Seeing the light: Shifting from wild rhizomes to extraction of active ingredients from above-ground parts of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

Unveiling the hidden potential: Above-ground parts of Paris yunnanensis Franch. Is promise as an anti-acne therapeutic beyond traditional medicinal sites

The dried rhizomes of Paris yunnanensis Franch. have been extensively utilized in traditional Chinese medicine as hemostatic, antitumor, and antimicrobial agents. An examination of classical texts and renowned Chinese medical formulations showcased its efficacy in acne treatment. Presently, there is a significant scarcity of Paris resources. Consider directing attention towards the non-medicinal parts of Paris to mitigate the strain on medicinal resources within this realm. To address these resource limitations, this study investigated the bioactivity and pharmacodynamics of the above-ground parts of Paris (AGPP). A synergistic approach integrating network pharmacology, molecular docking (in silico validation), and animal experimentation (in vivo validation) was employed to elucidate the potential mechanisms underlying the efficacy of AGPP against acne vulgaris in this study. The active constituents in AGPP extracts were identified via UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS analysis, with their targets extracted for network pharmacological analysis. KEGG pathway analysis unveiled potential therapeutic mechanisms, validated through molecular docking and rat auricular acne model experiments. Comprehensive chemical characterization revealed fifty constituents, including steroidal saponins, flavonoids, amino acids, organic acids, phytohormones, phenolic acids, and alkaloids. Diosgenin, Quercetin, Kaempferol, Ecdysone, and α-linolenic acid were identified as main constituents with acne-treating potential. Core targets included SRC, MAPK3, and MAPK1, with key signaling pathways implicated. Histologically, AGPP mitigated acne-induced follicular dilatation and inflammation, inhibiting inflammatory cytokine production (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α). This study offers insight into AGPP's mechanism for acne treatment, laying groundwork for Paris development and drug discovery.

In vitro Evaluation of Fungal Susceptibility and Inhibition of Virulence by Diosgenin

Fungal infections are a public health problem that mainly affects immunosuppressed people, Candida spp. have been responsible for most sources of contamination and invasive fungal infections described around the world. The need arises to find new therapeutic approaches to combat growing infections. Plants and natural products have been considered a valuable source for discovering new molecules with active ingredients. Diosgenin is a sapogenin found in the families of Leguminosae and Dioscoreaceae, it is obtained mainly from the dioscin saponin through the hydrolysis method, it is a phytochemical that has been highlighted in the treatment of various diseases, as well as in combating microbial resistance. The present study aimed to evaluate the susceptibility of fungal strains to diosgenin, as well as verify the association with the reference drug and evaluate the inhibition of the virulence factor through morphological changes in the yeast state to the filamentous form of hyphae and pseudohyphae in strains of Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis and Candida krusei using the broth microdilution method and microculture technique. Antifungal assays revealed that diosgenin was not able to inhibit the growth of the tested strains. However, it was able to inhibit the fungal dimorphism of the strains evaluated, however further studies are recommended to verify its effectiveness against other virulence factors.

Saponins of Paris polyphylla for the Improvement of Acne: Anti-Inflammatory, Antibacterial, Antioxidant and Immunomodulatory Effects

Acne is a chronic inflammatory skin disease with a recurring nature that seriously impacts patients' quality of life. Currently, antibiotic resistance has made it less effective in treating acne. However, Paris polyphylla (P. polyphylla) is a valuable medicinal plant with a wide range of chemical components. Of these, P. polyphylla saponins modulate the effects in vivo and in vitro through antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant effects. Acne is primarily associated with inflammatory reactions, abnormal sebum function, micro-ecological disorders, hair follicle hyperkeratosis, and, in some patients, immune function. Therefore, the role of P. polyphylla saponins and their values in treating acne is worthy of investigation. Overall, this review first describes the distribution and characteristics of P. polyphylla and the pathogenesis of acne. Then, the potential mechanisms of P. polyphylla saponins in treating acne are listed in detail (reduction in the inflammatory response, antibacterial action, modulation of immune response and antioxidant effects, etc.). In addition, a brief description of the chemical composition of P. polyphylla saponins and its available extraction methods are described. We hope this review can serve as a quick and detailed reference for future studies on their potential acne treatment.

Response Surface Optimization for Water-Assisted Extraction of Two Saponins from Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis Leaves

The process of extracting polyphyllin II and polyphyllin VII by water-assisted extraction was established and optimized in this study. Response surface methodology was used to establish a prediction model to optimize the extraction conditions. Based on the one-way test, the Box-Behnken design with three factors and three levels was used for the experimental program, and the composition analysis was carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The optimal extraction conditions for polyphyllin II and polyphyllin VII were as follows: extraction time of 57 and 21 min, extraction temperature of 36 and 32 °C, solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:10 and 1:5 g/mL, respectively, and the yields of polyphyllin II and polyphyllin VII were 1.895 and 5.010%, which was similar to the predicted value of 1.835 and 4.979%. The results of the ANOVA showed that the model fit was good, and the Box-Behnken response surface method could optimize the water-assisted extraction of saponins from the leaves of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis. This study provides a theoretical basis for the application of polyphyllin II and polyphyllin VII in pharmaceutical production.

New steroidal saponins from the aerial parts of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis and their effects on blood coagulation

Five new steroidal saponins, paripolins D-H (1-5), and 6 known compounds (6-11) were isolated from the aerial parts of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis. The structures of 1-5 were determined using spectroscopic analyses in conjunction with acid hydrolysis. It is for the first time to report the 12-hydroxysteroidal saponins from the genus Paris. The effect of all isolated compounds on blood coagulation was determined in vitro using the plasma recalcification time method. Compounds 1 and 2 showed potent procoagulant activity, and 5-11 exhibited significant anticoagulant activity.

Multimodal integrated strategy for the discovery and identification of antiplatelet aggregation Q-markers in Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

To enhance the quality evaluation and control of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and ensure the safety and efficacy of clinical medication, it is imperative to establish a comprehensive quality assessment method aligned with TCM efficacy. This study uses a representative Chinese medicine with multi-origin and multi-efficacy, Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (PY), as an illustrative example. Surprisingly, despite the high fingerprint similarity among the 12 batches of PY samples collected from various regions in Yunnan, a notable variation in the composition and content of components was observed. The chromatographic analysis identified seven common peaks, namely, polyphyllin I, polyphyllin II, polyphyllin V, polyphyllin VI, polyphyllin VII, polyphyllin H, and polyphyllin D. In the bioactivity evaluation, an in vitro antiplatelet aggregation model induced by adenosine diphosphate was established, showcasing excellent stability. The maximum antiplatelet aggregation inhibition rate for all PY samples consistently remained stable at 73.1%-99.1%. However, the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50 ) values exhibited a range from 1.615 to 18.200 mg/mL. This approach not only meets high-throughput screening requirements but also demonstrates remarkable discrimination. The results of chemical and bioactivity evaluations were analyzed using hierarchical cluster analysis and canonical correlation analysis. Polyphyllin I, polyphyllin II, polyphyllin VII, polyphyllin H, and polyphyllin D were identified as the Q-markers for antiplatelet aggregation in PY samples. Validation of the bioactivity for these monomer components aligned with the previously mentioned findings. Notably, this study established a spectrum-effect model for PY samples, enhancing the scientific robustness of the quality evaluation method. Furthermore, these findings offer valuable research insights for improving the quality assessment of other TCMs.

Polyphyllin Ⅲ regulates EMT of lung cancer cells through GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway

Background

Some studies have found that the application of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of lung cancer has achieved satisfying results. Polyphyllin Ⅲ (PP Ⅲ) is a natural steroid saponin from P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, and its analogs have played a wide role in anticancer research. This study aimed to investigate the effect of PP Ⅲ on the development of lung cancer and its molecular mechanism.

Methods

A549 and NCI-H1299 cell lines were treated with PP Ⅲ in gradient concentration to detect the IC50 of the cells, and the optimal concentration was selected for subsequent experiments. The effects of PP III treatment on lung cancer were investigated in vitro and in vivo.

Results

In vitro experiments, it was found that the proliferation, invasion, migration, and colony formation ability of cancer cells were significantly reduced after PP III treatment, while accompanied by a large number of cell apoptosis. Further detection showed that N-cadherin was significantly decreased, E-cadherin was increased, and Snail and Twist were decreased in A549 cells and NCI-H1299 cells, respectively. In addition, GSK-3β expression was increased, while β-catenin expression was reduced with PP III treatment. In the mouse model, it was demonstrated that the volume of transplanted tumors was significantly reduced after PP Ⅲ treatment.

Conclusions

PP Ⅲ has the capacity to inhibit the progression of lung cancer and regulate epithelial-mesenchymal transition through the GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway to suppress the malignant behavior of cancer cells. The application of PP Ⅲ is expected to be an effective method for the treatment of lung cancer.

Comparative metabolome profiling of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis cultivars and Paris luquanensis and their biological activity in zebrafish model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Paris polyphylla var. Yunnanensis (Franch.) Hand.-Mazz., a perennial medicinal herb commonly known as "Chonglou" in Chinese, is mainly effective against innominate toxin swelling, insect sting, snake bite, traumatic injuries and various inflammatory. It is also recorded with mild toxicity. The rare species Paris luquanensis H. Li has been also used as folk medicine in Yunnan province for the same effects. Compared with P. polyphylla var. Yunnanensis (35-100 cm in height), this species has variegated leaves, and grows slower and is therefore shorter (6-23 cm in height). There are a number of different cultivars based on the shape of the petal and the height of Paris plant. However, currently, investigations into the differences of the chemical profiling of these cultivars are lacking.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to: (1) examine metabolites variations in Paris polyphylla var. Yunnanensis cultivars and Paris luquanensis; (2) investigate the different metabolite accumulation patterns between rhizomes and leaves and provide more useful information for the application of P. polyphylla var. Yunnanensis leaves; (3) compare in vivo effects on the recruitment of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Neutrophils and toxic effects in zebrafish model between leaves and rhizomes of P. polyphylla var. Yunnanensis and P. luquanensis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The change patterns of metabolites in the leaves and rhizomes of four P. polyphylla var. Yunnanensis cultivars and one P. luquanensis cultivar were analyzed using an UPLC-ESI-MS/MS system. The total phenolic acid, total flavonoid, total saponin components and in vitro antioxidant activities were determined by spectrophotometric methods. The in vivo toxicity and their effects on the recruitment of ROS and neutrophils in zebrafish model were performed.

RESULTS

The widely targeted metabolomics method detected 695 metabolites in tested samples and classified as 15 known classes according to structures of the metabolites. By overall-comparing the SDMs discerned between leaves and rhizomes of each samples, 161 metabolites were substantially altered in all the cultivars. There are 62 and 64 SDMs showing constitutive differential accumulation between leaves and rhizomes of P. polyphylla var. Yunnanensis (samples A-D) and P. luquanensis (sample E), respectively. The levels of TSC, TPC and TFC decreased significantly in leaves as compared to rhizomes for all cultivars, with the exception of TPC in cultivar A, which is almost the same in leave and rhizome. The DPPH scavenging property and FRAP values of rhizomes are higher than those of leaves for all cultivars. However, there is no distinct different between leaves and rhizomes of different sample extracts for in vivo effects on the recruitment of ROS and neutrophils in zebrafish model. BL extracts showed high toxicity to the developing embryos.

CONCLUSION

As far as we are concerned, this study analyzes the P. polyphylla var. Yunnanensis and P. luquanensis variegation from the perspective of the metabolites pattern for the first time. The results give a valuable insight into the specie metabolic profiling and in vivo anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and toxic effects of these Paris plants.

Promotion of a quality standard for Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis based on the efficacy-oriented effect-constituent index

Multi-component determination and bioassays used for the quality control of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) may have certain shortcomings. The effect-constituent index (ECI) is a quality evaluation index weighted by chemical composition analysis and effect detection. This index can be established by the dose-effect relationship of the active ingredients in TCM. In this study, Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (PY) was selected as the representative drug. Chemical evaluation and bioactivity evaluation were combined to establish the ECI, to compensate for the deficiency of a single evaluation method to some extent, and can be related to the efficacy of PY, in order to improve its quality standard. The ECI not only reflects the contribution of component content to the quality of PY, but also relates to clinical efficacy and reflects the influence of different components on the biological activity. Moreover, this study provided a reference method for the quality control of other TCMs.

LncRNA NEAT1 antagonizes the inhibition of melanoma proliferation, migration, invasion and EMT by Polyphyllin B

Polyphyllin B (PPB) is a compound with anti-tumor effects. Nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1) is a long-stranded noncoding RNA that induces epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of tumor cells and promotes tumor growth and metastasis. However, the role and mechanism of PPB on melanoma and the correlation between them remain unclear. In this study we screened NEAT1 by using LncRNA transcriptomic sequencing, and then transfected B16F10 cells using OVER-NEAT1 lentivirus. Next, we found that PPB had significant proliferation inhibition of melanoma and B16F10 cells through MTT assay and establishment of mouse subcutaneous transplantation tumor model; in addition, through wound healing assay, transwell assay and establishment of mouse melanoma lung metastasis model, we found that PPB significantly inhibited the invasion and migration of B16F10 cells in vitro, and inhibited the metastasis of melanoma to lung, bone and liver in vivo. Finally, changes in the expression levels of EMT-related proteins were assessed by western blot (WB) and immunohistochemistry, and PPB significantly downregulated the expression levels of MMP-9, N-cadherin, etc., and upregulated E-cadherin. While overexpressed NEAT1 showed the ability to promote melanoma proliferation, migration and invasion, in addition to partially reversed the inhibition of proliferation, migration and invasion of melanoma by PPB mentioned above.

The synthesis of Paris saponin VII mainly occurs in leaves and is promoted by light intensity

Unraveling the specific organs and tissues involved in saponin synthesis, as well as the light regulatory mechanisms, is crucial for improving the quality of artificially cultivated medicinal materials of Paris plants. Paris saponin VII (PS VII), a high-value active ingredient, is found in almost all organs of Paris plant species. In this study, we focused on Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (Franch.) Hand. - Mzt. (PPY) and found that PS VII synthesis predominantly occurs in leaves and is increased by high light intensity. This intriguing discovery has unveiled the potential for manipulating non-traditional medicinal organ leaves to improve the quality of medicinal organ rhizomes. The analysis of the impact of organ differences on saponin concentration in P. polyphylla var. chinensis (Franch.) Hara (PPC), P. fargesii Franch. (PF), and PPY revealed consistency among the three Paris species and was mainly dominated by PS VII. Notably, the leaves and stems exhibited much higher proportions of PS VII than other organs, accounting for 80-90% of the four main saponins. Among the three Paris species, PPY had the highest concentration of PS VII and was selected for subsequent experiments. Further investigations on saponin subcellular localization, temporal variation, and stem wound fluid composition demonstrated that PS VII is synthesized in mesophyll cells, released into the intercellular space through exocytosis, and then transported to the rhizome via vascular tissue. These findings confirm the significant role of leaves in PS VII synthesis. Additionally, a 13C-glucose feeding to trace PS VII biosynthesis revealed that only PS VII in the leaves exhibited incorporation of the labeled carbon, despite conducting 13C-glucose feeding in leaves, stems, rhizomes, and roots. Thus, the leaves are indeed the primary organ for PS VII synthesis in PPY. Furthermore, compared with plants under 100 μmol m-2 s-1, plants under 400 μmol m-2 s-1 exhibited a higher PS VII concentration, particularly in the upper epidermal cells of the leaves. We propose that high light intensity promotes PS VII synthesis in leaves through three mechanisms: (1) increased availability of substrates for saponin synthesis; (2) protection of leaves from high light damage through enhanced saponin synthesis; and (3) enhanced compartmentalization of saponins within the leaves, which in turn feedback regulates saponin synthesis.

Paris polyphylla Sm. Induces Reactive Oxygen Species and Caspase 3-Mediated Apoptosis in Colorectal Cancer Cells In Vitro and Potentiates the Therapeutic Significance of Fluorouracil and Cisplatin

Paris polyphylla Sm. (Melanthiaceae) is an essential, vulnerable herb with a wide range of traditional applications ranging from fever to cancer in various communities. The use of P. polyphylla in India is limited to traditional healers. Here, we demonstrated that P. polyphylla extract (PPE) has good phenol, flavonoid, saponin, and steroidal saponin content and anti-oxidant activity with IC₅₀ 35.12 ± 6.1 μg/mL in DPPH and 19.69 ± 6.7 μg/mL in ABTS. Furthermore, PPE induces cytotoxicity in HCT-116 with IC₅₀ 8.72 ± 0.71 μg/mL without significant cytotoxicity inthe normal human colon epithelial cell line, CCD 841 CoN. PPE inhibits the metastatic property and induces apoptosis in HCT-116, as measured by Annexin V/PI, by increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and caspase 3 activation. PPE acts synergistically with 5FU and cisplatin in HCT-116 and potentiates their therapeutic significance. Steroidal saponins with anticancer activities were detected in PPE by HR-LCMS. The present study demonstrated that PPE induces apoptosis by increasing ROS and activating caspase 3, which was attributed to steroidal saponins. PPE can be used as a potential natural remedy for colon cancer.

Polyphyllin VI screened from Chonglou by cell membrane immobilized chromatography relieves inflammatory pain by inhibiting inflammation and normalizing the expression of P2X3 purinoceptor

Objective: Inflammatory pain is one of the most common diseases in daily life and clinic. In this work, we analysed bioactive components of the traditional Chinese medicine Chonglou and studied mechanisms of their analgesic effects. Material and methods: Molecular docking technology and U373 cells overexpressing P2X3 receptors combined with the cell membrane immobilized chromatography were used to screen possible CL bioactive molecules interacting with the P2X3 receptor. Moreover, we investigated the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Polyphyllin VI (PPIV), in mice with chronic neuroinflammatory pain induced by CFA (complete Freund's adjuvant). Results: The results of cell membrane immobilized chromatography and molecular docking showed that PPVI was one of the effective compounds of Chonglou. In mice with CFA-induced chronic neuroinflammatory pain, PPVI decreased the thermal paw withdrawal latency and mechanical paw withdrawal threshold and diminished foot edema. Additionally, in mice with CFA-induced chronic neuroinflammatory pain, PPIV reduced the expression of the pro-inflammatory factors IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α, and downregulated the expression of P2X3 receptors in the dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord. Conclusion: Our work identifies PPVI as a potential analgesic component in the Chonglou extract. We demonstrated that PPVI reduces pain by inhibiting inflammation and normalizing P2X3 receptor expression in the dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord.

Cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic effects of botanical drugs derived from the indigenous cultivated medicinal plant Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

Background: Cancer is one of the top two leading causes of death worldwide. Ethnobotanical research, it is one of methods, which is able to discover effective anticancer drugs based on "prototype" of indigenous people's historical experiences and practices. The rhizomes of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (Franch.) Hand.-Mazz. have been used as botanical drugs to treat cancer by Yi, Bai, Dai, and Naxi ethnic groups in Yunnan, China, where this species is widely cultivated in a large scale in Yunnan. Materials and methods: To identify the substances of anticancer activities based on indigenous medicine knowledge, chromatography was performed to separate saponins from the rhizomes of P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, followed by spectroscopy to determine the structure of six isolated saponins. The cytotoxicity of five extracts and six pure compounds were evaluated by MTS method. Quantitative determination of total saponins of P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis was analyzed by HPLC. Cell cycle assay, apoptosis assay, and mitochondrial membrane potential were used to evaluate the pro-apoptotic activity in vitro. Results: Five extracts and six pure saponins showed significant inhibitory cytotoxic activities of three human liver cancer cell lines (SMMC-7721, HepG2, and SK-HEP-1) and one non-small-cell lung cancer cell line (A549). The contents of Paris saponins I, II, and VII were 6.96% in the rhizomes of P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, much higher than Chinese Pharmacopoeia standards (0.6%). Six saponins induced significant apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in three human cancer cell lines (A549, SMMC-7721, and HepG2), which was associated with the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Conclusion: The result of this study support that cultivated P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis could be a substitute for wild resource as an anticancer medicine based on indigenous medicine knowledge.

Therapeutic effects on cancer of the active ingredients in rhizoma paridis

Cancer is a major threat to human health, with high mortality and a low cure rate, continuously challenging public health worldwide. Extensive clinical application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for patients with poor outcomes of radiotherapy and chemotherapy provides a new direction in anticancer therapy. Anticancer mechanisms of the active ingredients in TCM have also been extensively studied in the medical field. As a type of TCM against cancer, Rhizoma Paridis (Chinese name: Chonglou) has important antitumor effects in clinical application. The main active ingredients of Rhizoma Paridis (e.g., total saponins, polyphyllin I, polyphyllin II, polyphyllin VI, and polyphyllin VII) have shown strong antitumor activities in various cancers, such as breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and gastric cancer. Rhizoma Paridis also has low concentrations of certain other active ingredients with antitumor effects, such as saponins polyphyllin E, polyphyllin H, Paris polyphylla-22, gracillin, and formosanin-C. Many researchers have studied the anticancer mechanism of Rhizoma Paridis and its active ingredients. This review article describes research progress regarding the molecular mechanism and antitumor effects of the active ingredients in Rhizoma Paridis, suggesting that various active ingredients in Rhizoma Paridis may be potentially therapeutic against cancer.

Steroidal saponin components and their cancer cell cytotoxicity from Paris rugosa

The chemical components and availability of Paris rugosa were investigated for the first time, using a UPLC-MS/MS-based molecular networking strategy and phytochemical research. Ultimately, eleven undescribed steroidal saponins, parisrugosides A-K, and ten known analogs were identified. Their structures were confirmed using comprehensive spectroscopic data and chemical methods. The aglycones of parisrugosides A-D are first spirostanes with an epoxy group at C-5/C-6, a hydroxy group at C-7, and a double bond at C-8/C-9 or C-8/C-14. Parisrugosides G and H possess an undescribed spirostane aglycone with two double bonds located at C-5/C-6 and C-8/C-9, which are conjugated with a carbonyl group at C-7. The isolates were evaluated for their cytotoxicity against five human cancer cell lines (human HL-60 leukemia, A549 lung, MCF-7 breast, SMMC-7721 liver, and SW480 colon solid cancer cell lines). Parisyunnanoside D, kingianoside K, and dichotomin displayed significant cytotoxicity against these cancer lines, with IC50 values ranging from 0.50 to 19.58 μM.

Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals key genes for polyphyllin difference in five Paris species

Paris species accumulate a large amount of steroidal saponins, which have numerous pharmacological activities and have become an essential component in many patented drugs. However, only two among all Paris species. Paris are identified as official sources due to high level of bioactive compounds. To clarify the composition of steroidal saponins and the molecular basis behind the differences between species, we investigated transcriptome and metabolic profiles of leaves and rhizomes in Paris polyphylla var. chinensis (PPC), Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (PPY), Paris polyphylla var. stenophylla (PPS), Paris fargesii (PF), and Paris mairei (PM). Phytochemical results displayed that the accumulation of steroidal saponins was tissue- and species-specific. PF and PPS contained more steroidal saponins in leaves than rhizomes, while PPY accumulated more steroidal saponins in rhizomes than leaves. PPC and PM contained similar amounts of steroidal saponins in leaves and rhizomes. Transcriptome analysis illustrated that most differentially expressed genes related to the biosynthesis of steroidal saponins were abundantly expressed in rhizomes than leaves. Meanwhile, more biosynthetic genes had significant correlations with steroidal saponins in rhizomes than in leaves. The result of CCA indicated that ACAT, DXS, DWF1, and CYP90 constrained 97.35% of the variance in bioactive compounds in leaves, whereas CYP72, UGT73, ACAT, and GPPS constrained 98.61% of the variance in phytochemicals in rhizomes. This study provided critical information for enhancing the production of steroidal saponins by biotechnological approaches and methodologies.

Separation and Purification of Two Saponins from Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis by a Macroporous Resin

An effective method for separating and purifying critical saponins (polyphyllin II and polyphyllin VII) from a Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis extract was developed in this study which was environmentally friendly and economical. Static adsorption kinetics, thermodynamics, and the dynamic adsorption-desorption of macroporous resins were investigated, and then the conditions of purification and separation were optimized by fitting with an adsorption thermodynamics equation and a kinetic equation. Effective NKA-9 resin from seven macroporous resins was screened out to separate and purify the two saponins. The static adsorption and dynamic adsorption were chemical and physical adsorption dual-processes on the NKA-9 resin. Under the optimum parameters, the contents of polyphyllin II and polyphyllin VII in the product were 17.3-fold and 28.6-fold those in plant extracts, respectively. The total yields of the two saponins were 93.16%. This research thus provides a theoretical foundation for the large-scale industrial production of the natural drugs polyphyllin II and polyphyllin VII.

Evaluation of the antibacterial and inhibitory activity of NorA and MepA efflux pumps from Staphylococcus aureus by diosgenin

The increase in bacterial resistance to available antibiotics has driven several researchers to search for new agents with therapeutic properties. Diosgenin is a naturally occurring steroidal saponin that has demonstrated several pharmacological properties. In the present study, we report the antimicrobial activity of diosgenin against the standard and multidrug-resistant bacteria of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus, in addition to the efflux pump inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying NorA and MepA pumps. For this purpose, the broth microdilution method was used, from which the value of the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was obtained, and this was associated with subinhibitory concentration (MIC/8) with antibiotic of clinical use and ethidium bromide for strains carrier by efflux pump. Diosgenin showed antimicrobial activity for standard S. aureus bacteria and potentiating activity in association with gentamicin and ampicillin for P. aeruginosa multidrug-resistant bacteria, it also showed potentiation in association with norfloxacin against the E. coli strain and gentamicin against the S. aureus strain. Antimicrobial activity against efflux pump-bearing strains revealed that saponin did not interfere with the efflux pump mechanism or intervened antagonistically. Thus, saponin has shown to be very promising against bacterial resistance in association with aminoglycoside, fluoroquinolones and beta-lactam, however additional studies should be carried out to better elucidate the mechanism of action of diosgenin.

Dynamic RNA-Seq Study Reveals the Potential Regulators of Seed Germination in Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis is an important traditional Chinese medicine, but poor seed germination limits its large-scale artificial cultivation. Thus, it is crucial to understand the regulators of seed germination to obtain clues about how to improve the artificial cultivation of Paris polyphylla. In this study, the seeds at three germination stages, including ungerminated seeds (stage 1), germinated seeds with a 0.5 cm radicel length (stage 2), and germinated seeds with a 2.0 cm radicel length (stage 3) after warm stratification (20 °C) for 90 days were used for RNA sequencing. Approximately 220 million clean reads and 447,314 annotated unigenes were obtained during seed germination, of which a total of 4454, 5150, and 1770 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified at stage 1 to stage 2, stage 1 to stage 3, and stage 2 to stage 3, respectively. Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis revealed that the DEGs were significantly enriched in carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, signal transduction, and translation. Of them, several genes encoding the glutamate decarboxylase, glutamine synthetase, alpha-galactosidase, auxin-responsive protein IAA30, abscisic-acid-responsive element binding factor, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 9/18, and small and large subunit ribosomal proteins were identified as potentially involved in seed germination. The identified genes provide a valuable resource to study the molecular basis of seed germination in Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis.

Study of Chemical Compositions and Anticancer Effects of Paris polyphylla var. Chinensis Leaves

Paris polyphylla var. chinensis (Franch.) Hara is a perennial herb belonging to the Trilliaceae family. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/Q–TOF MS) was used to detect the composition of different fractions of Paris polyphylla var. chinensis leaves. Meanwhile, the extracts of different fractions were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against four selected human cancer cell lines and one human normal epithelial cell line based on the MTT assay method. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed to screen differential compounds and to analyze the distributions between different fractions. Finally, more than 60 compounds were obtained and identified from the different fractions of Paris polyphylla var. chinensis leaves, and the chloroform and n−butanol extracts showed significant cytotoxic effects on these four cancer cells. Several compounds were preliminarily identified from different fractions, including 36 steroidal saponins, 11 flavonoids, 10 ceramides, 8 lipids, 6 organic acids, and 8 other compounds. Various compounds were screened out as different chemical components of different fractions, which were considered as a potential substance basis for the cytotoxicity of Paris polyphylla var. chinensis leaves.

Bioactive secondary metabolites in Paris polyphylla Sm. and their biological activities: A review

Paris polyphylla Sm. is an important medicinal plant used to treat a variety of diseases through traditional medicine systems such as Ayurveda, Tibetan traditional medicines, Chinese traditional medicines, and others around the world. The IUCN red list has designated it as "vulnerable" due to a decline in wild population by over-exploitation, habitat degradation, illegal collection for trade and traditional use. This review paper aims to summarize the bioactive secondary metabolites in Paris polyphylla. Paris saponins or steroidal saponins are the main bioactive chemical constituents from this plant that account for more than 80% of the total compounds. For instance, polyphyllin D, diosgenin, paris saponins I, II, VI, VII, and H are steroidal saponins having anticancer activity comparable to synthetic anticancer medicines. Antioxidant, anticancer, anti-leishmaniasis, antibacterial, antifungal, anthelmintic, antityrosinase, and antiviral effects of extracts and pure compounds were also demonstrated in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, this review summarizes the bioactive components from the P. polyphylla which will be useful to researchers and scientists, and for the development of potential drugs.

Complete genome sequence of a novel mitovirus detected in Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

Paris mitovirus 1 (ParMV1) is a positive-sense RNA virus that was detected in diseased Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis plants in Wenshan, Yunnan. The complete genome sequence of ParMV1 is 2,751 nucleotides in length, and the genome structure is typical of mitoviruses. The ParMV1 genome has a single open reading frame (ORF; nt 358-2,637) that encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) with a predicted molecular mass of 86.42 kDa. ParMV1 contains six conserved motifs (Ι-VΙ) that are unique to mitoviruses. The 5' and 3' termini of the genome are predicted to have a stable secondary structure, with the reverse complementary sequence forming a panhandle structure. Comparative genome analysis revealed that the RdRp of ParMV1 shares 23.1-40.6% amino acid (aa) and 32.3-45.7% nucleotide (nt) sequence identity with those of other mitoviruses. Phylogenetic analysis based on RdRp aa sequences showed that ParMV1 clusters with mitoviruses and hence should be considered a new member of the genus Mitovirus in the family Mitoviridae. This is the first report of a novel mitovirus infecting Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis.

Neobacillus paridis sp. nov., an endophyte of Paris polyphylla Smith var. yunnanensis

A novel endophytic strain, designated YIM B02564^T, was isolated from the root of Paris polyphylla Smith var. yunnanensis obtained from Yunnan Province, southwest China. By using a polyphasic approach, cells of the strain were characterized as facultative anaerobic, Gram-positive and rod-shaped. The growth conditions of the strain were found to occur at 20-55 °C (optimum, 30 °C), pH 6.0-9.0 (optimum, pH 7.0). Strain YIM B02564^T can tolerate 2% NaCl concentration. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that strain YIM B02564^T belonged to the genus Neobacillus and the 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity values of strain YIM B02564^T to the type strains of members of this genus ranged from 95.6 to 97.8%. The DNA G+C content of strain YIM B02564^T calculated from the whole genome sequence was 41.6 mol%. Values of the ANI and the dDDH between strain YIM B02564^T and its closely related Neobacillus species were below 77.9% and 21.5%. Strain YIM B02564^T contained MK-7 as the major menaquinone, iso-C_15:0 and anteiso-C_15:0 as the major fatty acids. The major polar lipids were diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, an unidentified aminophospholipid and four unidentified lipids. It contained meso-diaminopimelic acid in the cell-wall peptidoglycan. On the basis of polyphasic analysis, strain YIM B02564^T could be differentiated genotypically and phenotypically from recognized species of the genus Neobacillus. The isolate therefore represents a novel species, for which the name Neobacillus paridis is proposed. The type strain is YIM B02564^T (= JCM 34668^T = CGMCC 1.18655^T).

Extended application of deep learning combined with 2DCOS: Study on origin identification in the medicinal plant of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants are very important to human health, and ensuring their quality and rapid evaluation are the current research concerns. Deep learning has a strong ability in recognition. This study extended it to the identification of medicinal plants from the perspective of spectrum.

OBJECTIVE

In order to realise the rapid identification and provide a reference for the selection of high-quality resources of medicinal plants, a combination of deep learning and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2DCOS) was proposed.

METHODS

For the first time, Fourier transform mid-infrared (FT-MIR) and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy 2DCOS images combined with residual neural network (ResNet) was used for the origin identification of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis. In total 1593 samples were collected and 12821 2DCOS images were drawn. The climate of different origins was briefly analysed.

RESULTS

The xishuangbanna, puer, lincang, honghe and wenshan are the five regions with more ecological advantages. The synchronous 2DCOS models of FT-MIR and NIR could realise origin identification with the accuracy of 100%. The synchronous images were suitable for the identification of medicinal plants with complex systems. The full band, feature band and different contour models had no big difference in distinguishing ability, so they were not the key factors affecting the discrimination results.

CONCLUSION

The ResNet models established were stable, reliable, and robust, which not only solved the problem of origin identification, expanded the application field of deep learning, but also provided practical reference for the related research of other medicinal plants.

Complete genome sequence analysis of a novel coguvirus isolated from Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

A novel negative-stranded (ns) RNA virus tentatively named "Yunnan paris negative-stranded virus" (YPNSV), was isolated from Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis plants exhibiting leaf chlorosis and mosaic symptoms in Yunnan. Its complete genome sequence was determined using Illumina and Sanger sequencing. YPNSV has a bipartite genome that consists of a negative-stranded (ns) RNA1 encoding the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, p251), an ambisense RNA2 coding for the putative movement protein (MP, p46) and nucleocapsid protein (NP, p39), with the two open reading frames separated by a long intergenic region that is rich in A and U. Sequence comparisons showed that the RdRp, MP, and NP of YPNSV are most similar to those of watermelon crinkle leaf-associated virus 2 (WCLaV-2), with 69.1%, 50.4%, and 60.9% amino acid sequence identity, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis based on deduced amino acid sequences of RdRp and NP showed that YPNSV clustered in a clade with coguviruses and that its closest known relative is WCLaV-2. Based on the above results, YPNSV should be regarded as a new member of genus Coguvirus, family Phenuiviridae.

Structures/cytotoxicity/selectivity relationship of natural steroidal saponins against GSCs and primary mechanism of tribulosaponin A

Glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is the highly aggressive brain tumor with poor prognosis. Glioma stem cells (GSCs), small population of cancer cells that exist in GBM tissues, resistant to chemotherapy and radiotherapy and usually driving GBM recurrence, have been developed as effective therapeutic target. Steroidal saponins are one of important resources for anti-tumor agent and may be benefited to selectively clear GSCs. In this report, total of 97 natural steroidal saponins were investigated the relationship among structures/cytotoxicity/selectivity against GSCs, glioma cell lines and human untransformed cells, and revealed that tribulosaponin A was the most potent compound. Further investigation suggested that tribulosaponin A up-regulated the expression of NCF1 and NOX1 to accumulate ROS for triggering apoptosis in GSCs, but not in untransformed cells, and it was further supported by the assay that N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) clearing ROS delayed GSCs apoptosis. Besides, tribulosaponin A damaged GSCs recapturing tumor spheres formation.

Transcriptome analysis of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis illuminates the biosynthesis and accumulation of steroidal saponins in rhizomes and leaves

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis can synthesize Paris saponins with multiple effective therapies, and its rhizome has become an indispensable ingredient in many patented drugs. However, how Paris saponin content changes in tissues at different stages and the molecular mechanisms underlying the production and accumulation of the bioactive compounds are unclear. This study aimed to uncover the mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis and accumulation by integrating transcriptome sequencing and phytochemical investigation of the leaves and rhizomes at different growth stages. Paris saponin content in leaves was lower during the fruiting stage than the vegetative stage, whereas the content in rhizomes increased during the fruiting stage. The candidate genes related to Paris saponin biosynthesis were determined by transcriptome analyses. Most biosynthetic genes were found to be abundantly expressed in the leaves during the vegetative stage in the light of expression profiles and functional enrichment results. The expression patterns of the differentially expressed genes related to the biosynthesis were positively correlated with the accumulation of saponins in tissues. These findings suggest that both leaves and rhizomes are capable of biosynthesizing Paris saponins, and that aerial plant parts can be used to extract them. The different patterns of biosynthesis and accumulation in the leaves and rhizomes were also determined here. This study will help improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis and accumulation of Paris saponins, and aid in the comprehensive development and utilization of this medicinal plant.

Inhibitory effects of Paris saponin I, II, Ⅵ and Ⅶ on HUVEC cells through regulation of VEGFR2, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, Src/eNOS, PLCγ/ERK/MERK, and JAK2-STAT3 pathways

Rhizoma Paris is a popular Chinese medicine in clinics. It contains four main saponins which are its major bioactive compounds. These saponins are Paris saponin I, II, VI and VII (PSI, PSII, PSVI and PSVII, respectively). Up to now, the research using HUVEC cells to evaluate the anti-angiogenic activity of four saponins is blank. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the anti-angiogenic properties (also known as angiotoxicity) of the four saponins in Rhizoma Paris on vascular endothelial cells-HUVEC cells, and to investigate the underlying mechanism, which has not been studied before. In this study, MTT assay, Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay, wound healing experiments, transwell cell invasion assay, tubule formation experiment, DAPI staining, AV-PI double staining, and cell cycle analysis were used to determine the effects of Paris saponins. The results showed that, with increases in concentrations of PSI, PSII, PSVI and PSVII, the viability of HUVEC cells decreased significantly. In addition, four saponins dose-dependent enhanced LDH release and inhibited HUVEC cell migration, invasion, and angiogenesis. In terms of mechanism, PSI significantly inhibited protein expression in multiple signaling pathways. In particular, with the VEGF2 as the target, it activate the downstream PI3K / AKT / mTOR, SRC / eNOS, P38, PLCγ / ERK / MERK and JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathways. In conclusion, PSI, PSII, PSVI and PSVII can inhibit endothelial cell proliferation, migration and invasion, block endothelial cell cycle, induce endothelial cell apoptosis, act on protein expression in several anti-angiogenic signaling pathways, and finally inhibit angiogenesis in vitro. This study provides further data support for the clinical application of Paris saponins as antiangiogenic drugs.

Spirostanol and sesquiterpenoid glycosides from the rhizomes of Trillium tschonoskii

Three new spirostanol glycosides, trilliumosides K-M (1-3), one new sesquiterpenoid glycoside, tritschsesuquiside A (4), along with three known analogues (5-7) were obtained from the rhizomes of Trillium tschonoskii. The structures of new glycosides were elucidated by spectroscopic analyses (HRMS and NMR) and chemical methods. Glycosides 5-7 displayed cytotoxicities against five human cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 10.5 ± 1.0 to 1.0 ± 0.2 μM, with 7 being the most cytotoxic compound with IC₅₀ values of 1.0 ± 0.2, 2.2 ± 1.2, and 3.4 ± 0.4 μM against Huh7, CCRF-CEM, and HeLa cell lines, respectively. The flow cytometric results revealed that both 5 and 6 could induce apoptosis of HCT116 and Huh7 cells.

Capturing the Geoherbalism Differentiation in Wild Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis Raw Materials through the Application of Multispectral Information Fusion Combined with Chemometrics

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis is a famous medicinal plant distributed in some Asian countries. This species has attracted a great deal of attention and is often used as raw materials in traditional medicine practices. With the purpose of gaining insight into the geoherbalism of wild P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, a total of 183 dried rhizome samples from eight different regions including 16 typical or nontypical natural habitats have been analyzed by multispectral information fusion based on ultraviolet and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies combined with partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and hierarchical cluster analysis. From the results, the use of multispectral information fusion strategy could improve the correct classification of samples, and good classification performances have been shown according to PLS-DA models. The discrimination of samples was obtained successfully with respect to the typical and nontypical natural habitats, different collection areas of typical natural habitats, and various sampling sites in nontypical natural habitats. Additionally, the similarities among samples were presented as well. Overall, the rhizome of wild P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis exhibited various regional dependence and individual differences according to the geographical origins, and the relatively appropriate growth region with better quality consistency of samples was preliminarily selected. This study also revealed that the developed multispectral information fusion method has the potential to be a reliable analytical methodology for capturing the geoherbalism differentiation in wild P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis. Furthermore, it could provide more chemical evidence for the critical supplement of quality evaluation on P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis.

Polyphyllin I induces cell cycle arrest in prostate cancer cells via the upregulation of IL6 and P21 expression

BACKGROUND

Polyphyllin I has been reported to possess anticancer properties in various cancer types, including prostate cancer. However, little is known about the potential of Polyphyllin I in induction of prostate cancer cell cycle arrest and its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

The anti-proliferation activity of Polyphyllin I was tested using cell counting kit-8 assay. The cell cycle arrest effects of Polyphyllin I were confirmed by flow cytometry. Western blot was used to test the effect of Polyphyllin I on cell cycle-related protein expression. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was used to test the expression of genes regulating P21 expression.

RESULTS

Polyphyllin I induced prostate cancer cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase in concentration-dependent manner. Polyphyllin I induced cell cycle arrest by upregulating the expression of P21. Further studies showed that the upregulation of p21 expression induced by Polyphyllin I via the upregulation of IL6 expression.

CONCLUSION

Polyphyllin I could induce cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase in prostate cancer cells by upregulating the expression of P21 and IL6.

Structural characterisation and discrimination of the aerial parts of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis and Paris polyphylla var. chinensis by UHPLC-QTOF-MS coupled with multivariate data analysis

INTRODUCTION

As sources of Rhizoma Paridis are facing shortages, utilising the aerial parts of Paris polyphylla has emerged as a promising additional source. However, the components in the aerial parts still need to be explored, and it is difficult to distinguish the aerial parts of P. polyphylla Smith var. yunnanensis (PPY) and P. polyphylla var. chinensis (PPC), two varieties of P. polyphylla.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to establish a comprehensive platform to characterise steroid saponins from the aerial parts of PPY and PPC and to discriminate these two varieties.

METHODOLOGY

A dereplication approach and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS) analysis were used for the characterisation of steroidal saponins in the aerial parts of PPY and PPC. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed to differentiate these two varieties and screen discriminant variables. In addition, a genetic algorithm-optimised for support vector machines (GA-SVM) model was developed to predict P. polyphylla samples. The distribution of steroidal saponins in PPY and PPC was visualised by a heatmap.

RESULTS

A total of 102 compounds were characterised from the aerial parts of PPY and PPC by dereplication. A clear separation of PPY and PPC was achieved, and 35 saponins were screened as marker compounds. The established GA-SVM model showed excellent prediction performance with a prediction accuracy of 100%.

CONCLUSIONS

Many steroid saponins that have been reported in Rhizoma Paridis also exist in the aerial parts of P. polyphylla. Samples from the aerial parts of PPY and PPC could be discriminated using our platform.

Traceability the provenience of cultivated Paris polyphylla Smith var. yunnanensis using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics

The conventional procedures, based on attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (ATR-FTIR), have been developed for the origins traceability of cultivated Paris polyphylla Smith var. yunnanensis (PPY) samples with the help of partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and random forest. In this study, a set of 219 batch cultivated PPY samples, containing the cultivation years of 5, 6 and 7, and covering the municipal districts of Chuxiong, Dali, Honghe, Lijiang and Yuxi in Yunnan Province, China, were used to build the discrimination models. Firstly, a visualized analysis was carried out by t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) to reduce each data point in a two-dimensional map and make a knowledge of the sample distribution tendency. Secondly, the single spectra data sets of Paridis rhizome and leaf tissues, and the combination of these two data sets with variable selection (mid-level data fusion strategy), were used to establish PLS-DA and random forest models, and parallelly compared the model performance. Results demonstrated that the discrimination ability of PLS-DA preceded the random forest model, and the classification performance was remarkably improved after mid-level data fusion. These results verified each other by 5-, 6- and 7-year old Paridis samples and indicated that the model performance established in the present study was reliable. Besides, five agronomic characters, including the plant height, dry weight of rhizome and leaf tissues, and the allocation of rhizome and leaf were determined and analyzed, results of which indicated that the dry weight and their allocation was significantly different among various origins and fluctuated with the cultivation years. This study was using a comprehensive and green analytical method to discriminate the cultivated Paridis according to their provenances, which was simultaneously benefited for the appropriate cultivation areas selection based on the dry weight of rhizome tissues.

Linking resource supplies and price drivers: Lessons from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) price volatility and change, 2002-2017

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Worldwide, one of the drivers of substitution and adulteration is the cost of the natural resources (plants, animals, fungi) that are ingredients of traditional medicines. Relatively few studies have been done that link prices of traditional medicine ingredients to what drives changes in price, yet this is an important topic. Theoretically, prices have been widely considered as an economic indicator of resource scarcity. Rare, slow growing medicinal plants sell for high prices and common, less popular species for low prices. Price levels also influence the viability of farming vs. wild harvest (and incentives to overharvest high value species when tenure is weak). Prices can also influence the harvesting or buying behaviour of harvesters, traders or manufacturers. When prices are high, then there is a greater incentive to use cheaper substitute species or adulterants. As previous studies on herbal medicine ingredients have shown, adulteration applies in a wide variety of cases, including to some Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) species.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of which factors influenced changes in the market prices of document prices for four popular, but very different traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) species (2002 - 2017).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fluctuations in market prices were followed over a 15-year period (2002-2017) for four very different TCM ingredients: two plant species (one wild harvested for fruits (Schisandra sphenanthera Rehder & E.H. Wilson) the other in a transition from wild harvest to cultivation (Paris polyphylla Smith), an animal species (the Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko L.)) and the entomophagous "caterpillar fungus" (Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk). G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora).

RESULTS

High prices of medicinal plants are widely considered to reflect resource scarcity. Real-time market prices for three of the four very different TCM species we studied all showed major price fluctuations. The exception was P. polyphylla, whose wild populations are widely known to be increasingly scarce, where there was a steady increase in price, with few fluctuations in the upward price trend. The three other species showed significant price fluctuations. These were driven by multiple factors. Ecological and biogeographic factors that influence abundance or scarcity of supply certainly played a role. But other factors were also influential. These included both national and global economic factors (the influence of the Global Financial Crisis (GFC)), national policy changes that in turn influenced businessmen giving expensive gifts (that included O. sinensis)), climate change (influencing fruiting success of S. sphenanthera), price speculation by traders and lack of information (e.g: reduction in G. gecko prices due to traders incorrectly believing that domestication would increase supplies).

CONCLUSIONS

Price fluctuations in the four TCM species we examined are influenced by many factors and not just resource scarcity. And the situation is more complex than the trajectory based on Homma's (1992) model, where he predicted that higher prices would result in a shift to cultivation, thus replacing wild harvest. In case of both O. sinensis and P. polyphylla, Homma (1992, 1996) was right in terms of scarcity and high prices stimulating a major investment in cultivation (P. polyphylla) and artificial production (O. sinensis). But in both cases, intensive production through cultivation or artificial propagation do not yet occur on a large enough scale to reduce harvest of wild stocks. Substitution and adulteration occur with all four species. Improving information to medicinal plant traders on the supply status of TCM stocks, whether from wild harvest or from cultivation could benefit product quality, cultivation initiatives and conservation efforts.

Introduction to the special issue: Saving plants, saving lives: Trade, sustainable harvest and conservation of traditional medicinals in Asia

This "geographic and thematic" issue of the Journal of Ethnopharmacology focuses on the traditional medicines in trade in Asia on the 30th anniversary of the 1988 Chiang-Mai Declaration, an output of an historic meeting organized by WHO, IUCN and WWF. The emphasis on the Asian countries that represent the highest volume and value of medicinal plants trade in the world is deliberate. Not only because of the scale and speed of changes in traditional medicines trade in Asia, but also to highlight the conservation and sustainable use issues being faced today. In 1988, few studies had been done on the informal sector trade or on medicinal plant value-chains and even fewer studies on cross-border trade in medicinal plants or fungi. At that time, e-commerce in Traditional and Complementary Medicine (T&CM), so common today, did not even exist. And no comparitive, repeat studies of traditional medicines markets had been done at all. Thirty years later, this special issue illustrates how the traditional medicines trade has grown and changed. Links between medicinal plant conservation, scarcity and price on one hand and quality, safety and adulteration on the other are better understood. E-commerce in T&CM has grown exponentially, due to 51% of the world's population having internet access by 2017. Yet despite global policy goals for conservation and sustainable use, the challenges facing medicinal plants conservation are greater than ever before. Consequently, the need for co-operation between the health-care and conservation sectors recognised in 1988 is even greater today. And this is recognised in WHO's 2014-2023 strategy for traditional medicines, which identifies the need to raise awareness about issues of biodiversity and conservation as an important strategic action (WHO, 2013). This Special Issue is a small contribution towards that goal.

Untiring Researches for Alternative Resources of Rhizoma Paridis

Rhizoma Paridis (RP, ), a traditional Chinese medicine, is the rhizoma of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (PPY) or P. polyphylla var. chinensis which are widely used as important raw materials for several Chinese patent drugs. However, the wild resources of these herbs have become less and less due to their slow-growing characteristics and previously excessive excavation. This review covers untiring investigations on alternative resources of RP by our research group over the past decades, including non-medicinal parts of PPY as well as other plants of Liliaceae and Liliflorae families. The arial parts of PPY and the whole plants of Trillium kamtschaticum might be alternative resources for RP based on the fact that they shared the same or similar saponins and bioactivities.