oleoresin were suggested. However, due to the limited data, future studies are necessary, especially clinical ones.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of the Oleoresin from the Amazonian Tree Copaifera reticulata with an Unusual Chemical Composition in Rats

Copaifera reticulata Ducke is a popularly known species known as copaíba that is widely spread throughout the Amazon region. The tree yields an oleoresin which is extensively used in local traditional medicine mainly as an anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive agent. The aim of the present study was to assess the anti-inflammatory potential of this oleoresin obtained from a national forest in the central Amazon which presented an unusual chemical composition. The chemical composition of volatile compounds of oleoresin was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The acute toxicity assay was performed with a single dose of 2000 mg/kg. The anti-inflammatory potential was evaluated by carrageenan-induced paw edema and air pouch assays using four different C. reticulata oleoresin concentrations (10, 100, and 400 mg/kg). The exudate was evaluated for nitrite concentration through the colorimetric method and for TNF-α, IL-1β, and PGE₂ by ELISA. C. reticulata oleoresin collected in the Amazonian summer contained six major sesquiterpene compounds (β-bisabolene, cis-eudesma-6,11-diene, trans-α-bergamotene, β-selinene, α-selinene, and β-elemene) and was nontoxic at a dose of 2000 mg/kg, showing low acute toxicity. Different from oleoresin obtained from other sites of the Brazilian Amazon, the major volatile compound found was β-Bisabolene with 25.15%. This β-Bisabolene-rich oleoresin reduced the formation of paw edema induced by carrageenan and reduced the global number of cells in the air pouch assay, as well as exudate volume and nitrite, TNF-α, IL-1β, and prostaglandin E₂ levels (p < 0.05). C. reticulata oleoresin with a high β-Bisabolene concentration showed anti-inflammatory activity, reducing vascular permeability and consequently edema formation, and thus reducing cell migration and the production of inflammatory cytokine, confirming its traditional use by local Amazonian communities.

Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Copaifera pubiflora Benth oleoresin and its major metabolite ent-hardwickiic acid

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Copaifera species folkloric names are "copaíbas, copaibeiras, copaívas or oil stick", which are widely used in Brazilian folk medicine. Among all ethnopharmacological applications described for Copaifera spp oleoresins, their anti-inflammatory effect stands out. However, the knowledge of anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties of Copaifera pubiflora Benth is scarce.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive activities of C. pubiflora oleoresin (CPO), and its major compound ent-hardwickiic acid (HA).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The phosphatase assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of CPO and HA in three different cell lines. CPO and HA doses of 1, 3, and 10 mg/kg were employed in the biological assays. The assessment of motor activity was performed using open-field and rotarod tests. Anti-inflammatory activity of CPO and HA was assessed through luciferase assay, measurement of INF-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α in a multi-spot system with the immortalized cell line THP-1, zymosan-induced arthritis, and carrageenan-induced paw edema. Acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing and formalin tests were undertaken to evaluate the antinociceptive potential of CPO and HA. In addition, the evaluation using carrageenan was performed to investigate the effect of CPO in pain intensity to a mechanical stimulus (mechanical hyperalgesia), using the von Frey filaments. A tail-flick test was used to evaluate possible central CPO and HA actions.

RESULTS

In the cytotoxicity evaluation, CPO and HA were not cytotoxic to the cell lines tested. CPO and HA (10 mg/kg) did not affect animals' locomotor capacity in both open-field and rotarod tests. In the luciferase assay, CPO and HA significantly reduced luciferase activity (p < 0.05). This reduction indicates a decrease in NF-κB activity. HA and CPO decreased INF-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α at 24 and 72 h in the multi-spot system. In zymosan-induced arthritis, CPO and HA decreased the number of neutrophils in the joint of arthritic mice and the number of total leukocytes (p < 0.05). In experimental arthritis HA significantly decreased joint swelling (p < 0.05). CPO and HA also increased the mechanical threshold during experimental arthritis. HA and CPO significantly inhibited the carrageenan-induced paw edema, being the doses of 10 mg/kg the most effective, registering maximum inhibitions of 58 ± 8% and 76 ± 6% respectively, p < 0.05. CPO and HA reduced the nociceptive behavior in both phases of formalin at all tested doses. The highest doses tested displayed inhibitions of 87 ± 1% and 72 ± 4%, respectively, p < 0.001, in the first phase, and 87 ± 1% and 81 ± 2%, respectively, p < 0.001, in the second phase. Oral treatment of CPO and HA (1, 3, 10 mg/kg) significantly reduced the nociceptive response in acetic acid-induced abdominal writhings, and the 10 mg/kg dose was the most effective with maximum inhibitions of 86 ± 2% and 82 ± 1%, respectively, p < 0.001. Both HA and CPO significantly decreased the intensity of mechanical inflammatory hyper-nociception on carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia at all tested doses, and 10 mg/kg was the most effective dose with maximum inhibitions of 73 ± 5% and 74 ± 7%, respectively, p < 0.05.CPO increased the tail-flick latencies in mice, and concomitant administration of naloxone partially reduced its effect.

CONCLUSIONS

CPO and HA may inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines by suppressing the NF-κB signaling pathway, resulting in anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities.

Characterization of the Antinociceptive Activity from Stevia serrata Cav

Background: Stevia serrata Cav. (Asteraceae), widely found in Guatemala, is used to treat gastrointestinal problems. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the essential oil (EO) and the mechanism of action. Methods: EO was tested in chemical (capsaicin- and glutamate-induced licking response) or thermal (hot plate) models of nociception at 10, 30 or 100 mg/kg doses. The mechanism of action was evaluated using two receptor antagonists (naloxone, atropine) and an enzyme inhibitor (L-NAME). The anti-hyperalgesic effect was evaluated using carrageenan-induced nociception and evaluated in the hot plate. Results: All three doses of EO reduced licking response induced by glutamate, and higher doses reduced capsaicin-induced licking. EO also increased area under the curve, similar to the morphine-treated group. The antinociceptive effect induced by EO was reversed by pretreatment of mice with naloxone (1 mg/kg, ip), atropine (1 mg/kg, ip) or L-NAME (3 mg/kg, ip). EO also demonstrated an anti-hyperalgesic effect. The 100 mg/kg dose increased the latency time, even at 1 h after oral administration and this effect has been maintained until the 96th hour, post-administration. Conclusions: Our data suggest that essential oil of S. serrata presents an antinociceptive effect mediated, at least in part, through activation of opioid, cholinergic and nitrergic pathways.

Copaiba oleoresin has topical antinociceptive activity in a UVB radiation-induced skin-burn model in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Copaiba oleoresin, extracted from Copaifera L., is used as a wound healing, analgesic, antimicrobial and, mainly, anti-inflammatory agent. Thus, in this study we investigated the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of a topical formulation containing Copaiba oleoresin (3%) in a UVB radiation-induced skin burn model (0.75 J/cm²) in mice and performed a cream-formulation stability study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical composition of Copaiba oleoresin was analyzed using gas chromatography (GC-MS). The topical antinociceptive (evaluated through mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia) and the anti-inflammatory (dermal thickness and inflammatory cell infiltration) effects of treatments were assessed. The cream-formulation stability study was performed after two months, and organoleptic characteristics, pH, spreadability and rheological characteristics were analyzed.

RESULTS

Copaiba oleoresin cream was able to prevent UVB radiation-induced mechanical allodynia on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th day after UVB radiation exposure with a maximum inhibition (I_max) of 64.6 ± 7% observed on the 2nd day; it also reduced the thermal hyperalgesia on the 1st and 2nd days post UVB radiation, with a I_max of 100% observed on the 2nd day. Moreover, topical treatment with Copaiba oleoresin cream inhibited the inflammatory cell infiltration, but did not reduce the dermal thickness. Such effects can be attributed, at least in part, to the presence of biological components, such as β-caryophyllene and other sesquiterpenes identified by GC-MS.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that the topical formulation containing Copaiba oleoresin presented antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects in mice subjected to a UVB radiation and that the cream-formulation was stable for two months. Thus, use of Copaiba oleoresin is a promising strategy for the treatment of inflammatory pain associated with sunburn.

Pharmacological evaluation underlying the antinociceptive activity of two new hybrids NSAIDs tetrahydropyran derivatives

The development of analgesic drugs is still a necessity due to the inefficiency of the current treatments for some pathological conditions and also due to the adverse effects produced by these drugs. The aim of this study was to deepen the pharmacological study of two new hybrids NSAIDs tetrahydropyran derivatives, regarding their antinociceptive effects on acute pain in mice. Male swiss mice were evaluated in the acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing, formalin, tail-flick, open-field, glutamate- and capsaicin-induced paw licking tests, and in vitro Cox inhibition assay, besides the acute toxicological evaluation. The compounds had an effect on the acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing, formalin (both phases), and tail-flick tests. In the study of the mechanism of action was observed reversion of the antinociceptive effect of the compounds from the previous administration of naloxone, L-NAME (L-nitro-arginine methyl ester), ODQ (1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one), glibenclamide, and nor-binaltorphimine, by the intrathecal and intraperitoneal routes. The prior administration of MK-801 suggests that the modulation of NMDA receptor contributes to the antinociceptive effect of compounds. In summary, hybrid compounds presented central antinociceptive effect, demonstrating participation of the NO-cGMP-K⁺ ATP pathway, κ-opioid, and NMDA receptors. In addition, the compounds showed inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase enzymes and adverse effects were not observed with dose 300 times greater than the dose used experimentally.

Antimicrobial and cytotoxic effects of the Copaifera reticulata oleoresin and its main diterpene acids

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The oleoresin of Brazilian Copaifera reticulata is a traditional remedy used for the treatment of skin and urinary tract infections, respiratory diseases, rheumatism, ulcer and tumours; thus, playing an important role in the primary health care of the indigenous population.

AIM

As most previous pharmacological tests used the crude oleoresin and only a few studies so far dealt with enriched fractions or pure chemically defined compounds, the aim of this study was to systematically evaluate the antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of the Copaifera reticulata oleoresin and to assign traditional uses to specific secondary metabolites.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The oleoresin, as well as its neutral and acidic fractions were tested for their activity against six cancer cell lines, two clinically relevant bacterial strains, and two dermatophytes. Both fractions were analysed by GC-MS and UHPLC-ELSD, respectively. The antibacterial acidic phase was further fractionated by preparative chromatography to purify and characterize the compounds responsible for the observed pharmacological effect.

RESULTS

Whereas no cytotoxic activity was detected, the crude oleoresin and its acidic fraction showed antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria Enterococcus faecium (IC₅₀ values 4.2 and 4.8 µg/mL, respectively) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA, IC₅₀ values 5.3 and 7.2 µg/mL, respectively). Purification of the acidic fraction of the C. reticulata oleoresin yielded two dicarboxylic diterpene acids and the four main diterpene acids, comprising three different diterpene scaffolds. Interestingly, the activity was not restricted to a particular diterpene-type but rather depended on the compounds' lipophilicity, with the most active constituent showing IC₅₀ values of 1.6 (E. faecium) and 2.5 µg/mL (MRSA), respectively. Furthermore, ent-polyalthic acid, the major diterpenoid, was significantly active against dermatophytes with IC₅₀ values of 6.8 µg/mL (Trichophyton rubrum) and 4.3 µg/mL against (T. mentagrophytes).

CONCLUSION

The present study proved the antimicrobial effects of the C. reticulata oleoresin and its diterpenoid constituents, confirming its wide use in folk medicine for the treatment of skin and urinary tract infections. The inhibitory activity of copaiba diterpenoids against dermatophytic fungi as well as the gram-positive bacteria E. faecium and MRSA is being reported for the first time, providing potential lead structures for the treatment of these clinically relevant bacterial strains.

Análise comparativa dos efeitos do mel, do óleo-serina de copaíba e de um produto comercial (fibrinolisina, desoxirribonuclease e cloranfenicol) na cicatrização por segunda intenção, em ratos

RESUMO Objetivo: comparar a cicatrização, por segunda intenção, sob os efeitos da aplicação tópica de mel, óleo-resina de copaíba e um produto comercial (fibrinolisina, desoxirribonuclease e cloranfenicol) a um grupo controle, em ratos. Métodos: ressecção de pele, com 1cm de diâmetro, foi realizada no dorso de 40 ratos alocados em quatro grupos de dez animais. Todas as feridas foram limpas, diariamente, com 2ml de solução de NaCl 0,9%. O primeiro grupo (controle - GC) ficou restrito a tal procedimento. Nas feridas do segundo (GM), terceiro (GO) e quarto grupos (GF), após limpeza, aplicou-se, respectivamente, 1ml de mel, 1ml de óleo-resina de copaíba e 1ml de creme contendo fibrinolisina, desoxirribonuclease e cloranfenicol. Ocluíram-se as feridas com gaze estéril. Imediatamente após a incisão e nos dias três, sete e 14 do experimento, as feridas foram copiadas e, usando planimetria, analisou-se a contração. Após a eutanásia, a histologia foi utilizada para avaliação da reação inflamatória e do colágeno nas cicatrizes. Resultados: a redução da área da ferida do GM (p=0,003), GO (p=0,011) e GF (p=0,002) foram superiores ao do GC. A quantidade de colágeno tipo I presente no GM e no GO foi superior aos grupos GC e GF (p<0,05). Houve predominância do estágio inflamatório crônico no GM (p=0,004), GO (p<0,001) e GF (p=0,003) quando comparados ao GC. Conclusão: o uso tópico do mel e do óleo-resina de copaíba aumenta a contração da ferida, a presença de colágeno tipo I e acelera a cicatrização.

Occurrence, chemical composition, biological activities and analytical methods on Copaifera genus-A review

Copaifera is a genus of large trees found in Brazil, mainly in Amazon forest, but also in Atlantic forest and cerrado biomes. It has also been found in other countries in South America. In Africa, it is found mainly in Congo, Cameroon, Guinea and Angola. Its oleoresin has been used in folk medicine in the treatment of numerous healthy disorders, such as urinary, respiratory, skin and inflammatory diseases, for which there are several studies corroborating its ethnopharmacological uses. It is also extensively employed in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries in the development of ointments, pills, soaps, perfumes, among others. Copaifera oleoresin contains mainly diterpenes, such as: kaurenoic acid, kaurenol, copalic acid, agathic acid, hardwiickic acid, polyalthic acid, and sesquiterpenes, comprising β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, α-copaene, α-humulene, γ-muurolene and β-bisabolol, among other compounds. On the other hand, Copaifera leaves contain mainly phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and methylated galloylquinic acid derivatives. Therefore, considering the economic importance of Copaifera oleoresin, its ethnopharmacological uses, the need to develop new pharmaceuticals for the treatment of many diseases, as well as the pharmacological potential of the compounds found in Copaifera spp., it was undertaken a review covering mostly the last two decades on the distribution, chemistry, pharmacology, quality control and safety of Copaifera species.

Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry of labdane-type acid diterpenes

Copaifera (Leguminoseae) species produce a commercially interesting oleoresin that displays several biological activities, including antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Labdane-type diterpenes are the main chemical constituents of these oleoresins, and copalic acid is the only compound that has been detected in all Copaifera oleoresins. In this study, we investigate some aspects of the gas-phase fragmentation reactions involved in the formation of the product ions from the deprotonated compounds (-)-ent-copalic acid (1), (-)-ent-3β-hydroxy-copalic acid (2), (-)-ent-3β-acetoxy-copalic acid (3), and (-)-ent-agathic acid (4) by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) and multiple stage mass spectrometry (MSⁿ ). Our results reveal that the product ion with m/z 99 is common to all the analyzed compounds, whereas the product ion with m/z 217 is diagnostic for compounds 2 and 3. Moreover, only compound 4 undergoes CO₂ (44 u) and acetic acid (60 u) elimination from the precursor ion. Thermochemical data obtained by computational chemistry at the B3LYP/6-31G(d) level of theory support the proposed ion structures. These data helped us to identify these compounds in a crude commercial Copaifera langsdorffii oleoresin by selective multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Finally, a precursor ion scan (PIS) strategy aided screening of labdane-type acid diterpenes other than 1 to 4 in the same Copaifera oleoresin sample and led us to propose the structures of 8,17-dihydro-ent-agathic acid (5) and 3-keto-ent-copalic acid (6), which have not been previously reported in Copaifera oleoresins.

Technological development of microemulsions with perspectives for pain treatment: a patent review

INTRODUCTION

Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable translucent systems widely used for systemic delivery of drugs. The present study is the first to analyze the biotechnological potential of microemulsion systems for therapeutic purposes, through transdermal route, for pain treatment.

AREAS COVERED

Patents were searched in the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), European Patent Office (Espacenet), United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and National Institute of Intellectual Property (INPI). The inclusion criteria were published patents containing the keywords; 'microemulsion' and 'transdermal' in their title or abstract. 208 patents were found. However, only those patents which mentioned in their abstract or in their description the use of microemulsion system (object of invention) for pain treatment were selected. Were excluded duplicate patents and those that did not report pharmacological use of MEs specifically for pain treatment. Thus, sixteen patents were selected and described in the present study.

EXPERT OPINION

Patents were found that focused specifically on the development process of microemulsion systems, the inclusion of essential oils in microemulsions, which place microemulsions as delivery systems for NSAIDs and other substances, as well as microemulsions for transdermal administration. These studies reinforce the therapeutic applicability of MEs in the treatment of acute and chronic pain.

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant, Analgesic, and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Methanolic Extract of Euphorbia retusa in Mice

Plants provide an alternative source to manage different human disorders due to various metabolites. The aim of this study is to investigate the phytochemical constituents of the methanolic extracts of Euphorbia retusa and to evaluate their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activities. The phytochemical results obtained by HPLC and by chemical assay reactions have revealed the richness of the methanolic extract of E. retusa in active compounds, in particular polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins. The methanolic extract shows significant antioxidant activities in vitro, in the DPPH and the FRAP assays. The antinociceptive activity was evaluated using acetic acid and hot-plate models of pain in mice. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by carrageenan-induced paw edema. Oral pretreatment with the methanolic extract of E. retusa (200 mg/kg) exhibited a significant inhibition of pain induced either by acetic acid or by the heating plate and in a manner comparable to the standard drug paracetamol. E. retusa significantly reduced paw edema starting from the 3rd hour after carrageenan administration by increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, and GPx) in liver and paw tissues and decreasing the levels of MDA. These results may confirm the interesting potential of this plant as a treatment of various inflammatory and pain diseases.

Evidence of traditionality of Brazilian medicinal plants: The case studies of Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville (barbatimão) barks and Copaifera spp. (copaíba) oleoresin in wound healing

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes the potential of plants used in secular traditional medicine and considers this an important source of evidence to assess their effectiveness and safety. Brazil is rich in biodiversity and traditional uses based on the Amerindian culture. However, many processes started with the arrival of the Portuguese in the year 1500. The successive economic cycles, for example, led to destruction of native vegetation and an intense cultural erosion. As a consequence, the information about the use of plants in the past centuries are dispersed and without interpretation. In this study a methodology to evidence the traditionality of Brazilian plants was demonstrated using data about barbatimão barks (Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville - Fabaceae) and Copaiba oleoresin (Copaifera spp. - Fabaceae) in wound healing, was established.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Data about use of the plants were recovered from bibliography published between 1576 and 2011. The books (101) were classified using weights, considering the date of publication and the source of Information. Older books that describe primary information received weight 10, while books written more recently and with secondary information received weight 0.4. A score for each category of medicinal use was calculated based on the books weights and the frequency of citation. A review about the current use of both plants was also performed from ethnobotanical studies published in journals.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The traditional secular use of barks of barbatimão and oleoresin of copaiba to treat wounds was confirmed based on the historic bibliographic research. The most frequent use of barbatimão in a timeline of 500 years of Brazil's history, was as astringent, whereas for copaíba was as healing of skin and mucosal lesions. The continuous and current use of these plants to treat wounds, confirmed by recent ethnobotanical studies, is an indicative of the resilience of these remedies and their effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

The use of preparations containing barbatimão barks and copaiba oleoresin can be considered effective in the treatment of wounds. Nonetheless, it is necessary to improve the quality of the formulas as established by WHO.

Copaifera of the Neotropics: A Review of the Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

The oleoresin of Copaifera trees has been widely used as a traditional medicine in Neotropical regions for thousands of years and remains a popular treatment for a variety of ailments. The copaiba resins are generally composed of a volatile oil made up largely of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, such as β-caryophyllene, α-copaene, β-elemene, α-humulene, and germacrene D. In addition, the oleoresin is also made up of several biologically active diterpene acids, including copalic acid, kaurenoic acid, alepterolic acid, and polyalthic acid. This review presents a summary of the ecology and distribution of Copaifera species, the traditional uses, the biological activities, and the phytochemistry of copaiba oleoresins. In addition, several biomolecular targets relevant to the bioactivities have been implicated by molecular docking methods.

Antinociceptive and anti-edema properties of the ethyl acetate fraction obtained from extracts of Coriandrum sativum Linn. leaves

This study evaluated the antinociceptive and anti-edema properties of fractions of Coriandrum sativum Linn. (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) leaves in mice. Ethyl acetate fractions (FAc) were obtained from dichloromethane extracts prepared from dried C. sativum (CS) leaves and stems. The effects of different concentrations of FAc on mice were observed using the open-field test, formalin-, capsaicin-, and carrageenan-induced paw edema tests, and the acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing test. Results from the carrageenan-induced paw edema test were subjected to a linear regression analysis and data from other assays were subjected to the Kruskal-Wallis test (followed by the SNK post hoc test). Dihydrocoriandrin (34.5%), coriandrin (14.4%), vitamin E (4.6%), and stigmasterol (7.9%) were identified in FAc. The number of squares the mice crossed in the open field test was decreased by 100 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg FAc (i.p.). The administration of 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg FAc induced fewer abdominal writhes than the control. In the formalin test, neurogenic pain was reduced by 20 mg/kg morphine and 30 and 100 mg/kg FAc, but not 5 mg/kg dexamethasone or 10 mg/kg FAc. Formalin-induced inflammatory pain was decreased by morphine, dexamethasone, and 30 and 100 mg/kg FAc. Morphine and 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg FAc significantly decreased the reaction time during the capsaicin test. Dexamethasone reduced both early and later phases of carrageenan-induced edema. Both 30 and 300 mg/kg FAc induced less edema than the control throughout the experiment. FAc showed antinociceptive, anti-edema and anti-inflammatory properties and it may be considered as a potential phytotherapeutic agent in the future.

Trypanocidal activity of copaiba oil and kaurenoic acid does not depend on macrophage killing machinery

Activity, mechanisms of action, and toxicity of natural compounds have been investigated in a context in which knowledge on which pathway is activated remains crucial to understand the action mechanism of these bioactive substances when treating an infected host. Herein, we showed an ability of copaiba oil and kaurenoic acid to eliminate Trypanosoma cruzi forms by infected macrophages through other mechanisms in addition to nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species, iron metabolism, and antioxidant defense. Both compounds induced an anti-inflammatory response with an increase in IL-10 and TGF-β as well as a decrease in IL-12 production. Despite being able to modulate the immune response in host cells, the antimicrobial activity of copaiba oil and kaurenoic acid seems to be a direct action of the compounds on the parasites, causing their death.

Antigenotoxicity properties of Copaifera multijuga oleoresin and its chemical marker, the diterpene (-)-copalic acid

In view of the biological activities and growing therapeutic interest in oleoresin obtained from Copaifera multijuga, this study aimed to determine the genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential of this oleoresin (CMO) and its chemical marker, diterpene (-)-copalic acid (CA). The micronucleus (MN) assay in V79 cell cultures and the Ames test were used for in vitro analyses, as well as MN and comet assays in Swiss mice for in vivo analyses. The in vitro genotoxicity/mutagenicity results showed that either CMO (30, 60, or 120 µg/ml-MN assay; 0.39-3.12 mg/plate-Ames test) or CA (2.42; 4.84, or 9.7 µg/ml-MN assay; 0.39-3.12 mg/plate-Ames test) did not induce a significant effect on the frequency of MN and number of revertants, demonstrating an absence of genotoxic and mutagenic activities, respectively, in vitro. In contrast, these natural products significantly reduced the frequency of MN induced by methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), and exerted a marked inhibitory effect against indirect-acting mutagens in the Ames test. In the in vivo test system, animals treated with CMO (6.25 mg/kg b.w.) exhibited a significant decrease in rate of MN occurrence compared to those treated only with MMS. An antigenotoxic effect of CA was noted in the MN test (1 and 2 mg/kg b.w.) and the comet assay (0.5 mg/kg b.w.). Data suggest that the chemical marker of the genus Copaifera, CA, may partially be responsible for the observed chemopreventive effect attributed to CMO exposure.

ABBREVIATIONS

2-AA, 2-anthramine; 2-AF, 2-aminofluorene; AFB₁, aflatoxin B₁; B[a]P, benzo[a]pyrene; BOD, biological oxygen demand; BPDE, benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide; CA, (-)-copalic acid; CMO, oleoresin of Copaifera multijuga, DMEM, Dulbecco`s Modified Eagles`s Medium; DMSO, dimethylsulfoxide; EMBRAPA, Brazilian agricultural research corporation; GC-MS, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; HAM-F10, nutrient mixture F-10 Ham; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; LC-MS, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; MI, mutagenic index; MMC, mitomycin C; MMS, methyl methanesulfonate; MN, micronucleus; MNPCE, micronucleated polychromatic erythrocyte; NCE, normochromatic erythrocyte; NDI, nuclear division index; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance; NPD, 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; PCE, polychromatic erythrocyte; SA, sodium azide; V79, Chinese hamster lung fibroblast.

Use of Copaifera multijuga for acute corneal repair after chemical injury: A clinical, histopathological and toxicogenetic study

Copaiba oil is widely used in medicine, but there are no reports regarding its application in ophthalmology. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical, histopathological and toxicogenetic effects of eye drops containing 0.1 and 0.5% of Copaifera multijuga Hayne oil on superficial corneal ulcers induced with alkali in the left eye of rats. For histological analysis, the percent reduction in ulcers and thickness of the corneal epithelium and stroma were evaluated 48 and 72 h after ulcer induction. Additionally, neovascularization and polymorphonuclear infiltration were classified in the stroma. The bone marrow micronucleus test was used for toxicogenetic assessment. None of the animals exhibited clinical signs of immediate ocular discomfort after instillation and the eye drops were harmless to the ocular surface. There was a significant difference in percent ulcer reduction and corneal stroma thickness between animals treated with the C. multijuga eye drops and untreated animals with corneal injury and the negative control, respectively, suggesting a healing effect of the oleoresin. Analysis of the thickness of the corneal epithelium at the two time points showed that the eye drops formulated did not significantly reduce the damage caused by alkali. The same was observed for the treatments with the reference drugs. No difference in stromal neovascularization or inflammatory infiltration was observed between the treated groups. The toxicogenetic results revealed the absence of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of the treatments. In conclusion, the C. multijuga eye drops did not cause damage to the ocular surface under the present experimental conditions and corneal epithelization was similar to the conventional treatments. These results indicate that eye drops containing C. multijuga oleoresin are a promising option for the treatment of superficial keratitis.

Inclusion Complexes of Copaiba (Copaifera multijuga Hayne) Oleoresin and Cyclodextrins: Physicochemical Characterization and Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Complexation with cyclodextrins (CDs) is a technique that has been extensively used to increase the aqueous solubility of oils and improve their stability. In addition, this technique has been used to convert oils into solid materials. This work aims to develop inclusion complexes of Copaifera multijuga oleoresin (CMO), which presents anti-inflammatory activity, with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) by kneading (KND) and slurry (SL) methods. Physicochemical characterization was performed to verify the occurrence of interactions between CMO and the cyclodextrins. Carrageenan-induced hind paw edema in mice was carried out to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of CMO alone as well as complexed with CDs. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the formation of inclusion complex of CMO with both β-CD and HP-β-CD by KND and SL methods. Carrageenan-induced paw edema test showed that the anti-inflammatory activity of CMO was maintained after complexation with β-CD and HP-β-CD, where they were able to decrease the levels of nitrite and myeloperoxidase. In conclusion, this study showed that it is possible to produce inclusion complexes of CMO with CDs by KND and SL methods without any change in CMO’s anti-inflammatory activity.

Wound healing properties of Copaifera paupera in diabetic mice

Copaifera oleoresin is one of the most used natural products in popular medicine all over the world. Among other effects (i.e., anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, microbicidal) one of the most well-known is its wound healing capacity. However, the mechanism by which the oleoresin presents its effect is still not clear. In this study, our aim was to evaluate the wound healing capacity of oleoresin obtained from Copaifera paupera, its mechanism of action and identify its major components. For these purposes, diabetic Swiss Webster mice were topically treated with oleoresin (100, 150 or 200 mg/kg) for 14 consecutive days after an excision was performed in the back of the mice. Cytokines, wound retraction and histological evaluation were conducted at 3, 7 and 10 days (for cytokines); 0, 3, 7, 10 and 14 days (for wound retraction); and 7 and 14 days (for histological evaluation). Our data indicate that oleoresin significantly reduced production of MCP-1 and TNF-α at days 7 and 10 post-excision and increased IL-10 production at both days. All treatments demonstrated an effect similar or higher to that in collagenase-treated mice. Histological evaluations demonstrated that higher dose treatment resulted in better resolution and closure of the wound and higher levels of collagen deposition and indexes of re-epithelialization even when compared with the collagenase-treated group. The treatment with oleoresin from Copaifera paupera demonstrated that it is even better than an ointment routinely used for improvement of wound healing, suggesting this oleoresin as an option for use in diabetic patients.

Antibacterial Activity of Copaiba Oil Gel on Dental Biofilm

Amazonian biodiversity products that have been used for years in folk medicine, have emerged as feasible and promising alternatives for the inhibition of microorganisms in dental biofilm. Copaiba oil, a phytotherapic agent widely used by the Amazonian populations, is known for its antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anesthetic, healing and antitumor medicinal properties.

Intrathecal RGS4 inhibitor, CCG50014, reduces nociceptive responses and enhances opioid-mediated analgesic effects in the mouse formalin test

BACKGROUND

The regulator of G-protein signaling protein type 4 (RGS4) accelerates the guanosine triphosphatase activity of G(αi) and G(αo), resulting in the inactivation of G-protein-coupled receptor signaling. An opioid receptor (OR), a G(αi)-coupled receptor, plays an important role in pain modulation in the central nervous system. In this study, we examined whether (1) spinal RGS4 affected nociceptive responses in the formalin pain test, (2) this RGS4-mediated effect was involved in OR activation, and (3) the µ-OR agonist-induced antinociceptive effect was modified by RGS4 modulation.

METHODS

Formalin (1%, 20 µL) was injected subcutaneously into the right hindpaws of male 129S4/SvJae×C57BL/6J (RGS4(+/+) or RGS4(-/-)) mice, and the licking responses were counted for 40 minutes. The time periods (seconds) spent licking the injected paw during 0 to 10 minutes (early phase) and 10 to 40 minutes (late phase) were measured as indicators of acute nociception and inflammatory pain response, respectively. An RGS4 inhibitor, CCG50014, and/or a µ-OR agonist, [D-Ala², N-MePhe⁴, Gly-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO), were intrathecally injected 5 minutes before the formalin injection. A nonselective OR antagonist, naloxone, was intraperitoneally injected 30 minutes before the CCG50014 injection.

RESULTS

Mice that received the formalin injection exhibited typical biphasic nociceptive behaviors. The nociceptive responses in RGS4-knockout mice were significantly decreased during the late phase but not during the early phase. Similarly, intrathecally administered CCG50014 (10, 30, or 100 nmol) attenuated the nociceptive responses during the late phase in a dose-dependent manner. The antinociceptive effect of the RGS4 inhibitor was totally blocked by naloxone (5 mg/kg). In contrast, intrathecal injection of DAMGO achieved a dose-dependent reduction of the nociceptive responses at the early and late phases. This analgesic effect of DAMGO was significantly enhanced by the genetic depletion of RGS4 or by coadministration of CCG50014 (10 nmol).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrated that spinal RGS4 inhibited the endogenous or exogenous OR-mediated antinociceptive effect in the formalin pain test. Thus, the inhibition of RGS4 activity can enhance OR agonist-induced analgesia. The enhancement of OR agonist-induced analgesia by coadministration of the RGS4 inhibitor suggests a new therapeutic strategy for the management of inflammatory pain.

Immunomodulatory action of Copaifera spp oleoresins on cytokine production by human monocytes

Copaifera spp oleoresins have been used in folk medicine for centuries; nevertheless, its immunomodulatory action has not been investigated. Thus, the goal of this study was to characterize different oleoresins and to verify their action on human monocytes regarding pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine production (TNF-α and IL-10, respectively). The chemical composition of Brazilian Copaifera reticulata, Copaifera duckey and Copaifera multijuga oleoresins was analyzed by HPLC-MS. Cell viability was assessed by MTT method after incubation of cells with Copaifera spp. Noncytotoxic concentrations of oleoresins were incubated with human monocytes from healthy donors, and cytokine production was determined by ELISA. HPLC-MS analysis for terpenes allowed the identification of six diterpene acids and one sesquiterpene acid. Oleoresins exerted no cytotoxic effects on human monocytes. All oleoresins had a similar profile: LPS-induced TNF-α production was maintained by oleoresins, while a significant inhibitory action on IL-10 production was seen. Copaifera oleoresins seemed to exert an activator profile on human monocytes without affecting cell viability. Such effect may be due to the presence of either diterpene or sesquiterpene acids; however, further studies are necessary to determine the involvement of such compounds in Copaifera immunomodulatory effects.

Determination of β-caryophyllene skin permeation/retention from crude copaiba oil (Copaifera multijuga Hayne) and respective oil-based nanoemulsion using a novel HS-GC/MS method

Copaiba oil is largely used in the Amazonian region for the treatment of inflammation, and recent studies demonstrated that one of the major components of the oil, β-caryophyllene (CAR), is a potent anti-inflammatory. The nanoemulsification of this oleoresin, which has unctuous character, converts it in a more acceptable hydrophilic formulation and may improve CAR penetration through the skin due to the small droplet size and the high contact surface afforded by the nanoemulsions. This paper describes the validation of a novel, sensitive, practical and solvent free method that uses gas chromatography in headspace mode coupled with mass spectrometry to evaluate the skin permeation/retention of CAR from the crude copaiba oil and its nanoemulsion. Our results show that the bioanalytic method was fully validated, demonstrating linearity (r(2)>0.99), specificity (no peaks co-eluting with CAR retention time), precision (RSD<15%) and accuracy (recovery>90%) within the accepted parameters and that the copaiba oil nanoemulsion presented a better skin penetration compared to the crude oil, with CAR achieving the most profound layer of the skin, the dermis.

The influence of topic and systemic administration of copaiba oil on the alveolar wound healing after tooth extraction in rats

The Copaiba oil has been used as an auxiliary treatment of inflammations, skin disorders and stomach ulcers, however, in dentistry, this “alternative” medicine has not been investigated yet. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of topic and systemic administration of copaiba oil on the alveolar wound healing after tooth extraction. Twenty-eight wistar male rats had their lower first molar teeth extracted. Subsequently, they were divided in four groups, according to the treatment performed: (a) alveolar socket irrigation with copaiba oil; (b) alveolar socket irrigation with physiological serum; (c) daily gavage with copaiba oil or (d) daily gavage with physiological serum. After the sacrifice, the mandibles were removed and processed in order to obtain decalcified histological sections. The results demonstrated high level of epithelial migration, small number of inflammatory cells and vascular enhancement in the animals which received systemic administration of copaiba oil. The rats treated with topic administration of copaiba oil presented ulcerations and large number of inflammatory cells. An increased bone neoformation was observed in both groups treated with copaiba oil when compared with placebo group. It could be concluded that topic or systemic administration of copaiba oil leads to a better alveolar bone healing, however the topic application on connective tissue should be carefully considered, regarding the whole socket wound healing.

Key words:Alveolar wound healing, oil-resin, copaiba.

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of Cocos nucifera var. typica

Background

Teas from the husk fiber of Cocos nucifera are used in the folk medicine to treat arthritis and other inflammatory processes. Some works show that some varieties have biological activities. However, one of the main variety of the species, C. nucifera var. typica, known in Brazil as “gigante”, was not studied yet. Thus, this study evaluates if this variety has the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities already reported in other varieties.

Methods

C. nucifera aqueous crude extract (10, 50, and 100 mg/kg) and the reference drugs morphine (1 mg/kg) and acetylsalicylic acid (100 mg/kg) were evaluated in models of inflammation (formalin-induced licking and subcutaneous air pouch). The antioxidant activity was evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) photometric assay and compared with those of the standards (quercetin, rutin, and ascorbic acid). The extract was also screened against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), in the agar diffusion method. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) were determined by the broth micro-dilution assay. Activities of combinations of the extract and antibiotics (methicillin or vancomycin) against MRSA were evaluated using checkerboard assays.

Results

The extract significantly inhibited the time that the animals spent licking the formalin-injected paws (second phase). The extract also inhibited the inflammatory process induced by subcutaneous carrageenan injection by reducing cell migration, protein extravasation, and TNF-α production. Additionally, the extract showed an antioxidant potential in vitro as good as standards in their antioxidant activity. The extract was active only against S. aureus and MRSA. MIC and the bactericidal concentrations were identical (1,024 μg/ml). The extract and methicillin acted synergistically against the clinical MRSA isolate, whereas an indifferent effect was detected when the extract was combined with vancomycin.

Conclusions

The extract exhibits anti-inflammatory activity through the inhibition of the cell migration. The mixture of extract constituents and methicillin could lead to the development of a new combination antibiotic against MRSA infections.

Observations on the therapeutic practices of riverine communities of the Unini River, AM, Brazil

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Parts and products of animals and plants, like exudates, have been used for medicinal and/or toxic purposes by various human groups throughout history. However, few ethnopharmacological studies have engaged their rescue.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To perform a broad ethnopharmacological survey of the local medicine practiced by traditional healing experts living in relative isolation at seven communities within the Amazon rainforest, in order to provide the basis for further pharmacological studies of the most promising findings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The field work was conducted using an ethnographic approach with the assistance of a doctor. Plants and animals, as well as their products and derivatives, reported by the practitioners as being involved in healing practices were collected, identified and deposited in scientific collections.

RESULTS

A total of 33 traditional healing experts were selected and interviewed; they described themselves as: healer, midwife, knowledgeable of natural drugs or 'desmintidor' (an expert in massage techniques for the treatment of muscle contractures and joint sprains). In this therapeutic practice, 122 plant species, belonging to 60 botanical families, were indicated and collected; the most frequently mentioned families were: Fabaceae s.l. (10%), Arecaceae (6%), Zingiberaceae (5%) and Lamiaceae (5%). Plant exudates from 14 of those plant species were also indicated and collected, with those from the Burseraceae family being the most common. Furthermore, 57 animals belonging to 35 taxonomic families were indicated. They most frequently belonged to 2 families of bony fishes: Cichlidae (14%) and Characidae (9%). Plants and animals were indicated for 67 therapeutic uses and grouped into 21 usage categories; the psychoactive category was associated with the greatest number of used resources (17%), followed by the cultural syndromes category (16.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

The geographic isolation and limited access to medical care in these communities resulted in unique, rich and consistent therapeutic system. There was a high degree of agreement among interviewees regarding the use of the same resources especially in the categories: psychoactive, cultural syndromes, pregnancy and childbirth, and inflammatory processes, suggesting a high degree of repetition and intercommunication. Further pharmacological and phytochemical investigations may search for new bioactive compounds among the described resources.

Terpenes from Copaifera demonstrated in vitro antiparasitic and synergic activity

To discover new possible therapies for Chagas' disease, we evaluated against all Trypanosoma cruzi life stages the in vitro trypanocidal and synergistic activity of terpenes isolated from Copaifera oleoresins collected in the Amazon and investigated their possible mechanism of action. Seven acid diterpenes and one sesquiterpene were tested. Terpenes promoted changes in oxidative metabolism followed by autophagic processes in the parasite cell leading to selective death. Furthermore, they were more effective against replicative forms, in particular amastigotes. A synergistic effect occurred. Cytotoxicity to erythrocytes and nucleated cells was moderate. This is the first study showing synergic activity between two terpenes against T. cruzi. Combinations of natural compounds can show high activity and may lead to new alternative treatments in the future.

Chemistry and biological activities of terpenoids from copaiba (Copaifera spp.) oleoresins

Copaiba oleoresins are exuded from the trunks of trees of the Copaifera species (Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae). This oleoresin is a solution of diterpenoids, especially, mono- and di-acids, solubilized by sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. The sesquiterpenes and diterpenes (labdane, clerodane and kaurane skeletons) are different for each Copaifera species and have been linked to several reported biological activities, ranging from anti-tumoral to embriotoxic effects. This review presents all the substances already described in this oleoresin, together with structures and activities of its main terpenoids.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2010

This paper is the thirty-third consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2010 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).

Characterisation of the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of the Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit essential oil

AIM OF THE STUDY

Hyptis pectinata Poit (Lamiaceae) is grown in the northeastern regions of Brazil and is popularly known as "sambacaitá" or "canudinho". It is extensively used in folk medicine to treat inflammatory conditions, bacterial infections, pain, and cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hyptis pectinata essential oil (EO, 10, 30, and 100mg/kg, p.o.) and the reference drugs morphine (5mg/kg, p.o.) and acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, 200mg/kg, p.o.) were evaluated using models for analgesia (acetic acid-induced contortions and hot plate) or inflammation (formalin-induced licking response and the subcutaneous air-pouch model). To elucidate the EO's mechanism of action, animals were pre-treated with the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone (1mg/kg, i.p.), the cholinergic antagonist atropine (1mg/kg, i.p.), or l-nitro arginine methyl ester (l-NAME, 3mg/kg, i.p.) 30 min prior to the oral administration of the EO.

RESULTS

The EO significantly inhibited the number of writhings and the time the animals spent licking their formalin-injected paws (second phase). The EO, at doses of 30 and 100mg/kg, increased baseline measurements and area under the curve measurements in the hot plate model, respectively. The administration of naloxone reversed the antinociceptive effect of the EO in the hot plate model. l-NAME significantly reversed the effects of the EO in the contortions and hot plate models. Atropine completely reversed the antinociceptive activity of the EO in all models. Additionally, the EO inhibited the inflammatory process induced by subcutaneous carrageenan injection by reducing cell migration, exudate volume, protein concentration, and inflammatory mediators (nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, IL-6, and TNF-α) produced in the pouch.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the Hyptis pectinata essential oil exhibits antinociceptive effects, likely mediated by opioid and cholinergic receptors, and anti-inflammatory activity through the inhibition of nitric oxide and PGE2 production.