An examination of respiratory and metabolic demands of alpine skiing

Physical fitness characteristics of elite freestyle skiing aerials athletes

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the physical fitness characteristics of elite freestyle skiing aerials athletes, thereby enhancing the understanding of exercise physiologists, sports scientists, and coaches regarding the demands in this discipline.

METHODS

After health screenings, 29 athletes from the Chinese National Freestyle Skiing Aerials Team were divided into elite and general groups, including males and females. Physical fitness indexes were determined through literature reviews, expert interviews, and the Delphi method, followed by physical fitness tests assessing body morphology, physiological function, and physical quality. Data normality was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Differences between the two groups were then evaluated using independent sample t-tests or Mann-Whitney U tests, after which effect sizes were calculated to assess the magnitude of the differences.

RESULTS

Significant body morphology differences were noted between elite and general groups in fat-free body weight, leg, and waist circumferences (P < 0.05). Male athletes in the elite group exhibited a significantly lower percentage of body fat (P < 0.05), whereas the reduction in body fat percentage among female elite athletes was not statistically significant. In terms of physiological function assessment, elite athletes demonstrated superior performance in both maximum anaerobic capacity and relative maximum anaerobic capacity compared to their counterparts in the general group (P < 0.05). Notably, the difference in maximum anaerobic capacity was highly significant among male athletes (P < 0.01), and the relative maximum anaerobic capacity among female athletes was also markedly significant (P < 0.01). Regarding physical quality indexes, elite athletes outperformed those in the general group in all aspects except for the quick v-up and 12-minute run tests (P < 0.05 or P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

Elite athletes exhibit superior physical fitness characteristics compared to general athletes, attributable to differences in age, years of training, and their participation in ongoing specialized physical training within structured, cyclical programs. Specifically, elite athletes demonstrated higher fat-free body weight, larger waist and leg circumferences in terms of body morphology. Particularly, male athletes showed a trend towards lower body fat percentage. Physiologically, they exhibited stronger anaerobic metabolism capabilities. In terms of physical quality, elite athletes displayed superior limb strength, lower limb explosive power, and specialized core strength, along with better speed, agility, and overall coordination.

Sport-specific balance tests account for youth alpine skiers' ranking

Objective: Alpine skiing requires complex motor skills and fine adjustments to maintain balance in dynamic and challenging conditions. This study aimed to understand whether the balance ability in unspecific (UST) and sport-specific (SST) tasks could depend on the skiers' ranking level. The balance performance of the dominant and non-dominant limbs in the SST was also investigated. Methods: Twenty-five skiers (14.96 ± 1.61 yrs; 1.69 ± 0.69 m; 59.9 ± 9.52 kg) were divided into high-ranking (position < 50) and low-ranking (position > 50) groups. Subjects performed three balance conditions: static (ST), dynamic UST, and dynamic SST. Subjects stood on an unstable board over a force platform during UST. During SST, subjects wore ski boots, grasped ski poles, and each foot was clipped to an unstable board over two force plates. From the center-of-pressure (CoP) trajectory the area of the 95th percentile ellipse and the CoP mean velocity were calculated. Angular displacements were recorded by a 12-camera system, to calculate the full balance (FB), fine (FiB), and gross (GB) balance in UST and SST. Results: Balance control was higher (p < 0.01) in high-ranking than low-ranking skiers only in the SST. Kinematic parameters (i.e., FB, FiB, and GB) showed a higher (p < 0.001) balance performance in SST than UST independently from the group. Dominant and non-dominant limbs motion was similar (Pearson correlation, r = 0.97) in SST independently from the skiers' ranking. Conclusion: High-ranking skiers showed better balance control and performance than low-ranking skiers only when the task was sport-specific. Therefore, we suggest testing balance under sport-specific conditions to discriminate the youth skiers' abilities.

A Classification of Fitness Components in Elite Alpine Skiers: A Cluster Analysis

The current study is an exploratory, secondary data analysis of a selection of physiological and biomechanical fitness components used to assess elite alpine skiers. The present study will provide new knowledge that can be used to aid training prescription and talent identification. A hierarchical cluster analysis was used to identify groups of variables that are crucial for elite alpine skiers and differences based on sex and competition level. The key findings of the study are the patterns that emerged in the generated dendrograms. Physiological and biomechanical fitness components are differentiated in the dendrograms of male and female world-cup-level alpine skiers, but not in non-world-cup athletes. Components related to the aerobic and anaerobic capacity tightly cluster in male athletes at world cup and non-world-cup level, and female world cup athletes. Lower body explosive force production appears to be more critical in male world cup athletes than female world cup athletes. More research is needed into the importance of isometric strength in the lower body. Future research should use larger sample sizes and consider other alpine ski demographics.

Are There Associations Between Submaximal and Maximal Aerobic Power and International Ski Federation World Cup Ranking in Elite Alpine Skiers?

PURPOSE

To analyze the predictive value of parameters of submaximal and maximal cardiopulmonary exercise performance on International Ski Federation (Fédération Internationale de Ski) World Cup ranking (FIS ranking) in elite Austrian Alpine skiers.

METHODS

Over 7 World Cup seasons (2012-2018), exercise data (maximal oxygen uptake and maximum power output, lactate threshold 2, and ventilatory threshold 2, based on stepwise cycle spiroergometry) were analyzed to determine whether there was a correlation between world FIS ranking and exercise capacity of male and female elite Alpine skiers.

RESULTS

The data of 39 male skiers (age: 27.67 [4.20] y, body mass index: 26.03 [1.25] kg/m2) and 36 female skiers (age: 25.49 [3.18] y, body mass index: 22.97 [1.71] kg/m2) were included in this study. The maximum oxygen uptake and maximum power output ranged from 4.37 to 4.42 W/kg and 53.41 to 54.85 mL/kg/min in men and from 4.17 to 4.30 W/kg and 45.96 to 49.16 mL/kg/min in women, respectively, over the 7 seasons; the yearly mean FIS ranking ranged from 17 to 24 in men and 9 to 18 in women. In a fixed-effects model used for the subsequent panel regression analysis, no statistically significant effect on FIS ranking was found for the exercise parameters of interest.

CONCLUSIONS

Neither maximal aerobic tests nor maximum power output significantly predicted competitive performance, as indexed by the FIS ranking. This reinforces the assumption that no single parameter determines competition performance in this complex sport. Therefore, identifying the optimum amount of endurance training remains a major challenge for athletes and coaches, as does identifying and improving the factors that determine performance.

Gender Differences in Postural Stability among 13-Year-Old Alpine Skiers

This experiment examined changes in body sway after Wingate test (WAnT) in 19 adolescents practicing alpine skiing, subjected to the same type of training load for 4–5 years (10 girls and nine boys). The postural examinations were performed with eyes open (EO), eyes closed (EC), and sway reverenced vision (SRV) in the medial-lateral (ML) and anterior-posterior (AP) planes. The displacement of center of foot pressure (CoP), range of sway (RS), mean sway velocity (MV), way length, and surface area were measured in bipedal upright stance before and after the WAnT to assess the influence of fatigue on postural balance. There were no significant differences in WAnT parameters between girls and boys. Relative peak power (RPP), relative total work (RWtot) were (girls vs. boys) 8.89 ± 0.70 vs. 9.57 ± 1.22 W/kg, p < 0.05 and 227.91 ± 14.98 vs. 243.22 ± 30.24 W/kg, p < 0.05 respectively. The fatigue index (FI) was also on similar level in both genders; however, blood lactate concentration (BLa) was significantly higher in boys (10.35 ± 1.16 mM) than in girls (8.67 ± 1.35 mM) p = 0.007. In the EO examination, statistically significant differences between resting and fatigue conditions in the whole group and after the division into girls and boys were found. In fatigue conditions, significant gender differences were noted for measurements in the ML plane (sway path and RS) and RS in the AP plane. Comparison of the three conditions shows differences between EO vs. EC and SRV in AP plane measured parameters, and for RS in ML plane in rest condition in girls. The strong correlations between FI and CoP parameters mainly in ML plane in the whole group for all examination conditions were noted. By genders, mainly RS in ML plane strongly correlates with FI (r > 0.7). No correlation was found between BLa and CoP parameters (p > 0.06). The presented results indicate that subjecting adolescents of both genders to the same training may reduce gender differences in the postural balance ability at rest but not in fatigue conditions and that girls are significantly superior in postural balance in the ML plane than boys. It was also shown that too little or too much information may be destructive to postural balance in young adolescents.

Can Hyperoxic Preconditioning in Normobaric Hypoxia (3500 m) Improve All-Out Exercise Performance in Highly Skilled Skiers? A Randomized Crossover Study

BACKGROUND

The altering effects of hypoxia on aerobic/anaerobic performance are well documented and form the basis of this study. Application of hyperoxic gases (inspiratory fraction of oxygen [FiO2] > 0.2095) prior to competition or training (hyperoxic preconditioning) can compensate for the negative influence of acute hypoxia.

PURPOSE

To investigate whether oxygen supplementation immediately prior to exercise (FiO2 = 1.0) improves all-out exercise performance in normobaric hypoxia (3500 m) in highly skilled skiers.

METHODS

In this single-blind, randomized, crossover study, 17 subjects performed a 60-second constant-load, all-out test in a normobaric hypoxic chamber. After a short period of adaptation to hypoxia (60 min), they received either pure oxygen or chamber air for 5 minutes prior to the all-out test (hyperoxic preconditioning vs nonhyperoxic preconditioning). Capillary blood was collected 3 times, and muscle oxygenation was assessed with near-infrared spectroscopy.

RESULTS

Absolute and relative peak power (P = .073 vs P = .103) as well as mean power (P = .330 vs P = .569) did not significantly differ after the hyperoxic preconditioning phase. PaO2 increased from 51.3 (3) to 451.9 (89.0) mm Hg, and SaO2 increased from 88.2% (1.7%) to 100% (0.2%) and dropped to 83.8% (4.2%) after the all-out test. Deoxygenation (P = .700) and reoxygenation rates (P = .185) did not significantly differ for both preconditioned settings.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, the authors conclude that hyperoxic preconditioning did not enhance 60-second all-out exercise performance in acute hypoxia (3500 m).

Sustainable Sport: Cardio-Differentiated Planning of Fitness Programs for High School Boys Engaged in Speed Skiing

In speed skiing, an athlete’s functional readiness is tested by means of a bicycle ergometer (EGM). The purpose of this research is to make various mesocycle plans for high school boys, engaged in speed skiing, with due account for their cardio-functional indicators obtained by means of the EGM. The study was attended by the 16–17 years old, first-category and sub-master racing skiers, included in the junior regional teams of the Russian Federation (Republic of Tatarstan and Udmurtia). The total number of subjects included eight men. In training young racing skiers, a differentiated approach combined with leg muscle testing will allow an improvement in sports results more effectively at different stages, as well as monitoring the young athlete’s response to the cardiovascular load. Low cardiac capacity indices have a negative impact on the racing skier’s performance. EGM testing allows determining the maximum cardiac capacity by measuring the amount of oxygen delivered to the working muscles at the HR of 190 beats per minute. Therefore, case-specific aerobic load was planned for each mesocycle according to these data. Based on the cardiac capacity growth, such means of physical training as interval, high-speed, and tempo training were planned.

The 2 Minute Loaded Repeated Jump Test: Longitudinal Anaerobic Testing in Elite Alpine Ski Racers

This study investigated the 4-year development of anaerobic power and capacity in Austrian elite female alpine ski racers and examined the relationship between the 2-minute loaded repeated jump test (LRJT) results and ski racing performance (International Ski Federation (FIS) points). Ten Austrian elite female ski racers were tested prior to four racing seasons. The LRJT consisted of 48 loaded countermovement jumps (LCMJs) with barbell load equivalent to 20% bodyweight. Before the LRJT, maximal body mass normalized average power of a single LCMJ (PMAX) was determined. The mean jump power was calculated across all jumps in the test (P0-120). Anaerobic power (PMAX) in season 2 (32.3 ± 2.3 W·kg-1) significantly improved over season 1 (30.5 ± 2.3 W·kg-1) (p < 0.05) but there were no further differences between seasons, with season 3 at 33.5 ± 3.4 W·kg-1 and season 4 at 33.6 ± 3.0 W·kg-1. Anaerobic capacity (P0-120) increased up to season 3 by 9.2% (27.1 ± 2.8 to 29.6 ± 2.4 W·kg-1), but was significantly higher only when comparing season 4 to seasons 1 and 2 (p < 0.05). FIS points changed significantly (p < 0.05), from 18.1 ± 8.2 in season 1 to 8.4 ± 4.8 in season 4 (lower FIS points indicates better racing results). FIS points had a positive relationship with PMAX (r = -0.73, p < 0.05) and P0-120 (r = -0.64, p < 0.05) only in season 4. Improvements in FIS points from year to year did not correlate with seasonal increases in LRJT results. In conclusion, anaerobic power improved only after season 1, and anaerobic capacity changes were evident only in season 4. Ski racing performance (FIS points) correlated with LRJT test results in only season 4. The LRJT can monitor a ski racer's anaerobic power and capacity, but does not correlate with ski racing performance.

The Training of Olympic Alpine Ski Racers

Alpine combined was the only alpine ski racing event at the first Winter Olympic Games in 1936, but since then, slalom, giant slalom, super-G, downhill, and team events have also become Olympic events. Substantial improvements in slope preparation, design of courses, equipment, and the skills of Olympic alpine skiers have all helped this sport attain its present significance. Improved snow preparation has resulted in harder surfaces and improved equipment allows a more direct interaction between the skier and snow. At the same time, courses have become more challenging, with technical disciplines requiring more pronounced patterns of loading - unloading, with greater ground reaction forces. Athletes have adapted their training to meet these new demands, but little is presently known about these adaptations. Here, we describe how Olympic athletes from four of the major alpine ski racing nations prepared for the Olympic Games in South Korea in 2018. This overview describes their typical exercise programs with respect to physical conditioning, ski training and periodization, based on interviews with the coaching staff. Alpine ski racing requires mastery of a broad spectrum of physical, technical, mental, and social skills. We describe how athletes and teams deal with the multifactorial nature of the training required. Special emphasis is placed on sport-specific aspects, such as the combination of stimuli that interfere with training, training with chronic injury, training at altitude and in cold regions, the efficiency and effectiveness of ski training and testing, logistic challenges and their effects on fatigue, including the stress of frequent traveling. Our overall goal was to present as complete a picture of the training undertaken by Olympic alpine skiers as possible and on the basis of these findings propose how training for alpine ski racing might be improved.

Acute Effects of an Ergometer-Based Dryland Alpine Skiing Specific High Intensity Interval Training

Introduction: To establish an alpine ski racing (ASR) specific dryland high intensity training protocol (HIT), we set out to analyze cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses of three ASR specific HIT modes using a ski ergometer compared with a running HIT.

Methods: Ten healthy international FIS level subjects (18 ± 1 years) performed an incremental running VO_2max test, three different ASR specific HIT modes [slalom (SL), giant slalom (GS), and SL/GS mix] and a running HIT with measurements of VO₂, heart rate (HR), blood lactate, and rate of perceived exertion (RPE). The HIT protocols included 15 × 1-min intervals with >90% HR_max and 30 s active rest. Furthermore, one elite alpine skier performed an 8-week, 17 session HIT block using the SL/GS mixed mode.

Results: Running HIT resulted in greater VO_2peak and whole-body RPE compared with the three ASR-specific HIT modes. During all four exercise modes participants were able to reach exercise intensities high enough to be classified as HIT (>90% HR_max and >89% VO_2max). Legs RPE was similar between the four HIT modes, while arms RPE was higher for the ski-specific HIT. For all studied parameters, similar results for the three skiing specific HIT modes were observed. The 8-week HIT block was feasible for the athlete and resulted in an 11% increase in VO_2max at unchanged peak power output.

Conclusion: Across all HIT protocols high cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses were achieved. Therefore, the ASR specific HIT was shown to be feasible, thus could offer new possibilities for endurance training in elite alpine skiers. It is suggested to use the SL/GS mixed mode in terms of movement variety. The reduced VO₂ in the ski-specific modifications can be attributed to the concentric and eccentric muscle activity resulting in mechanical hindrance for O₂ extraction. The long-term effectiveness of ASR specific HIT in elite alpine skiers needs to be proven in a future study.

Aerobic Variables for Prediction of Alpine Skiing Performance - A Novel Approach

The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive power of aerobic test results and anthropometric variables on FIS-ranking of junior elite alpine skiers. Results from twenty-three male and female adolescent elite alpine skiers from two seasons were included in the multivariate statistical models. Physical work capacity was determined by V̇O2peak, blood lactate concentration ([HLa]b), and heart rate (HR) during ergometer cycling. Anthropometric variables were body stature, body weight and calculated BMI. No significant correlation between competitive performance and aerobic work capacity or anthropometric data was observed neither in male nor female adolescent skiers. Pre-season physical tests and anthropometric data could therefore not predict end-season FIS-ranking. The best regression (R2) and prediction (Q2) models of FIS slalom (SL) and giant slalom (GS) rank reached R2=0.51 to 0.86, Q2=−0.73 to 0.18, indicating no valid models. This study could not establish V̇O2peak and other included variables as predictors of competitive performance. When combining results from commonly used tests for alpine skiers, and applying multivariate statistical models, investigated tests seems of limited used for athletes, coaches, and ski federations. Performance-specific pre-season tests must be developed and validated for prediction of performance and guidance of exercise training.