Disseminated Mycobacterium avium infection in young cats: overrepresentation of Abyssinian cats

Isolation of Multidrug-Resistant Mycobacterium Avium Subsp. Avium from a Wild Eurasian Otter (Lutra Lutra)

Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium is pathogenic mainly to birds, although cases of mycobacteriosis caused by these bacteria have also been reported in other animals and humans. Not much is known about the effects of this pathogen on otters. The aim of this study was to report for the first time the isolation of M. avium subsp. avium in wild otter and to describe its multidrug resistance profile. A female otter injured in a car accident was found dead and subjected to postmortem examination. Apart from the trauma changes, no other macroscopic pathological changes were detected. Bacteriologic examination revealed the presence of acid-fast bacilli in the lymph nodes, which were confirmed by molecular methods as M. avium subsp. avium. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed susceptibility to clarithromycin and amikacin, but resistance to linezolid, moxifloxacin, streptomycin, isoniazid, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and ethionamide. This is unusual for wild species, which generally should not come into contact with antimicrobials, and may suggest that multidrug-resistant MAC strains are circulating between wild and domestic animals. These results emphasise the need for additional epidemiological studies on non-tuberculous mycobacteria in wildlife and their implications for one health.

Retrospective study of 540 cats with respiratory diseases in Japan (2003-2020)

BACKGROUND

Few epidemiological studies on respiratory medicine and the relationship between clinical signs and various respiratory diseases in cats have been reported.

OBJECTIVES

This retrospective study aimed to investigate the prevalence and breed predisposition to feline respiratory diseases in Japan and determine the association between clinical signs, duration and type of respiratory diseases.

METHODS

The medical records of cats with feline respiratory diseases were examined to obtain information on age, sex, breed, final diagnosis, clinical signs and duration. The odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated to evaluate breed predispositions. Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis and Dunn's tests were used to assess the duration of clinical signs.

RESULTS

This study included 540 cats with 615 respiratory diagnoses. The American Shorthair breed was predisposed to bronchopneumonia (BP; OR: 5.0) and pulmonary tumour (PT; OR: 3.6), while the Russian Blue breed exhibited a predisposition to inflammatory lower airway diseases (OR: 3.4), BP (OR: 6.1) and interstitial lung diseases (OR: 11.1). Similarly, the Scottish Fold breed displayed predisposition to PTs (OR: 5.8). The duration of clinical signs among nasal diseases, nasopharyngeal diseases and lower tracheal/bronchial and pulmonary diseases differed significantly (p = 0.001, p = 0.012, p < 0.0001, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that some popular breeds in Japan are predisposed to feline respiratory diseases, especially the American Shorthair, Russian Blue and Scottish Fold breeds. The characteristics of occurrence, clinical signs and duration of each disease will aid in diagnosing, treating, preventing and elucidating the pathophysiology of feline respiratory disease.

First report of Mycobacteria avium complex (Mycobacteria intracellulare) in a cat from Southeast Asia

Case summary

A 3-year-old castrated male domestic shorthaired cat, with indoor-outdoor access, was presented for chronic, progressive multinodular to generalised subcutaneous nodules covering much of its body. Previous medical treatment with doxycycline had been unhelpful. Fine-needle aspiration of the nodules revealed intra- and extracellular multibacillary negative staining rods in pyogranulomatous inflammation. Bacterial culture and susceptibility studies isolated Mycobacterium intracellulare, with zimine as the drug of choice for treatment. Initial triple therapy with rifampicin, azithromycin and pradofloxacin was ineffective, and was changed to triple therapy with clofazimine, clarithromycin and doxycycline once drug susceptibility was known, which was given for 3 months, after which long-term therapy with clofazimine and clarithromycin was continued.

Relevance and novel information

Slow growing M intracellulare, a member of the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), has never been reported to cause disease in cats from Singapore and, by extension, Southeast Asia. The infection in this patient resulted in subcutaneous nodules, which started on the face, then spread to the feet and much of the rest of its body. This is in contrast to that commonly reported for infection with M avium, which is also a member of MAC, and may not only present with similar signs in cats, but also progress to systemic spread. Susceptibility studies suggest clofazimine as the drug of choice when treating this infection, and this case supports its use as empirical therapy for veterinarians treating this disease in this region while awaiting culture and sensitivity results.

Challenging diagnosis and successful treatment of localised Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis glossitis in a dog on long-term immunomodulatory therapy

CASE HISTORY

A 3-year-old, intact female mixed-breed dog, weighing 7 kg, was presented with generalised swelling of the tongue, leading to impaired deglutition and episodes of dyspnoea. From the age of 2 years the dog had been under immunosuppressive therapy due to atopic dermatitis.

CLINICAL FINDINGS AND TREATMENT

Multiple nodular lesions at the apex of the tongue were noted as well as mandibular and retropharyngeal lymph node enlargement. Serum biochemistry results showed inflammatory changes. The results of several biopsies taken over 7 months indicated persistent pyogranulomatous and necrotising glossitis despite ongoing antimicrobial treatment with first amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and then pradofloxacin. No foreign material, acid-fast bacteria or fungal hyphae were detected throughout. The final diagnosis of Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis (Mah) was reached after PCR and bacterial culture were carried out on the third biopsy sample. Therapy was initiated with rifampicin, clarithromycin and doxycycline, leading to complete remission of the lesions.

DIAGNOSIS

Severe chronic pyogranulomatous and necrotising glossitis associated with infection by Mah.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This report describes challenges in the diagnosis and therapy of a localised Mah infection in an iatrogenically immunocompromised dog. Successful treatment was only achieved with a specific combination of antibiotics administered long-term.

Disseminated Mycobacterium avium infection in a cat on long-term ciclosporin therapy and potential latent infection of an in-contact cat

Case summary

An 8-year-old domestic shorthair cat receiving long-term ciclosporin treatment was evaluated for a history of weight loss and hyporexia. The main clinical finding was a cluster of enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes. Cytological examination of fine-needle aspirates showed granulomatous inflammation with abundant acid-fast bacilli. A diagnosis of Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection was confirmed by PCR. The cat’s clinical condition deteriorated rapidly despite appropriate antibiotic treatment and it was euthanased 2 weeks after initial presentation due to development of severe paraparesis and ataxia. Post-mortem examination revealed granulomatous inflammation affecting multiple lymph nodes and other organs with intrahistiocytic acid-fast bacilli consistent with mycobacteria when stained using Ziehl–Neelsen stain. Another cat in the same household was screened for infection using the interferon gamma release assay (IGRA), with the result being consistent with infection by non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), which includes MAC; however, it had no grossly detectable disease.

Relevance and novel information

This case report is an unusual presentation of disseminated MAC infection in a cat, which remains a rare diagnosis. Clinicians should be aware of unusual and rare presentations of this infection. The clinical findings, progression of disease and histopathology results add to the current clinical database for feline disseminated MAC infections. Another cat in the same household tested positive for NTM by IGRA without any gross disease. This was suggestive of latent MAC infection which, to our knowledge, has not been previously reported in an in-contact cat.

Diagnostic accuracy of the interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) for cases of feline mycobacteriosis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) for diagnosing infections with members of the Mycobacterium (M.) tuberculosis-complex (MTBC) and non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) in domestic cats, and to generate defined feline-specific cut-off values using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis to improve test performance. Records of 594 cats that had been tested by IGRA were explored to identify individuals that had a culture and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-confirmed case of mycobacterial disease, and those that had a final diagnosis of non-mycobacterial disease. A total of 117 cats - 80 with mycobacterial disease and 37 diagnosed with a condition other than mycobacteriosis - were identified for further detailed analysis. This population was used to estimate test sensitivity and specificity, as well as likelihood ratios for the IGRA to correctly identify a cat with or without mycobacterial disease. Agreement between IGRA results and culture/PCR using current and proposed new cut-off values was also determined. ROC analysis of defined confirmed infected and non-mycobacterial disease control cats allowed an adjustment of current test cut-offs that increased the overall test sensitivity for MTBC infections from 83.1 % (95 % confidence interval [CI]: 71.5-90.5 %) to 90.2 % (95 % CI: 80.2-95.4%), and M. bovis infection from 43 % (95 % CI: 28.2-60.7%) to 68 % (95 % CI: 51.4-82.1%) while maintaining high test specificity (100 % in both cases). Overall agreement between IGRA results and culture/PCR, while recognising that neither culture nor PCR tests have perfect sensitivity, improved from weak (κ = 0.57) to moderate (κ = 0.71) using new proposed IGRA test cut-off values. Application of these results, based upon the statistical analysis of accumulated test data, can improve the diagnostic performance of the feline IGRA, particularly for identifying infections with M. bovis, without compromising specificity.

Vitamin D metabolism and disorders in dogs and cats

Vitamin D plays an important role in regulating calcium metabolism and in the development and maintenance of skeletal health of companion animals. There is also a growing interest in understanding the role vitamin D plays in non-skeletal health in both human and veterinary patients. This review provides an update of our current understanding of vitamin D biology in dogs and cats and gives an overview of how vitamin D metabolism can be assessed in companion animals. Congenital and acquired vitamin D disorders are then summarised before the review concludes with a summary of recent studies which have explored the role of vitamin D in the development and outcomes of non-skeletal diseases of dogs and cats.

Unusual Presentation of Feline Leprosy Caused by Mycobacterium lepraemurium in the Alpine Region

A 9-year-old cat was referred with multiple, raised, ulcerative and non-ulcerative nodules in the periocular area, sclera and ear-base region, and on the ventral aspect of the tongue. In addition, a progressive ulcerative skin nodule on the tail was observed. Fine-needle aspirations of multiple nodules from the eyelid and sclera revealed the presence of histiocytes with numerous acid-fast intracellular bacilli. The replication of slowly growing mycobacteria in liquid media was detected from biopsied nodules after three months of incubation. The molecular characterization of the isolate identified Mycobacterium (M.) lepraemurium as the cause of the infection. The cat was treated with a combination of surgical excision and a four-week course of antimicrobial therapy including rifampicin combined with clarithromycin. This is an unusual manifestation of feline leprosy and the first molecularly confirmed M. lepraemurium infection in a cat with ocular involvement in Europe. The successful combination of a surgical and antimycobacterial treatment regimen is reported.

Repeated bouts of pulmonary tuberculosis in a hunting cat: reinfection or recrudescence?

CASE SUMMARY

A 7-year-old neutered male Siamese cat was referred for investigation of weight loss and hypercalcaemia (3.3 mmol/l; reference interval 2-3 mmol/l). Haematology, serum biochemistry, thoracic imaging, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), Ziehl-Neelsen staining of the BAL fluid and interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) were compatible with pneumonia caused by the less pathogenic member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, that is, M microti (the 'vole bacillus'), which is common in cats in the UK. Treatment with azithromycin, rifampicin and marbofloxacin was given for 2 months, followed by 4 months of azithromycin and marbofloxacin. Treatment recommendations for tuberculous pneumonia have since changed. The cat remained asymptomatic for 1 year but went on to develop M microti pneumonia on five other occasions, and was treated for 6-12 months on each occasion. The patient's clinical signs, hypercalcaemia and radiographic/CT pulmonary pathology always resolved completely, and the IGRA became negative, before antimycobacterial treatment was stopped. This suggests cure followed by reinfection owing to avid hunting behaviour. Alternatively, this could represent recrudescence of dormant disease. This case has previously been included in a study that described a series of cases of feline tuberculosis.

RELEVANCE AND NOVEL INFORMATION

This case shows that M microti infection in cats can present as recurrent episodes of pneumonia, even after prolonged treatment courses.

Feline mycobacterial disease in northern California: Epidemiology, clinical features, and antimicrobial susceptibility

BACKGROUND

Mycobacterial infections in cats are challenging to treat and incompletely described.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To describe the features of mycobacterial infections in cats from northern California.

ANIMALS

Nineteen cats, all with nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infections; 4 with Mycobacterium avium infection, 15 with rapid-growing mycobacterial (RGM) infection.

METHODS

Retrospective study. Cases with positive mycobacterial culture, species identification, and susceptibility testing were included. Descriptive statistics were used. Fisher's exact test and Mann-Whitney U test were used for comparisons between M avium and RGM infections (P ≤ .05).

RESULTS

Rapid-growing mycobacterial cases included Mycobacterium smegmatis (9), Mycobacterium fortuitum (4), Mycobacterium abscessus (1), and Mycobacterium thermoresistibile (1). Mycobacterium avium infections were more likely than RGM infections to be disseminated (3/4 vs 0/15; P = .004). Disease of the skin/subcutis (15/15 vs 0/4; P < .001) and outdoor access (14/15 vs 0/4; P = .001) were primary features of RGM infections. Resistance to fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides was common among M avium isolates. A high prevalence of resistance to third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins was noted in RGM species. Death/euthanasia was noted only in M avium cases (3/4). Twelve of 15 cats with RGM infection had available follow-up; 4 of these cats achieved remission.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

The most prevalent RGM species isolated from cats from northern California are M smegmatis and M fortuitum. Susceptibility to prescribed antimicrobials does not appear to guarantee treatment success. Combination drug treatment is recommended. Repeat culture and susceptibility testing should be performed when disease is persistent/relapsing.

Mitchell J, Lodzinska J, Cazzini P, Varjonen K, Gunn-Moore DA. Systemic Mycobacterium kansasii Infection in Two Related Cats

Mycobacterial infections are a major concern in veterinary medicine because of the difficulty achieving an etiological diagnosis, the challenges and concerns of treatment, and the potential zoonotic risk. Mycobacterium kansasii, a slow-growing non-tuberculous mycobacteria, causes disease in both humans and animals. While infections have been well described in humans, where it may be misdiagnosed as tuberculosis, there are fewer reports in animals. Only four cases have been reported in the domestic cat. This case report describes systemic M. kansasii infection in two sibling indoor-only cats that presented two and half years apart with cutaneous disease that was found to be associated with osteolytic and pulmonary pathology. Infection with M. kansasii was confirmed in both cats by polymerase chain reaction on fine-needle aspirate of a lumbosacral soft tissue mass in one cat and on a tissue punch biopsy of a skin lesion in the other; interferon-gamma release assay inferred M. avium-complex and M. tuberculosis-complex infection in the two cats, respectively. Both patients made a full recovery following antimicrobial therapy with rifampicin, azithromycin, and pradofloxacin (plus N-acetyl cysteine in cat 2). This report highlights successful treatment of systemic M. kansasii mycobacteriosis in the cat and the challenge of accurately diagnosing this infection.

Feline tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis infection of domestic UK cats associated with feeding a commercial raw food diet

Mycobacterium (M.) bovis can infect cats and is a demonstrated zoonosis. We describe an outbreak of M. bovis in pet cats across England and Scotland associated with feeding a commercial raw food diet. Forty-seven cats presented with (pyo)granulomatous lesions, lymphadenopathy, pulmonary and/or alimentary disease over a one-year period where M. bovis infection was suspected or definitively diagnosed, and the cats all consumed the same specific brand of commercial raw venison pet food. Infection with M. bovis genotype 10:a was confirmed by culture and DNA typing of isolates in a small number of cases (n = 5); PCR was used in combination with or as an alternative to culture (n = 12) and/or infection with a Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex group organism was strongly suggested by positive responses to an interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA; n = 34). Asymptomatic at-risk cats were screened by IGRA, identifying a further 83 infected cats. The five culture-positive cases were distributed across areas of England and Scotland at low risk of endemic bovine tuberculosis. Investigations revealed affected cats were mainly indoor-only, and had been fed the same commercial raw food as at least part of their diet. This diet was recalled by the manufacturer due to failure of statutory meat inspection of the component venison. As far as possible, other sources of infection were explored and excluded, including wildlife contact, access to raw milk and living with people with active M. bovis infection. Four owners and one veterinary surgeon were found to have high likelihood of latent tuberculosis infection. One owner required treatment. Although it was not possible to conclusively demonstrate a zoonotic origin for these infections, neither was it possible to eliminate the possibility. Our results provide compelling evidence that the commercial raw diet of these cats was the likely route of M. bovis infection in this outbreak of cases.

Idiopathic sterile pyogranuloma in three domestic cats

Pyogranulomatous inflammation has been extensively described in cats, in particular in cases of feline infectious peritonitis and also associated with Mycobacteria, Actinomyces, Nocardia, Rhodococcus and fungal infections. Idiopathic sterile pyogranulomatous dermatitis has also been described. In this case series we describe the clinical presentation, histopathology and outcome of three cases of feline idiopathic sterile steroid-responsive pyogranuloma with different presentation and different locations of the lesion, but with the common feature of having a mass with no superficial skin involvement.

Clinical findings and treatment of disseminated 'Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis' infection in a domestic cat

A cat was referred because of diffuse parenchymal lung disease. Close examinations revealed a swollen abdominal lymph node and multiple nodules of the liver. Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis infection was confirmed by culture and single nucleotide polymorphism analysis of samples recovered from the liver and bronchoalveolar lavage. After administration of combination antibiotics for 6 months, culture results were negative. Though atonic seizures were observed during the treatment, it disappeared after isoniazid discontinuation and pyridoxal phosphate administration. On day 771 of illness, no clinical signs, lung diseases, or obvious swelling of lymph nodes was observed. This is the first report to confirm Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis infection in cats through gene analysis and to completely cure it with combination antibiotics.

Unusual presentation of canine Mycobacterium avium infection

This short communication describes the clinical and morphological findings, diagnosis and treatment of a case of Mycobacterium avium infection in a golden retriever that presented with a progressive nasal swelling and lymphadenopathy. Although well documented in cats, where cutaneous lesions are frequently recognised, canine M avium infection is less commonly reported, and cutaneous lesions are rare. To the authors' knowledge this is the first documented case of canine M avium infection that presented with a cutaneous lesion but no systemic clinical signs. It occurred in a dog with no previously reported breed predisposition and highlights that in cases of cutaneous histiocytic infiltrate in dogs mycobacterial infection should remain a differential diagnosis, even in the absence of suggestive organisms on histopathological examination.

Outbreak of tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis in a cattery of Abyssinian cats in Italy

Mycobacterium bovis is a re-emerging zoonosis; it was diagnosed in five Abyssinian cats in a breeding cattery in Italy. The infection entered the cattery with an imported kitten (cat A); it had a suspected bite wound on its leg that had been treated at a veterinary clinic in Kiev, Ukraine, which is probably where it became infected with M. bovis. When the kitten arrived in Italy, there were four cats in the cattery; an adult female, her two kittens and a kitten imported from Russia. These were all healthy, and had no outdoor access. All five cats developed tuberculous interstitial pneumonia; in cat A this occurred 6 weeks after importation, the others were diagnosed 4-6 weeks later. Three cats were euthanised with deteriorating pneumonia while two cats remained clinically well on antibiotic therapy (marbofloxacin, doxycycline and azithromycin). The latter cases were euthanised after 5 weeks, as required by Italian law once M. bovis infection was suspected. Changes consistent with tuberculosis on gross post-mortem examination included mesenteric and mediastinal lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly and hepatomegaly, and the presence of disseminated focal white lesions on the cut surface of the spleen, liver and lungs. Visible acid-fast bacteria (cats A, B and C) were confirmed as Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex by PCR (cats A, B, C, D and E), refined to M. bovis (cats A, B and D), spoligotype SB0950 (cats A and D).

Disseminated nontuberculous mycobacterial disease in a cat caused by Mycobacterium sp. strain MFM001

Mycobacterium sp. strain MFM001 (MFM001), a new strain of slow-growing nontuberculous mycobacteria not associated with the Mycobacterium avium complex, led to disseminated mycobacterial disease characterized by transmural granulomatous gastroenterocolitis of lepromatous type in a cat treated with immunosuppressive medication. MFM001 was found to be closely related to M. kyorinense or M. celatum by partial sequence of 16S rDNA, and identical with an unspecified M. sp. strain B10-07.09.0206 isolated from a human pulmonary infection in Germany. MFM001 should be considered as a pathogenic organism in cats, especially in immunocompromised animals.

Non-tuberculous Mycobacteria can Cause Disseminated Mycobacteriosis in Cats

Mycobacteriosis caused by non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) is a rising concern in human medicine both in immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. In cats, mycobacteriosis caused by NTM is considered mostly to be a focal or dermal infection, with disseminated disease mostly caused by Mycobacterium avium. We describe three cases of disseminated mycobacteriosis in cats, caused by Mycobacterium malmoense, Mycobacterium branderi/shimoidei and M. avium, with no identified underlying immunosuppression. In all cases, extracellular mycobacteria were seen in the pulmonary epithelium, intestinal lumen and glomerular tufts, which could affect the shedding of the organism. The present study highlights the importance of mycobacteriosis as a differential even in immunocompetent animals. Considering the close relationship of owners and pets and the potential presence of free mycobacteria in secretions, cats should be considered as a possible environmental reservoir for mycobacteria.

Skin as a marker of general feline health: Cutaneous manifestations of infectious disease

Practical relevance: Infectious disease in feline patients often presents a diagnostic challenge. This article reviews the most relevant viral, bacterial and protozoal diseases and their cutaneous manifestations. Many of the diseases discussed have overlapping presentations or may mimic more common noninfectious disease processes. The purpose of the article is to reinforce knowledge of common and uncommon infectious diseases, help practitioners identify possible infectious dermatoses, create a comprehensive and prioritized differential list, and provide guidance for the diagnosis of these diseases. A working knowledge of these clinical syndromes is important if what is thought to be a case of a common disease does not respond to conventional management.

AUDIENCE

This review is aimed at veterinarians who treat cats and especially those with an interest in feline dermatology. Tables are included to allow the reader to formulate a concise list of differential diagnoses for clinically similar presentations. The diagnostic approach to a case of ulcerative facial dermatitis is reviewed in a Case Notes quiz. Evidence base: This article includes up-to-date information regarding dermatologic manifestations of less commonly encountered feline cutaneous infectious diseases. Information has been drawn from the published, peer-reviewed literature and the most recent textbook chapters with a particular aim of describing and differentiating clinical lesions and the diagnostic approach to cutaneous disease, especially in unusual cases.

Systemic Mycobacterium kansasii Infection in a Domestic Shorthair Cat

A 1-year-old, female domestic shorthair cat was presented with anorexia, depression and weight loss, accompanied by multifocal nodules affecting the face, pinnae and periarticular tissue. Routine medical treatments were ineffective. The animal's physical condition continued to deteriorate and it finally died. Post-mortem examination revealed multifocal to coalescing firm nodules with occasional ulceration affecting the ears, peri-ocular areas, nasal planum, oral cavity and laryngopharyngeal region. Tan-coloured, firm, nodular lesions were also observed in the periarticular tissue, lungs and tracheobronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes. Impression smears of several of these lesions revealed a myriad of slender rod-shaped organisms, mainly in the cytoplasm of macrophages. Histopathological examination showed severe pyogranulomatous inflammation with or without necrosis in the nodules. Acid-fast staining revealed large numbers of acid-fast bacilli. Mycobacterium kansasii was detected in the tissues using multiplex polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing. No protozoal or fungal organisms were detected using special stains. On the basis of these results, the cat was diagnosed with systemic M. kansasii infection. To our knowledge, there have been few reports of M. kansasii infection, especially with systemic spread, in cats.

Feline leprosy due to Candidatus 'Mycobacterium lepraefelis': Further clinical and molecular characterisation of eight previously reported cases and an additional 30 cases

OBJECTIVES

This paper, the last in a series of three on 'feline leprosy', provides a detailed description of disease referable to the previously unnamed species, Candidatus 'Mycobacterium lepraefelis', a close relative of the human pathogens Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis.

METHODS

Cases were sourced retrospectively and prospectively for this observational study, describing clinical, geographical and molecular microbiological data for cats definitively diagnosed with Candidatus 'M lepraefelis' infection.

RESULTS

A total of 145 cases of feline leprosy were scrutinised; 114 'new' cases were sourced from the Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory (VIDRL) records, veterinary pathology laboratories or veterinarians, and 31 cases were derived from six published studies. Thirty-eight cats were definitively diagnosed with Candidatus 'M lepraefelis' infection. Typically, cats tended to be middle-aged or older when first infected, with a male predilection. Affected cats typically had widespread cutaneous lesions, in some cases after initially localised disease. Advanced cases were often systemically unwell. All cats had outdoor access. The histological picture was lepromatous in the majority of patients, although two cases had tuberculoid disease. In one case that underwent necropsy, lesions were evident in the liver, spleen and lungs. Treatment was varied, although most cats received a combination of oral clarithromycin and rifampicin. Prognosis for recovery was variable, but typically poor.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Candidatus 'M lepraefelis' typically causes high bacterial index (lepromatous) feline leprosy that in some cases progresses to systemic mycobacteriosis. The disease has a variable clinical course and prognosis. Many cases either died or were euthanased due to the infection. Multilocus sequence analysis reveals a heterogeneous picture and further analysis of draft genome sequencing may give clues to the taxonomy and epidemiology of this organism. Prospective treatment trials and/or additional drug susceptibility testing in specialised systems would further inform treatment recommendations. Comparative aspects: This paper finishes with a discussion of comparative aspects of infection caused by the three feline leproid disease agents that have been the subject of this series: Candidatus 'Mycobacterium tarwinense', Mycobacterium lepraemurium and Candidatus 'M lepraefelis'.

Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis menigoencephalitis in a cat

A 33-month old, neutered female Abyssinian cat died. The cat had sudden onset of widespread neurologic signs about half a year after birth. Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis (MAH) group was isolated and identified from the brain of a cat affected with pyogranulomatous meningoencephalitis. The central nervous system (CNS) was involved in the disseminated MAH infection. MAH infection should be considered in cats with neurologic signs in regard to zoonotic aspects. Comparatively, this is a first case of MAH infection observed in the brain in either humans or animals.

Computed tomographic findings in cats with mycobacterial infection

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to describe the CT imaging findings associated with confirmed mycobacterial infection in cats.

METHODS

CT images from 20 cats with confirmed mycobacterial disease were retrospectively reviewed. Five cats underwent conscious full-body CT in a VetMouseTrap device. All other cats had thoracic CT performed under general anaesthesia, with the addition of CT investigation of the head/neck, abdomen and limbs in some cases.

RESULTS

Mycobacterial infection was seen most frequently in adult (mean age 7.4 years; range 0.6-14 years) neutered male cats (11/20). The most common infections were Mycobacterium microti (6/20) and Mycobacterium bovis (6/20). CT abnormalities were most commonly seen in the thorax, consisting of bronchial (9/20), alveolar (8/20), ground glass (6/20) or structured interstitial (15/20) lung patterns, which were often mixed. Tracheobronchial, sternal and cranial mediastinal lymphadenomegaly were common (16/20). Other abnormalities included abdominal (8/13) or peripheral (10/18) lymphadenomegaly, hepatosplenomegaly (7/13), mixed osteolytic/osteoproliferative skeletal lesions (7/20) and cutaneous or subcutaneous soft tissue masses/nodules (4/20).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

CT of feline mycobacteriosis shows a wide range of abnormalities, often involving multiple organ systems and mimicking many other feline diseases. Mycobacteriosis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of thoracic, abdominal and skeletal disorders in cats.

Mycobacterioses in cats: ABCD guidelines on prevention and management

OVERVIEW

Mycobacterial infections are important in humans and animals. Cats can be infected by several Mycobacterium species, which may cause different syndromes, mainly tuberculosis, atypical or non-tuberculous mycobacteriosis and leprosy. In recent years, awareness has increased about how to recognise and confirm these infections. More cases are diagnosed today, which probably means that the disease has escaped detection in the past.

INFECTION

Most cases in cats are cutaneous, presenting as nodules in the skin and draining tracts, ulceration and local lymphadenopathy; however, systemic dissemination may also occur.

DIAGNOSIS

Definitive diagnosis is difficult when the bacterium cannot be detected by histology or culture. However, species confirmation is essential for treatment and prognosis, so material for culture and polymerase chain reaction should be submitted in every suspected case.

TREATMENT

Treatment is challenging. A combination of two or three antibiotics is needed, and treatment must be continued for some months, which makes owner compliance especially difficult in cats. ZOONOTIC RISK: There is a zoonotic risk associated with some mycobacterial species. Concerns should be communicated in every case of an immunocompromised owner in contact with an infected cat.

High incidence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis infection in a zoo population of bongo antelopes (Tragelaphus eurycerus)

Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis (Mah) infection was diagnosed in 5 captive bongo antelopes (Tragelaphus eurycerus) originating from a collection in a zoological garden. The animals suffered from emaciation. Postmortem examination revealed nodular lesions in the lungs of all 5 examined animals. Acid-fast bacilli were observed in the lungs of 4 animals. Culture and polymerase chain reaction identification based on IS901 negativity and IS1245 positivity confirmed Mah infection in the lungs of all 5 antelopes. In 3 animals, Mah was also isolated from other organs (liver, spleen, and kidney). Molecular analysis of these isolates using IS1245 restriction fragment length polymorphism and/or mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units-variable number tandem repeat revealed that the studied antelopes were infected by 1 identical genotype. Furthermore, in 2 antelopes, other genotypes were also detected. This shows the possibility of either genetic modifications occurring during infection or polyclonal infection. Culture examination of environmental samples from the enclosures holding the bongos revealed Mah in mulch bark, peat, and soil. Genotyping of these environmental isolates determined several genotypes with 1 dominant genotype that was identical to the dominant genotype detected in antelopes.

Mechanisms, causes, investigation and management of vomiting disorders in cats: a literature review

Vomiting is a common presenting complaint in feline practice. This article differs from previous reviews in that it is an evidence-based review of the mechanisms, causes, investigation and management of vomiting in the domestic cat. Published evidence was reviewed, and then used to make recommendations for clinical assessment, diagnosis, antiemetic drug treatment, dietary management and monitoring of cats presenting with vomiting. The strength of the evidence on which recommendations are made (and areas where evidence is lacking for cats) has been highlighted throughout.

Osteomyelitis of the coxofemoral joint due to Mycobacterium species in a feline renal transplant recipient

A 4-year-old castrated male Russian Blue cat was evaluated for acute right hind limb lameness 18 months after receiving a renal transplant. Radiographs showed a subluxated right femoral head and lysis of the acetabulum and femoral neck. A femoral head and neck ostectomy was performed on the right coxofemoral joint. Histologic evaluation of the right femoral head revealed lesions indicative of a chronic, granulomatous osteomyelitis and periostitis associated with an intralesional Mycobacterium species. However, the cat's clinical condition declined despite treatment and the owner elected humane euthanasia. All renal transplant recipients receive immunosuppressive therapy to prevent allograft rejection. The non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection of the coxofemoral joint was thought to develop secondary to long-term immunosuppressive treatment. This report illustrates the need to consider these rare opportunistic infections even many months to years following renal transplantation. Early awareness, stringent immunosuppressive drug monitoring and targeted treatment once a diagnosis has been made may be important in the successful management and prevention of mycobacterial infections in this population of patients.

Mycobacterial disease in a population of 339 cats in Great Britain: II. Histopathology of 225 cases, and treatment and outcome of 184 cases

This study investigated 339 cases of feline mycobacterial infection, with histopathology findings from 225 cases, and treatment and outcome information from 184 cases. Tissue samples from cats with cutaneous lesions or suspicious masses at exploratory laparotomy were submitted to the Veterinary Laboratories Agency for mycobacterial culture over a 4-year period to December 2008. The study reviewed the files for information about histopathology, treatment and outcome, and blindly reviewed histopathological changes (including staining for acid-fast bacteria [AFB]) in a sub-set of 45 cases. When a cat is suspected of having a mycobacterial infection, accurate identification of the species involved helps to determine possible treatment options and prognosis. The study confirmed that histopathology and the presence of AFB are useful tools in the recognition of mycobacterial infection. Unfortunately, they did little to help determine the species of mycobacteria involved. The study identified a group of cats that were negative for AFB at the primary laboratory, but from which mycobacteria could be cultured; commonly Mycobacterium bovis or Mycobacterium microti. The study also identified a group of cats which where culture negative, despite typical signs of mycobacterial infection and positive AFB staining. Many cases responded favourably to treatment (56% of the cases where information was available), and many cats gained complete remission (42%). However, relapses were common (64%) and often followed by pulmonary and/or systemic spread that may have resulted from treatment with short courses of single drugs. This study shows that the diagnosis and treatment of feline mycobacteriosis is complex and challenging.

Mycobacterial disease in cats in Great Britain: I. Culture results, geographical distribution and clinical presentation of 339 cases

This study investigated 339 cases of feline mycobacterial disease from cats with cutaneous lesions or masses found at exploratory laparotomy. Tissue samples were submitted to the Veterinary Laboratories Agency for mycobacterial culture over a 4-year period to December 2008. The study assessed which species of culturable mycobacteria were involved, where the cats lived, and their clinical presentation (physical findings, serum biochemistry, radiography, feline leukaemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus status). Mycobacterium microti was cultured from 19%, Mycobacterium bovis 15%, Mycobacterium avium 7%, non-M avium non-tuberculous mycobacteria 6%, with no growth in 53% of samples. M microti, M bovis and M avium were found in almost mutually exclusive clusters within Great Britain (GB) (ie, M bovis in South-West England/Wales/Welsh Border, M avium in eastern England and M microti south of London and in South-West Scotland). While differences were seen in the clinical presentation and distribution of lesions caused by the different infections, these were not sufficiently different to be diagnostic. Cats commonly presented with single or multiple cutaneous lesions (74%), which were sometimes ulcerated or discharging, located most frequently on the head (54%). Lymph nodes were usually involved (47%); typically the submandibular nodes. Systemic or pulmonary signs were rarely seen (10-16%). When a cat is suspected of having mycobacteriosis, accurate identification of the species involved helps to determine appropriate action. Our findings show that knowing the cat's geographic location can be helpful, while the nature of the clinical presentation is less useful. Most cases of feline mycobacterial disease in GB are cutaneous.

Concurrent infection with Cryptococcus neoformans/gattii species complex and Mycobacterium avium affecting the subcutis and bone of a pelvic limb in a cat

This paper describes a cat with severe localised infections with Cryptococcus neoformans/gattii species complex and Mycobacterium avium affecting the subcutis and underlying fascia and bone of the right pelvic limb. The simultaneous isolation of both pathogens in this patient was unexpected and posed unique issues concerning both diagnosis and clinical management. The aetiopathogenesis of this infection is discussed in relation to aspects of diagnosis and therapy.

Radiographic findings in cats with mycobacterial infections

This study describes radiographic changes associated with mycobacterial infection in 33 domestic cats confirmed by culture or interferon-gamma testing. Infection was seen most frequently in adult (average age 5.7 years; range 1.5-12 years), non-pedigree (87%; 27/31), neutered male cats (69%; 22/32). The most common infections were Mycobacterium microti (60%; 18/30) and Mycobacterium bovis (37%; 11/30); Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium malmoense were infrequently cultured (3% of each; 1/30). Radiographs were available for the thorax (24 cats), abdomen (eight), appendicular skeleton (11) and head (three). Radiographic changes affected the thorax most commonly, consisting of bronchial (46%; 11/24), alveolar (38%; 9/24), nodular unstructured interstitial (38%; 9/24) or unstructured interstitial (25%; 6/24) lung patterns, which were often mixed. Perihilar or sternal lymphadenopathy were common (42%; 10/24), particularly perihilar lymphadenopathy (25%; 6/24). Skeletal changes were found in the distal antebrachium (three), pes (two), maxilla, scapula, spine, manus, femur, and tarsus (one each). Changes were typically osteolytic (73%; 8/11), often permeative osteolytic (64%; 7/11). Osteoproliferative changes were seen in three cats and soft tissue swelling in five cats, which were adjacent to the bony abnormality in four cats. Other changes included submandibular soft tissue swelling, marked aortic, aortic root and brachiocephalic trunk calcification, and soft tissue swelling with calcification in the distal antebranchium which was not involving bone. Abdominal changes were uncommon (seen in 2/8 cats) and consisted of hepatomegaly and hepatosplenomegaly. In summary, radiographic changes were varied, no lesion was pathognomic for mycobacterial infection, and pathology was seen most commonly in the thorax.

Lower respiratory tract infections in cats: reaching beyond empirical therapy

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) in cats can be due to bacteria, parasites, fungi and viruses. This review details the practical investigation of these infections and highlights specific therapy where possible. The aim is to avoid the all-too-frequent temptation in practice to treat cats with lower respiratory tract signs empirically for feline bronchial disease (FBD)/asthma. This is potentially hazardous as immunosuppressive therapy for FBD/asthma could exacerbate disease due to a LRTI. Empirical treatment of suspected LRTI is also difficult to recommend given the wide range of potential pathogens.

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

Making a clinical ante-mortem diagnosis of LRTI in a cat can be challenging. Consistent historical, clinical, haematological and radiographic abnormalities are often lacking and findings may be non-specific. Astute clinical acumen, thorough investigation and high quality laboratory analysis are usually required for a diagnosis. Bronchoalveolar lavage, if feasible, and tests for lungworm should be routine in cats with lower respiratory tract signs. Lung fine needle aspiration may be useful in cases of diffuse or nodular pulmonary disease. Histopathology is rarely employed in ante-mortem investigations.

EVIDENCE BASE

The authors have reviewed a substantial body of literature to provide information on many of the reported bacterial, parasitic, fungal and viral pathogens, including some that occur in Asia. Attention has been given to specific therapy for each pathogen, with evidence-based comments when there is a deviation from routine recommendations.

Mycobacterium microti infection in the cat: a case report, literature review and recent clinical experience

OVERVIEW

Mycobacterium microti infection is infrequently described in cats in the veterinary literature. It can be one of a large number of possible differential diagnoses in a feline patient with dermal nodules and non-healing draining ulcers, and can occasionally spread to involve the lungs and/or other areas of the body.

CASE SUMMARY

This report describes the clinical signs, eventual diagnosis and variable response to treatment in a cat in Switzerland with recurrent cutaneous M microti infection. Only after several diagnostic and therapeutic attempts, over more than 2 years, was the species of Mycobacterium finally identified and targeted therapy given.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

For any cat in which there is even a low suspicion of mycobacterial infection, the authors recommend that an aggressive diagnostic approach is taken. Tissue specimens should be collected and frozen early on, and, as soon as acid-fast bacilli are detected, samples should be sent to a mycobacterial reference laboratory for definitive identification.

LITERATURE REVIEW

A review of the literature relating to the aetiopathogenesis, diagnosis and management of M microti infection in cats and dogs is included. This is supplemented with clinical and therapeutic experience gained from this case and other, unpublished cases managed over the past 15 years by one of the authors (DGM).

Disseminated Mycobacterium avium subspecies infection in a cat

An 18-month-old neutered male domestic shorthair cat, domiciled in the southwest of France, was first presented having suffered for a few days from dysorexia and vomiting. Abdominal palpation revealed lymph node enlargement. Cytological examinations of a fine needle aspirate demonstrated granulomatous inflammation with many non-staining elements consistent with mycobacteria. Diagnosis was confirmed by culture and polymerase chain reaction and Mycobacterium avium subspecies was isolated. Treatment was initiated with marbofloxacin, rifampicin and cefoxitin. There was a rapid clinical improvement. The cat suddenly died 2 months later. The main hypothesis is the administration of an inappropriate combination therapy that leads to the development of mycobacterial resistance. A volvulus and acute peritonitis secondary to the significant enlargement of a mesenteric lymph node were present at necropsy. Histopathological analysis of mesenteric lymph node, liver and spleen revealed multicentric granulomatous and severely necrotic lesions with numerous Ziehl-Neelsen positive intracytoplasmic elements.

Infectious hepatopathies in dogs and cats

This article serves to review the various infectious diseases that affect the liver primarily or as a part of systemic infection. Although bacterial infections are probably the most common cause of infectious hepatitis, the clinician should be aware of other potential organisms and other commonly involved systems. Therefore, this article includes a description of common bacterial, mycobacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, parasitic, and rickettsial diseases in dogs and cats.

A case of feline leprosy caused by Mycobacterium lepraemurium originating from the island of Kythira (Greece): diagnosis and treatment

A 2-year-old, 4 kg, healthy, domestic shorthair female cat presented with ulcerated subcutaneous nodules on the commissures of its mouth. The cat was negative for feline leukaemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus. Skin mycobacteriosis was diagnosed after detection of numerous acid-fast bacilli in Ziehl Neelsen-stained smears from the ulcers. Feline leprosy was suspected following preliminary polymerase chain reaction results: positive for Mycobacterium genus but negative for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium complexes. Mycobacterium lepraemurium was later identified following DNA sequence analysis of the 5' end of the 16S rRNA gene and the 16S-23S internal transcribed spacer region. Microscopic lesions consisted of pyogranulomas containing mainly large foamy macrophages with 10-100 intra-cellular acid-fast bacilli per field. The cat was cured after surgery and a 14-week course of clofazimine (30 mg daily) and clarithromycin (50 mg twice daily).

Mycobacteriosis in gang gang cockatoos (Callocephalon fimbriatum)

This report presents three cases of mycobacteriosis in gang gang cockatoos (Callocephalon fimbriatum) that highlight the potential variation in clinical presentation of this important avian disease. The first case was a female gang gang cockatoo with widespread skeletal disease that presented with a chronic history of weight loss and nonpainful, bilaterally symmetric, distal-wing and leg nodular swellings. The second case was a mature female in good muscle condition with a nodular granulomatous pericarditis and myocarditis causing severe hydropericardium and cardiac tamponade; it was presented for respiratory distress. The third case was one of alimentary mycobacteriosis that presented with a chronic history of weight loss. Some difficulties associated with confirming a premortem diagnosis of mycobacteriosis are discussed.