Provitamin A carotenoid content of unripe and ripe banana cultivars for potential adoption in eastern Africa

Genotype and ripening method affect carotenoid content and bio-accessibility in banana

Bananas (Musa spp.) are a target crop for provitamin A carotenoids (pVACs) biofortification programs aiming at reducing the negative impact on health caused by vitamin A deficiency in vulnerable populations. However, studies to understand the effect of ripening methods and stages and the genotype on carotenoid content and bioaccessibility in the banana germplasm are scarce. This study evaluated carotenoid content and bioaccessibility in 27 different banana accessions at three maturation stages and two ripening methods (natural ripening and ethylene ripening). Across most accessions, total carotenoid content (TCC) increased from unripe to ripe fruit; only two accessions showed a marginal decrease. The ripening method affected carotenoid accumulation; 18 accessions had lower TCC when naturally ripened compared with the ethylene ripening group, while nine accessions showed higher TCC when ripened with exogenous ethylene, suggesting that treating bananas with exogenous ethylene might directly affect TCC accumulation, but the response is accession dependent. Additionally, carotenoid bioaccessibility varied across genotypes and was correlated with the amount of soluble starch and resistant starch. These findings highlight the importance of ripening methods and genotypes in maximizing banana carotenoid content and bioaccessibility, which could contribute to improving pVACs delivery in biofortification programs.

The protective effects of flavonoids and carotenoids against diabetic complications-A review of in vivo evidence

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder caused either by inadequate insulin secretion, impaired insulin function, or both. Uncontrolled diabetes is characterized by hyperglycemia which over time leads to fatal damage to both macro-and microvascular systems, causing complications such as cardiovascular diseases, retinopathy and nephropathy. Diabetes management is conventionally delivered through modifications of diet and lifestyle and pharmacological treatment, using antidiabetic drugs, and ultimately insulin injections. However, the side effects and financial cost of medications often reduce patient compliance to treatment, negatively affecting their health outcomes. Natural phytochemicals from edible plants such as fruits and vegetables (F&V) and medicinal herbs have drawn a growing interest as potential therapeutic agents for treating diabetes and preventing the onset and progression of diabetic complications. Flavonoids, the most abundant polyphenols in the human diet, have shown antidiabetic effects in numerous in vitro and preclinical studies. The underlying mechanisms have been linked to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. Carotenoids, another major group of dietary phytochemicals, have also shown antidiabetic potential in recent in vitro and in vivo experimental models, possibly through a mechanism of action similar to that of flavonoids. However, scientific evidence on the efficacy of these phytochemicals in treating diabetes or preventing the onset and progression of its complications in clinical settings is scarce, which delays the translation of animal study evidence to human applications and also limits the knowledge on their modes of actions in diabetes management. This review is aimed to highlight the potential roles of flavonoids and carotenoids in preventing or ameliorating diabetes-related complications based on in vivo study evidence, i.e., an array of preclinical animal studies and human intervention trials. The current general consensus of the underlying mechanisms of action exerted by both groups of phytochemicals is that their anti-inflammatory action is key. However, other potential mechanisms of action are considered. In total, 50 in vivo studies were selected for a review after a comprehensive database search via PubMed and ScienceDirect from January 2002 to August 2022. The key words used for analysis are type-2 diabetes (T2DM), diabetic complications, flavonoids, carotenoids, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, mechanisms of prevention and amelioration, animal studies and human interventions.

Spatially resolved metabolomics reveals variety-specific metabolic changes in banana pulp during postharvest senescence

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Both post-ripening stages and banana varieties contribute to metabolite variation.

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AuNP-assisted LDI-MSI was firstly used in mapping functional metabolites in pulps.

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AAs and monoamines exclusively accumulated in the middle region near the seed zone.

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Monosaccharides locate in whole pulps but enrich in the intermediate microregion.

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Di/trisaccharides exhibit different accumulation patterns as monosaccharides.

Banana is one of most popular fruits globally due to health-promoting and disease-preventing effects, yet little is known about in situ metabolic changes across banana varieties. Here, we integrated gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (LDI-MSI) and metabolomics to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution and levels of metabolites within Brazil and Dongguan banana pulps during postharvest senescence. Metabolomics results indicated that both postripening stages and banana varieties contribute to metabolite levels. Benefiting from improved ionization efficiency of small-molecule metabolites and less peak interference, we visualized the spatiotemporal distribution of sugars, amino acids (AAs) and monoamines within pulps using AuNP-assisted LDI-MSI for the first time, revealing that AAs and monoamines exclusively accumulated in the middle region near the seed zone. Monosaccharides and di/trisaccharides were generally distributed across entire pulps but exhibited different accumulation patterns. These findings provide a guide for breeding new varieties and improving extraction efficiency of bioactive compounds.

Zinc in plants: Integrating homeostasis and biofortification

Zinc plays many essential roles in life. As a strong Lewis acid that lacks redox activity under environmental and cellular conditions, the Zn²⁺ cation is central in determining protein structure and catalytic function of nearly 10% of most eukaryotic proteomes. While specific functions of zinc have been elucidated at a molecular level in a number of plant proteins, wider issues abound with respect to the acquisition and distribution of zinc by plants. An important challenge is to understand how plants balance between Zn supply in soil and their own nutritional requirement for zinc, particularly where edaphic factors lead to a lack of bioavailable zinc or, conversely, an excess of zinc that bears a major risk of phytotoxicity. Plants are the ultimate source of zinc in the human diet, and human Zn deficiency accounts for over 400 000 deaths annually. Here, we review the current understanding of zinc homeostasis in plants from the molecular and physiological perspectives. We provide an overview of approaches pursued so far in Zn biofortification of crops. Finally, we outline a "push-pull" model of zinc nutrition in plants as a simplifying concept. In summary, this review discusses avenues that can potentially deliver wider benefits for both plant and human Zn nutrition.

Consumer Preferences and Socioeconomic Factors Decided on Plantain and Plantain-Based Products in the Central Region of Cameroon and Oyo State, Nigeria

Plantain is a key staple food in Central and West Africa, but there is limited understanding of its market in Africa. In addition, the cooking methods for enhancing the nutritional value, consumer preference, and willingness to pay for plantain and plantain-based products are not well understood. The knowledge gaps in the market and consumer dimension of the food chain need to be known to increase plantain utilization and guide breeding efforts. This research contributes by examining the cooking methods, consumer preference, and willingness to pay for plantain and plantain-based products in Cameroon and Nigeria. A household survey sample of 454 Cameroonian consumers in four divisions of Central Region and 418 Nigerian consumers in seven government areas of Oyo State in southwest Nigeria was the basis for the analysis. The results showed some levels of similarity and difference in the consumption and cooking of boiled, roasted, and fried plantain in both countries. The trend in consumption of all plantain-based products was constant in Cameroon but increased in Nigeria. The most important factor influencing Cameroonian consumers’ choice of plantain and its products was taste, while the nutrition trait influenced Nigerian consumers. Both Cameroonian and Nigerian consumers considered packaging, location of produce, and size and quantity as the least important factors. In addition, socioeconomic characteristics were significant determinants of consumers’ choices to consume plantain and its products. Gender significantly influenced (p < 0.05) taste, while nutrition was significantly driven (p < 0.05) by education and annual income. Household size played a significant role (p < 0.05) in consumers’ choices when the price was considered. These findings serve as a guideline to improve existing products to match the needs of consumers in each country and develop products for different consumer segments and potentially increase production.

Identification of Key Genes Controlling Carotenoid Metabolism during Apricot Fruit Development by Integrating Metabolic Phenotypes and Gene Expression Profiles

To explore the metabolic basis of carotenoid accumulation in different developmental periods of apricot fruits, targeted metabonomic and transcriptomic analyses were conducted in four developmental periods (S1-S4) in two cultivars (Prunus armeniaca cv. "Kuchebaixing" with white flesh and P. armeniaca cv. "Shushangganxing" with orange flesh) with different carotenoid contents. 14 types of carotenes and 27 types of carotene lipids were identified in apricot flesh in different developmental periods. In S3 and S4, the carotenoid contents of the two cultivars were significantly different, and β-carotene and (E/Z)-phytoene were the key metabolites that caused the difference in the total carotenoid content between the examined cultivars. Twenty-five structural genes (including genes in the methylerythritol 4-phosphate and carotenoid biosynthesis pathways) related to carotenoid biosynthesis were identified among the differentially expressed genes in different developmental periods of the two cultivars, and a carotenoid metabolic pathway map of apricot fruits was drawn according to the KEGG pathway map. The combined analysis of carotenoid metabolism data and transcriptome data showed that PSY, NCED1, and CCD4 were the key genes leading to the great differences in the total carotenoid content. The results provide a new approach to study the synthesis and accumulation of carotenoids in apricot fruits.

European Database of Carotenoid Levels in Foods. Factors Affecting Carotenoid Content

Many studies indicate that diets including carotenoid-rich foods have positive effects on human health. Some of these compounds are precursors of the essential nutrient vitamin A. The present work is aimed at implementing a database of carotenoid contents of foods available in the European market. Factors affecting carotenoid content were also discussed. Analytical data available in peer-reviewed scientific literature from 1990 to 2018 and obtained by HPLC/UHPLC were considered. The database includes foods classified according to the FoodEx2 system and will benefit compilers, nutritionists and other professionals in areas related to food and human health. The results show the importance of food characterization to ensure its intercomparability, as large variations in carotenoid levels are observed between species and among varieties/cultivars/landraces. This highlights the significance of integrating nutritional criteria into agricultural choices and of promoting biodiversity. The uncertainty quantification associated with the measurements of the carotenoid content was very rarely evaluated in the literature consulted. According to the EuroFIR data quality evaluation system for food composition tables, the total data quality index mean was 24 in 35, reflecting efforts by researchers in the analytical methods, and less resources in the sampling plan documentation.

Reassessing the Cost-Effectiveness of High-Provitamin A Bananas to Reduce Vitamin A Deficiency in Uganda

There are two high-provitamin A (pVA) banana-based interventions potentially available in Uganda—biofortified genetically modified (GM) banana and fast-tracked banana landraces from outside Uganda that are naturally high in provitamin A (nHpVA). Based on the newest country statistics and using adoption scenarios obtained through focus group discussions and expert interviews, we assess obstacles and opportunities for adoption as well as cost-effectiveness of these interventions. In two alternative scenarios for the GM banana (M9 matooke), we assume 40% and 64% adoption rates, which would result in US$29,374,151 and US$63,259,415 in income saved, respectively. As an alternative, for the symmetrical scenarios, we calculate that if the nHpVA banana (Apantu plantain, native of Ghana) were to be adopted, US$46,100,148 and US$76,364,988 in income would be saved. Taking into account the full cost of R&amp;D, we estimate that the M9 matooke could save one disability-adjusted life year (DALY) at a cost of US$67.37 at best and US$145.09 at worst. We estimate that the Apantu plantain could save one DALY at a cost of US$50.54 at best and US$83.72 at worst. Our DALY analysis estimates that all assessed HpVA banana interventions are extremely cost-effective in all scenarios, following both the World Bank's and the WHO criteria. Nevertheless, successful interventions would require extensive promotion campaigns and shifts in agricultural value chains.

Determination of water-soluble vitamins and carotenoids in Brazilian tropical fruits by High Performance Liquid Chromatography

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for normal physiological functioning and they need to be provided in adequate amounts by the diet. They are nutrients mainly associated to fruit consumption, playing an important role in the cellular function, growth and development of individuals. The present study aimed to analyze levels of vitamins B, C and carotenoids of fruits from the agrobiodiversity of Northeastern Brazil, among them cajuí (Anacardium spp), murici (Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth), pequi (Caryocar coriaceum Wittm.), jenipapo (Genipa americana L.), mangaba (Hancornia speciosa Gomes), bacuri (Platonia insignis Mart.), cajá (Spondias mombin L.), umbu-cajá (Spondias bahiensis P. Carvalho, Van den Berg & M. Machado), umbu (Spondias tuberosa Arruda), pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.), araçá (Psidium sobralianum Landrum & Proença). The vitamins were quantified using the analytical method High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Vitamin B complex levels varied from 0.003 ± 0.01 mg/100 g to 6.107 ± 0.06 mg/100 g. Vitamin C ranged from 0.36 ± 0.06 mg/100 g to 253.92 ± 9.02 mg/100 g. Carotenoid values ranged from 0.12 ± 0.02 μg/100 g to 395.63 ± 113.69 μg/100 g. Thus, the profile of water-soluble vitamins and carotenoids of the fruits analyzed was quantified. Therefore, these fruits can provide varied amounts of vitamins important to human health. However, it is interesting for the individual to consume fruits in a diversified manner, avoiding monotony and thus guaranteeing the daily intake of more nutrients.

Nutrient composition of Parkia biglobosa pulp, raw and fermented seeds: a systematic review

There is increasing evidence that nutrient differences observed among crop varieties or animal breeds belonging to the same species are sometimes greater than differences between species. Parkia biglobosa is an important tree species that provides edible products and income to rural households in West Africa. To better understand intra-species nutrient variability of P. biglobosa edible products, a review on the nutrient content of its pulp and seeds (raw and fermented) was conducted. Google scholar and the keywords "P. biglobosa" AND "nutrition" were used to screen the available literature from 1980 onwards, and the Zotero software was used to manage references. A step-wise assessment of titles, abstracts and full papers, led to a selection of 69 papers from which data were retrieved following FAO INFOODS guidelines. After data harmonization and quality checks, 42 papers were retained and used to extract data to populate a nutrient database. Despite an apparent abundance of nutrient analyses focused on P. biglobosa's edible products, the quality of data available was poor and very few authors presented additional information, such as soil characteristics, climate, maturity at harvest, etc. that could influence the nutritional content of the products. Many data gaps remain. The present study will stimulate further investigations into nutrient composition of P. biglobosa products and ultimately will contribute to selecting nutritionally "+" trees for multiplication and/or domestication of the species.

Monitoring and risk assessment of tepraloxydim in banana (Musa paradisiaca) and sweet orange (Citrus sinensis)

This study was conducted to analyze the residue levels of tepraloxydim in banana and sweet orange. Successive liquid-liquid extraction and cartridge clean-up method for tepraloxydim determination in banana and sweet orange were developed and validated by HPLC. The developed method was validated, and the recovery and LOQ of tepraloxydim were 79.3-99.5% and 0.02 mg kg-1, respectively. Among the 48 banana and 34 sweet orange samples, tepraloxydim was detected in two (0.03 mg kg-1) and four samples (0.03-0.05 mg kg-1), respectively. A risk assessment of tepraloxydim in banana and sweet orange was conducted by calculating the percent ratio of estimated daily intake (EDI) and acceptable daily intake (ADI). The ADI of tepraloxydim was 0.05 mg kg-1 day-1, and the EDIs of it from banana and sweet orange were 6.3 × 10-6 and 5.1-8.5 × 10-6, respectively. The percent of EDI to ADI of tepraloxydim was 0.013 and 0.010-0.017%, respectively. These results showed that the tepraloxydim levels in this study might not be harmful to human beings.

Analysis of carotenoid content and diversity in apricots (Prunus armeniaca L.) grown in China

The carotenoids in the peel and flesh of 41 apricot cultivars were qualitatively and quantitatively analysed by UHPLC-APCI-MS/MS, and the L*, a*, b* and quality indexes of the fruits were determined. The results showed that the L*, a*, b* and quality indexes of the fruits were quite different, and 13 carotenoids were detected in the peel and flesh of apricots, among which ε-carotene, α-cryptoxanthin and apocarotenal were newly detected carotenoids in apricots. The total carotenoid content of the 41 apricot cultivars varied from 20.983 to 320.278 μg/g FW, and the total carotenoid content varied from 17.353 to 222.098 μg/g FW in the peel and from 2.536 to 98.179 μg/g FW in the flesh. The main components of apricot fruits were β-carotene and (E/Z)-phytoene, followed by β-cryptoxanthin and lutein. This study shows that carotenoids in apricot fruits have rich metabolic diversity.

Carbohydrate and bioactive compounds composition of starchy tropical fruits and tubers, in relation to pre and postharvest conditions: A review

In some tropical countries, people are suffering from both undernourishment and noncommunicable disorders, such as overweight/obesity. Starchy tropical fruits and tubers are of particular interest for their carbohydrate content and for the micronutrients they provide. The present study summarizes the content in carbohydrate, phenolics, carotenoids, and vitamin C, as well as the antioxidant activity of a wide range of tropical fruits and tubers. The energy content of fruits and tubers studied is in the range of 1,200 to 1,800 kJ/100 g of dry weight. They are thus important staple foods and, due to their diversity and seasonality, they can provide energy all year long by alternating the resources in the human diet. Starchy fruit and tuber crops have antiobesity properties as they are bulky, rich in moisture, and contain less than 2% of fat. Noncolored fruit and tubers provide total phenolics at about 20 to 140 mEq/100 g fresh weight. They thus have a high antioxidant capacity, as related to their total phenolic content but also to the presence of carotenoids, such as lutein, mostly in Dioscorea bulbifera and cocoyam. Yellow and orange-fleshed varieties contain more total phenolics and also more provitamin A carotenoids than noncolored fleshed ones. The contents in total phenolic and carotenoid greatly vary with the species and variety. The influence of pre and postharvest conditions on micronutrient content is discussed. Further studies on new processing methods are needed to maximize polyphenols and carotenoids retention in the foods and increase the bioaccessibility of these compounds. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This paper provides information on the nutritional quality of starchy tropical fruits and tubers. Nutritional quality is studied from the point of view of providing energy and bioactive compounds. The paper aims to promote the use of local resources in tropical areas, which could ultimately limit the adverse effects of food globalization on noncommunicable disorders. It could also lead to tropical countries being less dependent on food imports.

Evaluating Provitamin A Carotenoids and Polar Metabolite Compositions during the Ripening Stages of the Agung Semeru Banana (Musa paradisiaca L. AAB)

Banana cultivars that are rich in provitamin A carotenoids and other nutrients may offer a potential food source to help alleviate vitamin A deficiencies, particularly in developing countries. The local plantain type banana, Agung Semeru (Musa paradisiaca L.), was investigated, in order to analyse the changes in the compositions of the provitamin A carotenoids and metabolite compounds, including the amino acids, organic acids, and sugars, during the ripening stage as this banana is widely processed for food products in either the unripe, ripe, or overripe stages. The bananas that had reached the desired ripening stages were subjected to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis, and the results indicated that the total provitamin A carotenoid concentrations ranged between 4748.83 μg/100 g dry weight (dw) and 7330.40 μg/100 g dw, with the highest level of vitamin A activity at 457.33 ± 5.18 μg retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/100 g dw. Compared to the Cavendish variety, which is consumed worldwide, the Agung Semeru banana had vitamin A activity that was 40 to 90 times higher, dependent on the stage of ripening. The breakdown of the starch during the ripening stages resulted in an increase of its sugar compounds, such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose, as well as its dominant organic acids, such as malic acid, oxalic acid, and citric acid, which were observed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) during the ripening stages. The findings of this study show that the Agung Semeru banana is a promising fruit that could be widely produced as a nutritional and energy food resource, due to its high levels of vitamin A activity and sugars.

Pro-vitamin A carotenoid content of 48 plantain (Musa AAB genome) cultivars sourced from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

BACKGROUND

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Unlike in developed countries, where the main source of vitamin A comes from meat, the diet of poor populations in SSA is largely plant based. It is thus important to identify local / popular plants with higher vitamin A content for combating VAD. Banana (including plantains) is an important staple food crop in this region. The identification and promotion of vitamin A-rich banana cultivars could contribute significantly to the alleviation of VAD in areas heavily dependent on the crop. We assessed pro-vitamin A carotenoid (pVACs) content in the fruit pulp of 48 local plantains from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, to identify cultivars that could help reduce VAD, especially among young children and women of reproductive age.

RESULTS

Mean pVACs content varied from 175-1756 μg/100 gfw in ripe fruits. Significant increases (P < 0.001) in total pVACs content occurred after ripening in all cultivars except 'UCG II'. Retinol activity equivalents (RAE) in ripe fruits ranged from 12-113 μg/100 gfw. Fifteen plantain cultivars, including 'Adili II', 'Nzirabahima', 'Mayayi', 'Buembe', and 'Sanza Tatu' (associated with RAE values of 44 μg/100 gfw and above) can be considered as good sources of pVACs. Modest consumption (250 or 500 gfw) of the fruit pulp of the five best plantain cultivars at ripening stage 5 meets between 39-71% and 44-81% of vitamin A dietary reference intake (DRI) respectively, for children below 5 years old and women of reproductive age.

CONCLUSION

The 15 best plantain cultivars (especially the top 5) could potentially be introduced / promoted as alternative sources of pro-vitamin A in banana-dependent communities, and help to reduce cases of VAD substantially. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Variability of carotenoids in a Musa germplasm collection and implications for provitamin A biofortification

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Banana genotypes, a good source of provitamin A was screened for carotenoid content.

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Carotenoid in fruit pulp were quantified using high performance liquid chromatography.

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Total carotenoid content in the fruit varied from 1.45 to 36.21 µg/g fresh weight.

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78% of carotenoids isolated were provitamin A carotenoids β-carotene and α-carotene.

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Data generated are useful for provitamin A biofortification strategies.

Bananas are important staples in tropical and sub-tropical regions and their potential as a source of provitamin A has recently attracted attention for biofortification. A collection of 189 banana genotypes (AAB-plantains, M. acuminata cultivars and bred hybrids) was screened to determine variability in fruit pulp provitamin A carotenoid (pVAC) content using high performance liquid chromatography. Total carotenoid content in tested genotypes varied from 1.45 µg/g for hybrid 25447-S7 R2P8 to 36.21 µg/g for M. acuminata cultivar ITC.0601 Hung Tu with a mean of 8.00 µg/g fresh weight. Predominant carotenoids identified were α-carotene (38.67%), trans-β-carotene (22.08%), lutein (22.08%), 13-cis-β-carotene (14.45%) and 9-cis-β-carotene (2.92%), indicating that about 78% of the carotenoids in bananas are pVAC. High pVAC genotypes were identified for integration into biofortification strategies to combat vitamin A deficiency in developing countries.

Banana21: From Gene Discovery to Deregulated Golden Bananas

Uganda is a tropical country with a population in excess of 30 million, >80% of whom live in rural areas. Bananas (Musa spp.) are the staple food of Uganda with the East African Highland banana, a cooking banana, the primary starch source. Unfortunately, these bananas are low in pro-vitamin A (PVA) and iron and, as a result, banana-based diets are low in these micronutrients which results in very high levels of inadequate nutrition. This inadequate nutrition manifests as high levels of vitamin A deficiency, iron deficiency anemia, and stunting in children. A project known as Banana21 commenced in 2005 to alleviate micronutrient deficiencies in Uganda and surrounding countries through the generation of farmer- and consumer-acceptable edible bananas with significantly increased fruit levels of PVA and iron. A genetic modification approach was adopted since bananas are recalcitrant to conventional breeding. In this review, we focus on the PVA-biofortification component of the Banana21 project and describe the proof-of-concept studies conducted in Australia, the transfer of the technology to our Ugandan collaborators, and the successful implementation of the strategy into the field in Uganda. The many challenges encountered and the potential future obstacles to the practical exploitation of PVA-enhanced bananas in Uganda are discussed.

Metabolomic analyses of banana during postharvest senescence by 1H-high resolution-NMR

Banana is a tropical fruit widely accepted by people over the world. Its chemical composition is critical for its organoleptic properties and nutritional value. In this work, the metabolite changes during postharvest senescence were investigated using NMR spectroscopy. The 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic information revealed the primary and secondary metabolites in banana fruit, including organic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates and phenolics. Bananas at five senescence stages showed similar chemical profiles, but the levels of the individual compounds varied to a large extent. The principal metabolites responsible for postharvest senescence of banana were valine, alanine, aspartic acid, choline, acetate, glucose, malic acid, gallic acid and dopamine. At stage V, ethanol was present due to the conversion of glucose. Salsolinol was generated due to the conversion of dopamine. This was a characteristic marker for the postharvest senescence of banana fruit.