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Zhao R, Zhao W, Dai Y, Zhou J, Xu X, Wang F, Zhang Q, Zhang Y, Zhang W. Photochemical evolution of the molecular composition of dissolved organic carbon and dissolved brown carbon from wood smoldering. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 186:108629. [PMID: 38582060 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Recently, extreme wildfires occur frequently around the world and emit substantial brown carbon (BrC) into the atmosphere, whereas the molecular compositions and photochemical evolution of BrC remain poorly understood. In this work, primary smoke aerosols were generated from wood smoldering, and secondary smoke aerosols were formed by the OH radical photooxidation in an oxidation flow reactor, where both primary and secondary smoke samples were collected on filters. After solvent extraction of filter samples, the molecular composition of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was determined by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR MS). The molecular composition of dissolved BrC was obtained based on the constraints of DOC formulae. The proportion of dissolved BrC fractions accounted for approximately 1/3-1/2 molecular formulae of DOC. The molecular characteristics of dissolved BrC showed higher levels of carbon oxidation state, double bond equivalents, and modified aromaticity index than those of DOC, indicating that dissolved BrC fractions were a class of organic structures with relatively higher oxidation state, unsaturated and aromatic degree in DOC fractions. The comparative analysis suggested that aliphatic and olefinic structures dominated DOC fractions (contributing to 70.1%-76.9%), while olefinic, aromatic, and condensed aromatic structures dominated dissolved BrC fractions (contributing to 97.5%-99.9%). It is worth noting that dissolved BrC fractions only contained carboxylic-rich alicyclic molecules (CRAMs)-like structures, unsaturated hydrocarbons, aromatic structures, and highly oxygenated compounds. CRAMs-like structures were the most abundant species in both DOC and dissolved BrC fractions. Nevertheless, the specific molecular characteristics for DOC and dissolved BrC fractions varied with subgroups after aging. The results highlight the similarities and differences in the molecular compositions and characteristics of DOC and dissolved BrC fractions with aging. This work will provide insights into understanding the molecular composition of DOC and dissolved BrC in smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranran Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng 224051, Jiangsu, China; School of Emergency Management and Safety Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng 224051, Jiangsu, China; Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China.
| | - Weixiong Zhao
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China; School of Environmental Science and Optoelectronic Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Yong Dai
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng 224051, Jiangsu, China; School of Emergency Management and Safety Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng 224051, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiacheng Zhou
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Xuezhe Xu
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China
| | - Feng Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng 224051, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qixing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China.
| | - Yongming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Weijun Zhang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, Anhui, China; School of Environmental Science and Optoelectronic Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, China
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Liu G, Ma X, Li W, Chen J, Ji Y, An T. Pollution characteristics, source appointment and environmental effect of oxygenated volatile organic compounds in Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area: Implication for air quality management. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 919:170836. [PMID: 38346658 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Same as other bay areas, the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA) is also suffering atmospheric composite pollution. Even a series of atmospheric environment management policies have been conducted to win the "blue sky defense battle", the atmospheric secondary pollutants (e.g., O3) originated from oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) still threaten the air quality in GBA. However, there lacks a systematic summary on the emission, formation, pollution and environmental effects of OVOCs in this region for further air quality management. This review focused on the researches related to OVOCs in GBA, including their pollution characteristics, detection methods, source distributions, secondary formations, and impacts on the atmosphere. Pollution profile of OVOCs in GBA revealed that the concentration percentage among total VOCs from Guangzhou and Dongguan cities exceeded 50 %, while methanol, formaldehyde, acetone, and acetaldehyde were the top four highest concentrated OVOCs. The detection technique on regional atmospheric OVOCs (e.g., oxygenated organic molecules (OOMs)) underwent an evolution of off-line derivatization method, on-line spectroscopic method and on-line mass spectrometry method. The OVOCs in GBA were mainly from primary emissions (up to 80 %), including vehicle emissions and biomass combustion. The anthropogenic alkenes and aromatics in urban area, and natural isoprene in rural area also made a significant contribution to the secondary emission (e.g., photochemical formation) of OVOCs. About 20 % in average of ROx radicals was produced from photolysis of formaldehyde in comparison with O3, nitrous acid and rest OVOCs, while the reaction between OVOCs and free radical accelerated the NOx-O3 cycle, contributing to 15 %-60 % cumulative formation of O3 in GBA. Besides, the heterogeneous reactions of dicarbonyls generated 21 %-53 % of SOA. This review also provided suggestions for future research on OVOCs in terms of regional observation, analytical method and mechanistic study to support the development of a control and management strategy on OVOCs in GBA and China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanyong Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong Technology Research Center for Photocatalytic Technology Integration and Equipment Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiaoyao Ma
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong Technology Research Center for Photocatalytic Technology Integration and Equipment Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Wanying Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong Technology Research Center for Photocatalytic Technology Integration and Equipment Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jiangyao Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong Technology Research Center for Photocatalytic Technology Integration and Equipment Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Yuemeng Ji
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong Technology Research Center for Photocatalytic Technology Integration and Equipment Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Taicheng An
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangdong Technology Research Center for Photocatalytic Technology Integration and Equipment Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Sokhi RS, Singh V, Querol X, Finardi S, Targino AC, Andrade MDF, Pavlovic R, Garland RM, Massagué J, Kong S, Baklanov A, Ren L, Tarasova O, Carmichael G, Peuch VH, Anand V, Arbilla G, Badali K, Beig G, Belalcazar LC, Bolignano A, Brimblecombe P, Camacho P, Casallas A, Charland JP, Choi J, Chourdakis E, Coll I, Collins M, Cyrys J, da Silva CM, Di Giosa AD, Di Leo A, Ferro C, Gavidia-Calderon M, Gayen A, Ginzburg A, Godefroy F, Gonzalez YA, Guevara-Luna M, Haque SM, Havenga H, Herod D, Hõrrak U, Hussein T, Ibarra S, Jaimes M, Kaasik M, Khaiwal R, Kim J, Kousa A, Kukkonen J, Kulmala M, Kuula J, La Violette N, Lanzani G, Liu X, MacDougall S, Manseau PM, Marchegiani G, McDonald B, Mishra SV, Molina LT, Mooibroek D, Mor S, Moussiopoulos N, Murena F, Niemi JV, Noe S, Nogueira T, Norman M, Pérez-Camaño JL, Petäjä T, Piketh S, Rathod A, Reid K, Retama A, Rivera O, Rojas NY, Rojas-Quincho JP, San José R, Sánchez O, Seguel RJ, Sillanpää S, Su Y, Tapper N, Terrazas A, Timonen H, Toscano D, Tsegas G, Velders GJM, Vlachokostas C, von Schneidemesser E, Vpm R, Yadav R, Zalakeviciute R, Zavala M. A global observational analysis to understand changes in air quality during exceptionally low anthropogenic emission conditions. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 157:106818. [PMID: 34425482 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
This global study, which has been coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization Global Atmospheric Watch (WMO/GAW) programme, aims to understand the behaviour of key air pollutant species during the COVID-19 pandemic period of exceptionally low emissions across the globe. We investigated the effects of the differences in both emissions and regional and local meteorology in 2020 compared with the period 2015-2019. By adopting a globally consistent approach, this comprehensive observational analysis focuses on changes in air quality in and around cities across the globe for the following air pollutants PM2.5, PM10, PMC (coarse fraction of PM), NO2, SO2, NOx, CO, O3 and the total gaseous oxidant (OX = NO2 + O3) during the pre-lockdown, partial lockdown, full lockdown and two relaxation periods spanning from January to September 2020. The analysis is based on in situ ground-based air quality observations at over 540 traffic, background and rural stations, from 63 cities and covering 25 countries over seven geographical regions of the world. Anomalies in the air pollutant concentrations (increases or decreases during 2020 periods compared to equivalent 2015-2019 periods) were calculated and the possible effects of meteorological conditions were analysed by computing anomalies from ERA5 reanalyses and local observations for these periods. We observed a positive correlation between the reductions in NO2 and NOx concentrations and peoples' mobility for most cities. A correlation between PMC and mobility changes was also seen for some Asian and South American cities. A clear signal was not observed for other pollutants, suggesting that sources besides vehicular emissions also substantially contributed to the change in air quality. As a global and regional overview of the changes in ambient concentrations of key air quality species, we observed decreases of up to about 70% in mean NO2 and between 30% and 40% in mean PM2.5 concentrations over 2020 full lockdown compared to the same period in 2015-2019. However, PM2.5 exhibited complex signals, even within the same region, with increases in some Spanish cities, attributed mainly to the long-range transport of African dust and/or biomass burning (corroborated with the analysis of NO2/CO ratio). Some Chinese cities showed similar increases in PM2.5 during the lockdown periods, but in this case, it was likely due to secondary PM formation. Changes in O3 concentrations were highly heterogeneous, with no overall change or small increases (as in the case of Europe), and positive anomalies of 25% and 30% in East Asia and South America, respectively, with Colombia showing the largest positive anomaly of ~70%. The SO2 anomalies were negative for 2020 compared to 2015-2019 (between ~25 to 60%) for all regions. For CO, negative anomalies were observed for all regions with the largest decrease for South America of up to ~40%. The NO2/CO ratio indicated that specific sites (such as those in Spanish cities) were affected by biomass burning plumes, which outweighed the NO2 decrease due to the general reduction in mobility (ratio of ~60%). Analysis of the total oxidant (OX = NO2 + O3) showed that primary NO2 emissions at urban locations were greater than the O3 production, whereas at background sites, OX was mostly driven by the regional contributions rather than local NO2 and O3 concentrations. The present study clearly highlights the importance of meteorology and episodic contributions (e.g., from dust, domestic, agricultural biomass burning and crop fertilizing) when analysing air quality in and around cities even during large emissions reductions. There is still the need to better understand how the chemical responses of secondary pollutants to emission change under complex meteorological conditions, along with climate change and socio-economic drivers may affect future air quality. The implications for regional and global policies are also significant, as our study clearly indicates that PM2.5 concentrations would not likely meet the World Health Organization guidelines in many parts of the world, despite the drastic reductions in mobility. Consequently, revisions of air quality regulation (e.g., the Gothenburg Protocol) with more ambitious targets that are specific to the different regions of the world may well be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjeet S Sokhi
- Centre for Atmospheric and Climate Physics (CACP) and Centre for Climate Change Research (C3R), University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK.
| | - Vikas Singh
- National Atmospheric Research Laboratory, Gadanki, AP, India
| | - Xavier Querol
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Admir Créso Targino
- Graduate Program in Environment Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Londrina, Brazil
| | | | - Radenko Pavlovic
- Meteorological Service of Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Dorval, Canada
| | - Rebecca M Garland
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa; Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Department of Geography, Geo-informatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jordi Massagué
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Mining, Industrial and ICT Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, BarcelonaTech (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Shaofei Kong
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Alexander Baklanov
- Science and Innovation Department, World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lu Ren
- Center for Global and Regional Environmental Research, University of Iowa, Iowa City, United States
| | - Oksana Tarasova
- Science and Innovation Department, World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Greg Carmichael
- Center for Global and Regional Environmental Research, University of Iowa, Iowa City, United States
| | - Vincent-Henri Peuch
- ECMWF, European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Shinfield Park, Reading, UK
| | - Vrinda Anand
- Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India, India
| | | | - Kaitlin Badali
- Analysis and Air Quality Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Gufran Beig
- Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India, India
| | | | - Andrea Bolignano
- Agenzia Regionale di Protezione dell'Ambiente del Lazio, Rome, Italy
| | - Peter Brimblecombe
- Department of Marine Environment and Engineering, National Sun Yat Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Patricia Camacho
- Secretaria del Medio Ambiente de la Ciudad de México (SEDEMA), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Casallas
- Earth System Physics, The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, Italy; Escuela de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenieria, Universidad Sergio Arboleda, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Jean-Pierre Charland
- Analysis and Air Quality Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Jason Choi
- Environment Protection Authority Victoria, Centre for Applied Sciences, Macleod, Australia
| | - Eleftherios Chourdakis
- Laboratory of Heat Transfer and Environmental Engineering, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Isabelle Coll
- Université Paris-Est Créteil and Université de Paris, CNRS, LISA, Creteil, France
| | - Marty Collins
- Air Monitoring Operations, Resource Stewardship Division, Environment and Parks, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Josef Cyrys
- Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | | | | | - Anna Di Leo
- Agenzia Regionale di Protezione dell'Ambiente della Lombardia, Milano, Italy
| | - Camilo Ferro
- Escuela de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenieria, Universidad Sergio Arboleda, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | - Amiya Gayen
- Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | | | - Fabrice Godefroy
- Service de l'Environnement, Division du Contrôle des Rejets et Suivi Environnemental, Montréal, Canada
| | | | - Marco Guevara-Luna
- Conservación, Bioprospección y Desarrollo Sostenible, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | - Henno Havenga
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Dennis Herod
- National Smog Analysis, Analysis and Air Quality Section, Air Quality Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Urmas Hõrrak
- Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tareq Hussein
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR/Physics), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sergio Ibarra
- Departamento de Ciências Atmosféricas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Monica Jaimes
- Secretaria del Medio Ambiente de la Ciudad de México (SEDEMA), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Marko Kaasik
- Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ravindra Khaiwal
- Department of Community Medicine and School of Public Health, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India
| | - Jhoon Kim
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Anu Kousa
- Helsinki Region Environmental Services Authority, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaakko Kukkonen
- Centre for Atmospheric and Climate Physics (CACP) and Centre for Climate Change Research (C3R), University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK; Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Markku Kulmala
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR/Physics), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Joel Kuula
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nathalie La Violette
- Direction de la qualité de l'air et du climat, Direction générale du suivi de l'état de l'environnement, Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques Québec, Canada
| | - Guido Lanzani
- Agenzia Regionale di Protezione dell'Ambiente della Lombardia, Milano, Italy
| | - Xi Liu
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China
| | | | - Patrick M Manseau
- Meteorological Service of Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Dorval, Canada
| | - Giada Marchegiani
- Agenzia Regionale di Protezione dell'Ambiente del Lazio, Rome, Italy
| | - Brian McDonald
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Chemical Sciences Laboratory, Boulder, USA
| | | | | | - Dennis Mooibroek
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Suman Mor
- Department of Environment Studies, Punjab University, Chandigarh, India
| | - Nicolas Moussiopoulos
- Laboratory of Heat Transfer and Environmental Engineering, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Fabio Murena
- Department of Chemical, Material and Production Engineering (DICMAPI), Naples, Italy
| | - Jarkko V Niemi
- Direction de la qualité de l'air et du climat, Direction générale du suivi de l'état de l'environnement, Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques Québec, Canada
| | - Steffen Noe
- Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Thiago Nogueira
- Departamento de Ciências Atmosféricas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Michael Norman
- Environment and Health Administration, City of Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Tuukka Petäjä
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR/Physics), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Stuart Piketh
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Aditi Rathod
- Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India, India
| | - Ken Reid
- Air Quality and Climate Change, Metro Vancouver Regional District, Burnaby, Canada
| | | | - Olivia Rivera
- Secretaria del Medio Ambiente de la Ciudad de México (SEDEMA), Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | - Roberto San José
- Computer Science School, ESMG, Technical University of Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Odón Sánchez
- Atmospheric Pollution Research Group, Universidad Nacional Tecnológica de Lima Sur, Lima, Peru
| | - Rodrigo J Seguel
- Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR)2, Department of Geophysics, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Yushan Su
- Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Canada
| | - Nigel Tapper
- School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Antonio Terrazas
- Secretaria del Medio Ambiente de la Ciudad de México (SEDEMA), Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Domenico Toscano
- Department of Chemical, Material and Production Engineering (DICMAPI), Naples, Italy
| | - George Tsegas
- Laboratory of Heat Transfer and Environmental Engineering, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Guus J M Velders
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Christos Vlachokostas
- Laboratory of Heat Transfer and Environmental Engineering, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Rajasree Vpm
- Centre for Atmospheric and Climate Physics (CACP) and Centre for Climate Change Research (C3R), University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Ravi Yadav
- Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India, India
| | - Rasa Zalakeviciute
- Grupo de Biodiversidad, Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Universidad de Las Americas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Miguel Zavala
- Molina Center for Energy and the Environment, CA, USA
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