Natural deep eutectic characteristics of honey improve the bioactivity and safety of traditional medicines

Traceability of chemicals from Tripterygium Wilfordii Hook. f. in raw honey and the potential synergistic effects of honey on acute toxicity induced by celastrol and triptolide

The object of this study was to trace TwHf-derived toxins in raw honey and clarify their acute toxic effect related to the addition of honey or sugars. TwHf flowers, raw honey from TwHf planting base and from beekeepers in high-risk area were detected using LC-MS/MS. The results revealed five target toxins were detected in TwHf flowers; only celastrol was detected in one raw honey sample, as a food safety risk factor, celastrol had been traced back to TwHf flowers from raw honey. In a series of acute toxic tests on zebrafish, toxification effects were observed when honey, mimic honey or sugar was mixed with toxins. The degree of toxicity varied among various sugar-based solutions. At the same mass concentration, they follow this order: raw honey/mimic honey > glucose > fructose. The main toxic target organs of triptolide and celastrol with honey were the heart and liver.

Hive Products: Composition, Pharmacological Properties, and Therapeutic Applications

Beekeeping provides products with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical characteristics. These products are characterized by abundance of bioactive compounds. For different reasons, honey, royal jelly, propolis, venom, and pollen are beneficial to humans and animals and could be used as therapeutics. The pharmacological action of these products is related to many of their constituents. The main bioactive components of honey include oligosaccharides, methylglyoxal, royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), and phenolics compounds. Royal jelly contains jelleins, royalisin peptides, MRJPs, and derivatives of hydroxy-decenoic acid, particularly 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuromodulatory, metabolic syndrome-preventing, and anti-aging properties. Propolis has a plethora of activities that are referable to compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Peptides found in bee venom include phospholipase A2, apamin, and melittin. In addition to being vitamin-rich, bee pollen also includes unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, and phenolics compounds that express antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the constituents of hive products are particular and different. All of these constituents have been investigated for their properties in numerous research studies. This review aims to provide a thorough screening of the bioactive chemicals found in honeybee products and their beneficial biological effects. The manuscript may provide impetus to the branch of unconventional medicine that goes by the name of apitherapy.

A Comprehensive Review on Deep Eutectic Solvents and Its Use to Extract Bioactive Compounds of Pharmaceutical Interest

The extraction of bioactive compounds of pharmaceutical interest from natural sources has been significantly explored in recent decades. However, the extraction techniques used were not very efficient in terms of time and energy consumption; additionally, the solvents used for the extraction were harmful for the environment. To improve the environmental impact of the extractions and at the same time increase the extraction yields, several new extraction techniques were developed. Among the most used ones are ultrasound-assisted extraction and microwave-assisted extraction. These extraction techniques increased the yield and selectivity of the extraction in a smaller amount of time with a decrease in energy consumption. Nevertheless, a high volume of organic solvents was still used for the extraction, causing a subsequent environmental problem. Neoteric solvents appeared as green alternatives to organic solvents. Among the neoteric solvents, deep eutectic solvents were evidenced to be one of the best alternatives to organic solvents due to their intrinsic characteristics. These solvents are considered green solvents because they are made up of natural compounds such as sugars, amino acids, and carboxylic acids having low toxicity and high degradability. In addition, they are simple to prepare, with an atomic economy of 100%, with attractive physicochemical properties. Furthermore, the huge number of compounds that can be used to synthesize these solvents make them very useful in the extraction of bioactive compounds since they can be tailored to be selective towards a specific component or class of components. The main aim of this paper is to give a comprehensive review which describes the main properties, characteristics, and production methods of deep eutectic solvents as well as its application to extract from natural sources bioactive compounds with pharmaceutical interest. Additionally, an overview of the more recent and sustainable extraction techniques is also given.

Interpreting the efficacy enhancement mechanism of Chinese medicine processing from a biopharmaceutic perspective

Chinese medicine processing (CMP) is a unique pharmaceutical technology that distinguishes it from natural medicines. Current research primarily focuses on changes in chemical components to understand the mechanisms behind efficacy enhancement in processing. However, this paper presents a novel perspective on the biopharmaceutics of CMP. It provides a comprehensive overview of the current research, emphasizing two crucial aspects: the role of 'heat' during processing and the utilization of processing adjuvants. The paper highlights the generation of easily absorbed components through the hydrolysis of glycosides by 'heat', as well as the facilitation of dissolution, absorption, and targeted distribution of active components through the utilization of processing adjuvants. From a biopharmaceutic perspective, this paper provides a lucid comprehension of the scientific foundation for augmenting the efficacy of CMP. Moreover, it proposes a three-dimensional research framework encompassing chemical reactions, phase transitions, and biopharmaceutical properties to further investigate the mechanisms involved in enhancing the efficacy of CMP.

The Antioxidant and Prebiotic Activities of Mixtures Honey/Biomimetic NaDES and Polyphenols Show Differences between Honeysuckle and Raspberry Extracts

In our previous research, we demonstrated that honey and its biomimetic natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES) modulate the antioxidant activity (AOA) of the raspberry extract (RE). In this study, we evaluated the AOA behaviour of the mixture honey/NaDES-honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium, LFL) extract and compared it with the mixture honey/NaDES-RE. These two extracts have similar major flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic acid compounds but differ in their total content and the presence of anthocyanins in RE. Therefore, it was of interest to see if the modulation of the LFL polyphenols by honey/NaDES was similar to that of RE. We also evaluated the prebiotic activity of these mixtures and individual components on Limosilactobacillus reuteri DSM 20016. Although honey/NaDES modulated the AOA of both extracts, from synergism to antagonism, the modulation was different between the two extracts for some AOA activities. Honey/NaDES mixtures enriched with LFL and RE did not show significant differences in bacterial growth stimulation. However, at a concentration of 45 mg/mL, the honey -LFL mixture exhibited a higher effect compared to the honey-RE mixture. The antioxidant and prebiotic properties of mixtures between honey and polyphenol-rich extracts are determined by multiple interactions in complex chemical systems.

Reaction of the Phytochemistry Community to Green Chemistry: Insights Obtained Since 1990

This review article aims to study how phytochemists have reacted to green chemistry insights since 1990, the year when the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency launched the "Pollution Prevention Act". For each year in the period 1990 to 2019, three highly cited phytochemistry papers that provided enough information about the experimental procedures utilized were sampled. The "greenness" of these procedures was assessed, particularly for the use of solvents. The highly hazardous diethyl ether, benzene, and carbon tetrachloride did not appear in the papers sampled after 2010. Advances in terms of sustainability were observed mainly in the extraction stage. Similar progress was not observed in purification procedures, where chloroform, dichloromethane, and hexane regularly have been employed. Since replacing such solvents in purification procedures should be a major goal, potential alternative approaches are discussed. Moreover, some current initiatives toward a more sustainable phytochemical research considering aspects other than only solvents are highlighted. Although some advances have been achieved, it is believed that natural products chemists can play a major role in developing a novel ecological paradigm in chemistry. To contribute to this objective, six principles for performing natural products chemistry consistent with the guidelines of green chemistry are proposed.

Meireles M, Ibáñez E. Synergic effect of natural deep eutectic solvent and high-intensity ultrasound on obtaining a ready-to-use genipin extract: Crosslinking and anti-neurodegenerative properties

In this paper, genipin, an important natural crosslinker and anti-neurodegenerative compound, was extracted from unripe Genipa americana L., combining high-intensity ultrasound (HIUS) and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs). The extraction process conditions were evaluated step-by-step to reach the best genipin recovery. The obtained ready-to-use genipin-NADES extract was examined regarding its crosslinking properties and anti-neurodegenerative capacity. For the condictions tested, the highest genipin recovery was obtained using 40 % water and 60 % betaine:lactic acid NADES in molar ratio 1:3 (n/n) as the solvent, a solvent:feed ratio of 19 (w/w), and HIUS acoustic power of 14 ± 1 W. The HIUS-assisted extraction using NADES as solvent showed to be a promising and efficient green extraction technique to obtain genipin. The ready-to-use genipin-NADES extract presented crosslinking capacity and anticholinergic activity. These results indicate that genipin-NADES extract can be directly applied in hydrogels for drug delivery, films, tissue engineering, and others. Moreover, it can be used in food, supplements, and medicine to enhance their neuroprotective effect.

Honey and Its Biomimetic Deep Eutectic Solvent Modulate the Antioxidant Activity of Polyphenols

Honey is a highly valued natural product with antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. However, its antioxidant activity (AOA) is not as high as that of other honeybee products, such as propolis. Several polyphenol-honey formulations have been proposed up to now, most of them using maceration of biomass in honey or mixtures with liquid extracts, which either limit polyphenols bioavailability or destroy the characteristics of honey. To improve the health benefits of honey by increasing AOA and keeping its structural and sensory properties, we propose its enrichment in a polyphenol extract of raspberry after solvent evaporation. A honey-biomimetic natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES) was prepared and compared with honey. The main polyphenols found in the raspberry extract were tested in combination with honey and NaDES, respectively. The AOA was determined by DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP methods. The AOA behaviour of honey-polyphenol mixtures varied from synergism to antagonism, being influenced by the AOA method, polyphenol type, and/or mixture concentration. The honey-biomimetic NaDES resulted in similar AOA behaviour as with honey mixed with polyphenols. Honey seems to have additional properties that increase synergism or reduce antagonism in some cases. Honey and its biomimetic NaDES modulate AOA of polyphenols extract.

Differential proteome and functional analysis of NSCLC cell lines in response to Tualang honey treatment

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Honey's therapeutic and nutrition effects have been discovered for centuries. Traditionally, it is applied as a health supplement as well as an alternative treatment for a variety of medical issues ranging from wound healing to anticancer therapy. Tualang honey (TH) is a natural sweet substance produced by Apis dorsata, naturally has a dark brown appearance from its high polyphenolic compounds. TH has been reported to show anticancer effects on various types of cancers including breast, oral, leukemia, cervical and lung cancer through several pathways. The detailed molecular mechanism of anticancer activity of TH as a chemopreventive and therapeutic agent is an interesting endeavor to understand.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Despite the anticancer effects of Tualang honey (TH) on various types of cancer have been widely reported, the exact molecular mechanism underlying its' anticancer action remains unpublished. Thus, this study aimed to investigate changes that occur on the proteome profile and the functional analysis of proteins with differential abundances within non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells that were treated with TH and discover the plausible molecular mechanism governing its' anticancer action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

NSCLC cell lines (H23 and A549) were treated with 3.6% and 3.1% v/v of TH for 24 h, respectively. Protein extracts were obtained from control NSCLC cells and TH-treated NSCLC cells. Label-free quantitative proteomic analysis was subsequently performed in nanoACQUITY UPLC with quadrupole-time of flight (Q-TOF) Synapt G2 HDMS mass spectrometer system to identify and quantify proteins of TH-treated NSCLC cells. The gene ontology (GO) PANTHER classification system was performed to categorize the identified proteins based on their protein class, biological processes, and pathway. Meanwhile, the STRING functional protein association network database was used to analyze the functional protein-protein interaction and associated pathways of significantly different proteins of NSCLC cells.

RESULTS

A total of 634 and 554 proteins were identified from H23 and A549 cell lines where 88 differential proteins were upregulated and 103 were downregulated in TH-treated H23 cells, whilst 66 differential proteins were upregulated and 61 were downregulated in TH-treated A549 cells. Differently expressed proteins of NSCLC were observed to be associated with the cell cycle, apoptosis, and VEGFA-VEGFR signaling pathway. TH modulated these signaling pathways through downregulation of ELAVL1, H3F3A and PCNA proteins. Three potential protein markers were significantly downregulated in NSCLC cells such as HRAS, HSPB1, and TUBA1C when treated with TH.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested the anticancer activity of TH on NSCLC cells through modulation of pertinent cancer-related proteins that are associated with cell proliferation, apoptosis inhibition, and induction of angiogenesis.

Synergistic mechanism for the bioactivity fortification of licorice by honey

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Honey-processed licorice has been used since ancient times. It was recorded that honey-processing has the effect of improving the immunomodulatory efficacy of licorice, which has been confirmed by modern pharmacological studies. However, it is still unknown why honey-processing can enhance the immunomodulatory activity of licorice. Our previous research demonstrated that honey has natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) characteristics. In this study, we investigated the synergistic effect of honey on licorice to elucidate the possible potentiation of honey-frying on licorice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Immunological experiments were conducted to investigate whether the honey-processing could enhance the immunomodulatory efficacy of licorice in vivo. Then, the synergistic mechanism of honey and licorice was explored based on cell bioactivity tests, metabolomics analysis, bioavailability test, and Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectra.

RESULTS

Pharmacological experiment verified that honey-processing enhanced the immunomodulatory efficacy of licorice. Moreover, honey increased the total flavonoid and polysaccharide contents in licorice decoction, improved the thermal stability and oral bioavailability of certain pharmacologically active constituents, and augmented their overall immunostimulatory functions. Similar effects of honey were also observed with a honey analogue GFSH, a NADES made of glucose, fructose, and sucrose with certain amount of water. The above effects might be due to multiple molecular interactions between active compounds and sugar molecules of honey.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that the biological activities of medicinal plants might be fortified by honey due to the synergism between licorice and honey. At the meantime, these findings provide theoretical and empirical basis for potential novel applications of honey or other NADESs at augmenting the health-promoting effects of medicinal plants.

RRLC-QTOF/MS-Based Metabolomics Reveal the Mechanism of Chemical Variations and Transformations of Astragali Radix as a Result of the Roasting Process

Astragali Radix (AR), which is extensively used as a healthy food supplement and medicinal herb, contains two forms of products corresponding to raw Astragalus Radix (RAR) and processed Astragali Radix (PAR), which was obtained by roasting. In this study, a non-targeted rapid resolution liquid chromatography coupled with quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry (RRLC-Q/TOF-MS) based metabolomics approach was developed to investigate the chemical changes of AR due to roasting. A total of 63 compounds were identified or tentatively identified. Among them, 23 isoflavonoids (composed of 12 isoflavones, eight pterocarpans, and three isoflavans) and six cycloastragenols were characterized as differential metabolites. Heatmap visualization and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array and evaporative light scattering detector (HPLC–PDA-ELSD) quantitative analysis revealed that malonyl isoflavonoids or cycloastragenols were at higher levels in RAR. These might be converted to corresponding acetyl isoflavonoids and cycloastragenols and related isoflavonoid glycosides during roasting. To prove this prediction, chemical conversion experiments on malonyl isoflavonoids and cycloastragenols were performed to confirm and clarify the chemical transformation mechanism.

Why the "sugars" in traditional Unani formulations are a pivotal component: A viewpoint perspective

Traditional medicine systems around the globe, like Unani, Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine, include a number of sugar-based formulations, which contain a large amount of saccharide-containing sweetener, such as honey, sucrose or jaggery. With pervasive lifestyle disorders throughout the world, there have been discussions to consider alternative sweetening agents. Here, from the perspective of Unani medicine, we discuss how the saccharide-based sweeteners may be an essential component of these traditional preparations, like electuaries, which may be deprived of their bioactivities without these saccharides. With contemporary researches, it is known that apart from their own therapeutic effects, saccharides also form deep eutectic solvents which help in enhancing the bioactivity of other ingredients present in crude drugs. In addition, they provide energy for fermentation which is essential for biotransformation of compounds. Interestingly, the sugars also increase the shelf-life of these compound drugs and act as natural preservatives. On the basis of this review, we strongly believe that saccharide-based sweeteners are an essential component of traditional medicines and not merely an excipient.

Ultrasound-assisted preparation of 'Ready-to-use' extracts from Radix Paeoniae Rubra with natural deep eutectic solvents and neuroprotectivity evaluation of the extracts against cerebral ischemic/ reperfusion injury

Natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES) is widely applied in the extraction of nutrients from natural resources as a greener alternative for fossil solvent. In the present work, 27 different NaDESs were screened for the extraction of paeoniflorin (PF) and galloyl paeoniflorin (GPF) from Radix Paeoniae Rubra (RPR). After screening and extraction parameter optimization, the extraction yields of PF and GPF reached up to 182.8 mg/g and 77.4 mg/g with the selected NaDES, ChCl-Sor. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity in vitro and neuroprotectivity in vivo of the 'ready-to-use' extracts were evaluated comprehensively. Especially in vivo, the cerebral ischemic/ reperfusion injury model was established in rats and the protective effects of the RPR extracts were determined. The results not only proved that NaDES is a valuable green extraction media, but also indicated the safety and potential pharmaceutical application of NaDES based 'ready-to-use' extracts from medical plants.

Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADES): Phytochemical Extraction Performance Enhancer for Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Product Development

Natural products from plants were extracted and widely studied for their activities against many disease conditions. The selection of the extracting solvent is crucial to develop selective and effective methods for the extraction and isolation of target compounds in the plant matrices. Pharmacological properties of plant extracts and their bioactive principles are related to their excellent solubility, stability, and bioavailability when administered by different routes. This review aims to critically analyze natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) as green solvents in their application to improve the extraction performance of plant metabolites in terms of their extractability besides the stability, bioactivity, solubility, and bioavailability. Herein, the opportunities for NADES to be used in pharmaceutical formulations development including plant metabolites-based nutraceuticals are discussed.

Natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES): A strategy to improve the bioavailability of blueberry phenolic compounds in a ready-to-use extract

This study investigated whether a ready-to-use extract obtained using a natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) affects the pharmacokinetic profile of blueberry phenolic compounds compared to organic solvent (SORG)-extracted compounds. SORG extract was administered as an aqueous solution after solvent removal. Wistar rats received a single dose of crude extract of blueberry obtained using NADES (CE-NADES) or SORG (CE-SORG), followed by LC-DAD-MS/MS analysis of blood and cecal feces. Non-compartmental pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that CE-NADES increased the bioavailability of anthocyanins by 140% compared to CE-SORG. CE-NADES increased the stability of phenolic compounds during in vitro digestion by delaying gastric chyme neutralization. These results suggest that besides being an eco-friendly solvent for the extraction of phytochemicals, choline chloride:glycerol:citric acid-based NADES can be used as a ready-to-use vehicle for increasing oral absorption of bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins.

Bottom-up cubosome synthesis without organic solvents

HYPOTHESIS

Bottom-up synthesis of cubosomes is more energetically favourable than top-down approaches. However, bottom-up methods often rely on organic solvents such as ethanol as diluents, and lead to concurrent formation of liposomes. We propose using non-toxic diluents such as honey, glycerol and lactic acid for bottom-up cubosome synthesis.

EXPERIMENTS

Cubosomes were prepared using solutions of phytantriol in a range of diluents including choline chloride-glycerol, honey, lactic acid, glycerol, and ethanol. These solutions were added dropwise to water containing the stabiliser, poloxamer 407, following an established method of cubosome synthesis. The resulting structures were characterised using small-angle X-ray scattering, DLS and cryo-TEM.

FINDINGS

Cubosomes were successfully formed using a range of non-toxic diluents. This demonstrates that harmful organic solvents like ethanol are not required, and that the diluents need not be hydrotropes. Furthermore, unlike ethanol, these other diluents allowed formation of cubosomes without concurrent formation of liposomes. Given the huge potential for cubosomes in drug delivery, this new method offers a potentially useful low-cost, low-toxicity synthesis option.

The extraordinary transformation of traditional Chinese medicine: processing with liquid excipients

Context: The Chinese medicinal materials originate from animals, plants, or minerals must undergo appropriate treatment before use as decoction pieces. Processing of Chinese medicines with liquid excipients is a pharmaceutical technique that transforms medicinal raw materials into decoction pieces which are significantly different from the original form. During processing, significant changes occur in chemical constituents, which inevitably affects clinical efficacy. At present, the liquid materials in processing mainly involve wine, vinegar, honey, saline water, ginger juice, herbal juice, etc.Objective: This review introduces the typical methods of liquid excipients processing, summarizes the influence on chemical composition, pharmacological efficacy, and expounds the ways and mechanisms of liquid excipients to change the properties of drugs, enhance the efficacy, eliminate or reduce toxicity and adverse reaction.Methods: English and Chinese literature from 1986 to 2020 was collected from databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2015, and CNKI (Chinese). Liquid excipients, processing, pharmacological effects, synergism, chemical constitution, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) were used as the key words.Results: Liquid excipients play a key role in the application of TCM. Processing with proper liquid excipients can change the content of toxic or active components by physical or chemical transformation, decrease or increase drug dissolution, alter drug pharmacokinetics, or exert their own pharmacological effects. Thus, processing with liquid excipients is essential to ensure the safety and efficacy of TCM in clinic.Conclusion: This article could be helpful for researchers who are interested in traditional Chinese herbs processed with liquid excipients.