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Jiang YX, Zhao YN, Yu XL, Yin LM. Ginsenoside Rd Induces Differentiation of Myeloid Leukemia Cells via Regulating ERK/GSK-3β Signaling Pathway. Chin J Integr Med 2024; 30:588-599. [PMID: 38085388 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-023-3561-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the role of ginsenoside Rd (GRd) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cell differentiation. METHODS AML cells were treated with GRd (25, 50, 100 and 200 µg/mL), retinoic acid (RA, 0.1g/L) and PD98059 (20 mg/mL) for 72 h, cell survival was detected by methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide and colony formation assays, and cell cycle was detected by flow cytometry. Cell morphology and differentiation were observed by Wright-Giemsa staining, peroxidase chemical staining and cellular immunochemistry assay, respectively. The protein expression levels of GATA binding protein 1 (GATA-1), purine rich Box-1 (PU.1), phosphorylated-extracellular signal-related kinase (p-ERK), ERK, phosphorylated-glycogen synthase kinase-3β (p-GSK3β), GSK3β and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) were detected by Western blot. Thirty-six mice were randomly divided into 3 groups using a random number table: model control group (non-treated), GRd group [treated with 200 mg/(kg·d) GRd] and homoharringtonine (HTT) group [treated with 1 mg/(kg·d) HTT]. A tumor-bearing nude mouse model was established, and tumor weight and volume were recorded. Changes of subcutaneous tumor tissue were observed after hematoxylin and eosin staining. WT1 and GATA-1 expressions were detected by immunohistochemical staining. RESULTS The cell survival was inhibited by GRd in a dose-dependent manner and GRd caused G0/G1 cell arrest (p<0.05). GRd treatment induced leukemia cell differentiation, showing increased expressions of peroxidase and specific proteins concerning erythrogenic or granulocytic differentiation (p<0.05). GRd treatment elicited upregulation of p-ERK, p-GSK-3β and STAT1 expressions in cells, and reversed the effects of PD98059 on inhibiting the expressions of peroxidase, GATA-1 and PU.1 (P<0.05). After GRd treatment, tumor weight and volume of mice were decreased, and tumor cells underwent massive apoptosis and necrosis (P<0.05). WT1 level was decreased, and GATA-1 level was significantly increased in subcutaneous tumor tissues (P<0.05 or P<0.01). CONCLUSION GRd might induce the differentiation of AML cells via regulating the ERK/GSK-3β signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Xia Jiang
- Department of Hematology, Tongde Hospital of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310012, China
| | - Yan-Na Zhao
- Institute of Hematology Research, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, 310006, China
| | - Xiao-Ling Yu
- Institute of Hematology Research, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, 310006, China
| | - Li-Ming Yin
- Institute of Hematology Research, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, 310006, China.
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2
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Zou Y, Wang S, Zhang H, Gu Y, Chen H, Huang Z, Yang F, Li W, Chen C, Men L, Tian Q, Xie T. The triangular relationship between traditional Chinese medicines, intestinal flora, and colorectal cancer. Med Res Rev 2024; 44:539-567. [PMID: 37661373 DOI: 10.1002/med.21989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade, colorectal cancer has reported a higher incidence in younger adults and a lower mortality rate. Recently, the influence of the intestinal flora in the initiation, progression, and treatment of colorectal cancer has been extensively studied, as well as their positive therapeutic impact on inflammation and the cancer microenvironment. Historically, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely used in the treatment of colorectal cancer via promoted cancer cell apoptosis, inhibited cancer metastasis, and reduced drug resistance and side effects. The present research is more on the effect of either herbal medicine or intestinal flora on colorectal cancer. The interactions between TCM and intestinal flora are bidirectional and the combined impacts of TCM and gut microbiota in the treatment of colon cancer should not be neglected. Therefore, this review discusses the role of intestinal bacteria in the progression and treatment of colorectal cancer by inhibiting carcinogenesis, participating in therapy, and assisting in healing. Then the complex anticolon cancer effects of different kinds of TCM monomers, TCM drug pairs, and traditional Chinese prescriptions embodied in apoptosis, metastasis, immune suppression, and drug resistance are summarized separately. In addition, the interaction between TCM and intestinal flora and the combined effect on cancer treatment were analyzed. This review provides a mechanistic reference for the application of TCM and intestinal flora in the clinical treatment of colorectal cancer and paves the way for the combined development and application of microbiome and TCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Zou
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shuling Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Honghua Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuxin Gu
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Huijuan Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhihua Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Feifei Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wenqi Li
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Cheng Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lianhui Men
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qingchang Tian
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Tian Xie
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Hu QR, Hong H, Zhang ZH, Feng H, Luo T, Li J, Deng ZY, Chen F. Methods on improvements of the poor oral bioavailability of ginsenosides: Pre-processing, structural modification, drug combination, and micro- or nano- delivery system. J Ginseng Res 2023; 47:694-705. [PMID: 38107396 PMCID: PMC10721471 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2023.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Panax ginseng Meyer is a traditional Chinese medicine that is widely used as tonic in Asia. The main pharmacologically active components of ginseng are the dammarane-type ginsenosides, which have been shown to have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, neuroprotective, and metabolic regulatory activities. Moreover, some of ginsenosides (eg, Rh2 and Rg3) have been developed into nutraceuticals. However, the utilization of ginsenosides in clinic is restrictive due to poor permeability in cells and low bioavailability in human body. Obviously, the dammarane skeleton and glycosyls of ginsenosides are responsible for these limitations. Therefore, improving the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides has become a pressing issue. Here, based on the structures of ginsenosides, we summarized the understanding of the factors affecting the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides, introduced the methods to enhance the oral bioavailability and proposed the future perspectives on improving the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-rui Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Huan Hong
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Zhi-hong Zhang
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Hua Feng
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ting Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Jing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ze-yuan Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, College of Food Science, Nanchang University, Nanjing East Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Fang Chen
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
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4
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Wang Y, Han Q, Zhang S, Xing X, Sun X. New perspective on the immunomodulatory activity of ginsenosides: Focus on effective therapies for post-COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 165:115154. [PMID: 37454595 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
More than 700 million confirmed cases of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) have been reported globally, and 10-60% of patients are expected to exhibit "post-COVID-19 symptoms," which will continue to affect human life and health. In the absence of safer, more specific drugs, current multiple immunotherapies have failed to achieve satisfactory efficacy. Ginseng, a traditional Chinese medicine, is often used as an immunomodulator and has been used in COVID-19 treatment as a tonic to increase blood oxygen saturation. Ginsenosides are the main active components of ginseng. In this review, we summarize the multiple ways in which ginsenosides affect post-COVID-19 symptoms, including inhibition of lipopolysaccharide, tumor necrosis factor signaling, modulation of chemokine receptors and inflammasome activation, induction of macrophage polarization, effects on Toll-like receptors, nuclear factor kappa-B, the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, lymphocytes, intestinal flora, and epigenetic regulation. Ginsenosides affect virus-mediated tissue damage, local or systemic inflammation, immune modulation, and other links, thus alleviating respiratory and pulmonary symptoms, reducing the cardiac burden, protecting the nervous system, and providing new ideas for the rehabilitation of patients with post-COVID-19 symptoms. Furthermore, we analyzed its role in strengthening body resistance to eliminate pathogenic factors from the perspective of ginseng-epidemic disease and highlighted the challenges in clinical applications. However, the benefit of ginsenosides in modulating organismal imbalance post-COVID-19 needs to be further evaluated to better validate the pharmacological mechanisms associated with their traditional efficacy and to determine their role in individualized therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Discovery of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Natural Medicine) and Translational Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College, and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China; Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China; Key Laboratory of Efficacy Evaluation of Chinese Medicine against Glycolipid Metabolic Disorders,State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China
| | - Qin Han
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Discovery of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Natural Medicine) and Translational Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College, and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China; Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China; Key Laboratory of Efficacy Evaluation of Chinese Medicine against Glycolipid Metabolic Disorders,State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China
| | - Shuxia Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Discovery of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Natural Medicine) and Translational Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College, and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China; Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China; Key Laboratory of Efficacy Evaluation of Chinese Medicine against Glycolipid Metabolic Disorders,State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China
| | - Xiaoyan Xing
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Discovery of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Natural Medicine) and Translational Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College, and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China; Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China; Key Laboratory of Efficacy Evaluation of Chinese Medicine against Glycolipid Metabolic Disorders,State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China.
| | - Xiaobo Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Discovery of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Natural Medicine) and Translational Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College, and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China; Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China; Key Laboratory of Efficacy Evaluation of Chinese Medicine against Glycolipid Metabolic Disorders,State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, China.
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Yao Z, Guo J, Du B, Hong L, Zhu Y, Feng X, Hou Y, Shi A. Effects of Shenling Baizhu powder on intestinal microflora metabolites and liver mitochondrial energy metabolism in nonalcoholic fatty liver mice. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1147067. [PMID: 37538846 PMCID: PMC10394096 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1147067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background & purpose Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is characterised by the excessive accumulation of triglycerides in the liver. Shenling Baizhu powder (SLBZP) is formulated from various natural medicinal plants that protect the liver and are used to treat intestinal diseases. SLBZP improves the symptoms of NAFLD. However, its mechanism of action remains unclear. Herein, we investigated the ameliorative effect of SLBZP on model mice with high-fat-diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD. Additionally, we evaluated the impact of SLBZP on the intestinal flora and its metabolites and mitochondrial energy metabolism in NAFLD. Methods We used HFD to establish a mouse model of NAFLD. Different drug interventions were administered. We measured serum biochemical indices. Liver sections were visualised with hematoxylin-eosin and oil red O staining. 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing technology was used to analyse the diversity and abundance of the intestinal flora. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the intestinal contents were detected using GC-MS. Liver tissue was sampled to detect mitochondrial membrane functional indices. Western blotting was used to determine the levels of mitochondrial pathway-related proteins, namely, uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and inhibitory factor 1 (IF1) of F1Fo ATP synthesis/hydrolase, in the liver. Results The spleen-invigorating classic recipe of SLBZP reduced liver lipid deposition in mice with HFD-induced NAFLD. Additionally, SCFAs produced by intestinal flora metabolism regulated the UCP2/AMPK/IF1 signalling pathway involved in liver mitochondrial energy metabolism to improve the liver mitochondrial membrane permeability, respiratory state and oxidative phosphorylation efficiency of mice with NAFLD. Finally, SLBZP increased the liver ATP level. Conclusion Our results suggest that the therapeutic effect of SLBZP on NAFLD is related to the regulation of hepatic mitochondrial energy metabolism by intestinal flora and its metabolites and is possibly associated with the UCP2/AMPK/IF1 signalling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Yao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- The Key Laboratory of Microcosmic Syndrome Differentiation, Education Department of Yunnan, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Chronic Disease in Prevention and Treatment, Kunming, China
| | - Jia Guo
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- Dongtai City Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Dongtai, China
| | - Bing Du
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- Heilongjiang Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Li Hong
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- Wuhan Special Service Recuperation Center, Wuhan, China
| | - Ying Zhu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Xiaoyi Feng
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Yuanlu Hou
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Anhua Shi
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- The Key Laboratory of Microcosmic Syndrome Differentiation, Education Department of Yunnan, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Chronic Disease in Prevention and Treatment, Kunming, China
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Shin YJ, Lee DY, Kim JY, Heo K, Shim JJ, Lee JL, Kim DH. Effect of fermented red ginseng on gut microbiota dysbiosis- or immobilization stress-induced anxiety, depression, and colitis in mice. J Ginseng Res 2023; 47:255-264. [PMID: 36926604 PMCID: PMC10014181 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2022.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Red ginseng (RG) alleviates psychiatric disorders. Fermented red ginseng (fRG) alleviates stress-induced gut inflammation. Gut dysbiosis causes psychiatric disorders with gut inflammation. To understand the gut microbiota-mediated action mechanism of RG and fRG against anxiety/depression (AD), we investigated the effects of RG, fRG, ginsenoside Rd, and 20(S)-β-D-glucopyranosyl protopanaxadiol (CK) on gut microbiota dysbiosis-induced AD and colitis in mice. Methods Mice with AD and colitis were prepared by exposing to immobilization stress (IS) or transplanting the feces of patients with ulcerative colitis and depression (UCDF). AD-like behaviors were measured in the elevated plus maze, light/dark transition, forced swimming, and tail suspension tests. Results Oral gavage of UCDF increased AD-like behaviors and induced neuroinflammation, gastrointestinal inflammation, and gut microbiota fluctuation in mice. Oral administration of fRG or RG treatment reduced UCDF-induced AD-like behaviors, hippocampal and hypothalamic IL-6 expression, and blood corticosterone level, whereas UCDF-suppressed hippocampal BDNF+NeuN+ cell population and dopamine and hypothalamic serotonin levels increased. Furthermore, their treatments suppressed UCDF-induced colonic inflammation and partially restored UCDF-induced gut microbiota fluctuation. Oral administration of fRG, RG, Rd, or CK also decreased IS-induced AD-like behaviors, blood IL-6 and corticosterone and colonic IL-6 and TNF-α levels, and gut dysbiosis, while IS-suppressed hypothalamic dopamine and serotonin levels increased. Conclusion Oral gavage of UCDF caused AD, neuroinflammation, and gastrointestinal inflammation in mice. fRG mitigated AD and colitis in UCDF-exposed mice by the regulation of the microbiota-gut-brain axis and IS-exposed mice by the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
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Key Words
- AD, anxiety/depression
- BDNF, brain-derived neurotropic factor
- CK, 20(S)-β-D-glucopyranosyl protopanaxadiol
- ELISA, enzyme-linked immunoassay
- EPMT, elevated plus maze task
- FMT, fecal microbiota transplantation
- FST, forced swimming test
- HPA, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal
- IL, interleukin
- IS, immobilization stress
- LDTT, light/dark transition task
- RG, red ginseng
- TNBS, 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- TST, tail suspension test
- UCD, ulcerative colitis and depression
- UCDF, the feces of patients with ulcerative colitis and depression
- depression
- fRG, fermented red ginseng
- fermentation
- ginsenoside Rd
- gut microbiota
- red ginseng
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon-Jung Shin
- Neurobiota Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Yun Lee
- Neurobiota Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo Yun Kim
- R&BD Center, hy Co.Ltd., Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Keon Heo
- R&BD Center, hy Co.Ltd., Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | - Dong-Hyun Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Huo R, Wang M, Wei X, Qiu Y. Research Progress on Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms of Black Ginseng. Chem Biodivers 2023; 20:e202200846. [PMID: 36789670 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202200846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, black ginseng, a new type of processed ginseng product, has attracted the attention of scholars globally. Ginsenoside and ginseng polysaccharide, the main active substances of black ginseng, have been shown to carry curative effects for many diseases. This article focuses on the mechanism of their action in anti-inflammatory response, which is mainly divided into three aspects: activation of immune cells to exert immune regulatory response; participation in inflammatory response-related pathways and regulation of the expression level of inflammatory factors; effect on the metabolic activity of intestinal flora. This study identifies active anti-inflammatory components and an action mechanism of black ginseng showing multi-component, multi-target, and multi-channel characteristics, providing ideas and a basis for a follow-up in-depth study of its specific mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Huo
- Pharmacy College of, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Mengyuan Wang
- Pharmacy College of, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Xu Wei
- Pharmacy College of, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Ye Qiu
- Pharmacy College of, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, 130117, China
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8
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Tao R, Lu K, Zong G, Xia Y, Han H, Zhao Y, Wei Z, Lu Y. Ginseng polysaccharides: Potential antitumor agents. J Ginseng Res 2023; 47:9-22. [PMID: 36644386 PMCID: PMC9834022 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2022.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
As a famous herbal medicine in China and Asia, ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) is also known as the "King of All Herbs" and has long been used in medicine and healthcare. In addition to the obvious biological activities of ginsenosides, ginseng polysaccharides (GPs) exhibit excellent antitumor, antioxidant stress, and immunomodulatory effects. In particular, GPs can exert an antitumor effect and is a potential immunomodulator. However, due to the complexity and diversity in the structures and components of GPs, their specific physicochemical properties, and underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this article, we have summarized the factors influencing the antitumor activity of GPs and their mechanism of action, including the stimulation of the immune system, regulation of the gut microbiota, and direct action on tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruizhi Tao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Prevention and Treatment of Tumor, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Keqin Lu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Prevention and Treatment of Tumor, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Gangfan Zong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Prevention and Treatment of Tumor, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Yawen Xia
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Prevention and Treatment of Tumor, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Hongkuan Han
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Prevention and Treatment of Tumor, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Yang Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine & Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhonghong Wei
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Prevention and Treatment of Tumor, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Corresponding author. Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China.
| | - Yin Lu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Prevention and Treatment of Tumor, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Corresponding author. Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, China.
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9
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Ying HZ, Xie W, Wang MC, He JQ, Zhang HH, Yu CH. Gut microbiota: An emerging therapeutic approach of herbal medicine for prevention of colorectal cancer. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:969526. [PMID: 36051242 PMCID: PMC9426771 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.969526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut dysbiosis has emerged as a prominent player in the pathogenesis and development of colorectal cancer (CRC), which in turn intensifies dysregulated gut microbiota composition and inflammation. Since most drugs are given orally, this dysbiosis directly and indirectly impinges the absorption and metabolism of drugs in the gastrointestinal tract, and subsequently affects the clinical outcome of patients with CRC. Herbal medicine, including the natural bioactive products, have been used traditionally for centuries and can be considered as novel medicinal sources for anticancer drug discovery. Due to their various structures and pharmacological effects, natural products have been found to improve microbiota composition, repair intestinal barrier and reduce inflammation in human and animal models of CRC. This review summarizes the chemo-preventive effects of extracts and/or compounds derived from natural herbs as the promising antineoplastic agents against CRC, and will provide innovative strategies to counteract dysregulated microbiota and improve the lives of CRC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Zhong Ying
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Animal and Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences (Hangzhou Medical College), Hangzhou, China
| | - Wei Xie
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Animal and Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences (Hangzhou Medical College), Hangzhou, China
| | - Meng-Chuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Animal and Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences (Hangzhou Medical College), Hangzhou, China
| | - Jia-Qi He
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Huan-Huan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Animal and Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences (Hangzhou Medical College), Hangzhou, China
| | - Chen-Huan Yu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Animal and Safety Evaluation, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences (Hangzhou Medical College), Hangzhou, China
- Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, China
- Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Chen-Huan Yu,
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Li J, Huang Q, Yao Y, Ji P, Mingyao E, Chen J, Zhang Z, Qi H, Liu J, Chen Z, Zhao D, Zhou L, Li X. Biotransformation, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacological Activities of Ginsenoside Rd Against Multiple Diseases. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:909363. [PMID: 35928281 PMCID: PMC9343777 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.909363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. has a history of more than 4000 years and is widely used in Asian countries. Modern pharmacological studies have proved that ginsenosides and their compounds have a variety of significant biological activities on specific diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, certain types of cancer, gastrointestinal disease, and metabolic diseases, in which most of the interest has focused on ginsenoside Rd. The evidentiary basis showed that ginsenoside Rd ameliorates ischemic stroke, nerve injury, cancer, and other diseases involved in apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and autophagy. In this review, we summarized available reports on the molecular biological mechanisms of ginsenoside Rd in neurological diseases, cancer, metabolic diseases, and other diseases. We also discussed the main biotransformation pathways of ginsenoside Rd obtained by fermentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Qingxia Huang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Yao Yao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Peng Ji
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - E. Mingyao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Jinjin Chen
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Zepeng Zhang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
- College of Acupuncture and Tuina, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Hongyu Qi
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Jiaqi Liu
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Zhaoqiang Chen
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Lei Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Affiliated Hospital of Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Lei Zhou, ; Xiangyan Li,
| | - Xiangyan Li
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Bio-Macromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Lei Zhou, ; Xiangyan Li,
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Zhang H, Zhang L, Yang C, Zhang Y, Li J, Zhang X, Chen J, Huang B, Zhao D, Li X, Zhang W, Qi B. Prevention Effect of Protopanaxadiol-Type Saponins Saponins and Protopanaxatriol-Type Saponins on Myelosuppression Mice Induced by Cyclophosphamide. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:845034. [PMID: 35431938 PMCID: PMC9011104 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.845034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginsenosides from ginseng are used as a therapeutic agent for various diseases. They enhance the immunomodulatory effect in cyclophosphamide (CP)-treated tumor disease. The structural characteristics of steroidal saponins are mainly divided into protopanaxadiol-type saponin (PDS) and protopanaxatriol-type saponin (PTS). At present, few researchers have studied which kind of saponin plays a more important role, thus, we compared the prevention effect of PDS and PTS on myelosuppression mice induced by CP. The components and contents of saponin and monosaccharide were analyzed by using ultra high performance liquid chromatography-charged aerosol detector (UPLC-CAD) and reversed phase-high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), respectively. Thirty-two mice were randomly divided into four groups, including control, model (CP), CP+PDS, and CP+PTS. The mice were orally administered with PDS or PTS for 28 days and then injected with CP saline solution on 25, 26, 27, and 28 days at a dose of 50 mg × kg-1. After the end of modeling, the whole blood of mice from the ophthalmic venous plexus was collected to detect routine blood tests, inflammatory cytokines, and hematopoiesis-related cytokines. Cell cycle and the apoptosis of bone marrow in the right femur were detected. The spleen and thymus were used to calculate the organ index and histological examination, and splenocytes were used to detect the percentage of CD4+ and CD25+ T cells. In the saponins analysis, PDS mainly included the Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rd of protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides (accounted for 91.64%), and PTS mainly included the Re, Rg1, and Rf of protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides (accounted for 75.46%). The animal results showed that both PDS and PTS improved the most indicators of myelosuppression mice induced by CP, including increased weight, blood cell numbers, hematopoiesis-related cytokines, and inflammatory cytokines; promoted the cell cycle of bone marrow and inhibited the apoptosis of bone marrow; elevated the spleen and thymus indexes and CD4+ count of splenocytes. The prevention effect of PDS was better than PTS in some indicators, such as red blood cells, hemoglobin, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-α, CD4+, and thymus index. These results suggest both PDS and PTS can prevent myelosuppression of mice induced by CP. Meanwhile, PDS and its metabolite showed higher bioavailability and bioactivity compared with PTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Zhang
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Lancao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Chunhui Yang
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Yuyao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Jing Li
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Jinjin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Baotai Huang
- College of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Xiangyan Li
- Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Office of Academic Research, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Wei Zhang, ; Bin Qi,
| | - Bin Qi
- College of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Wei Zhang, ; Bin Qi,
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Liu Y, Zhang H, Dai X, Zhu R, Chen B, Xia B, Ye Z, Zhao D, Gao S, Orekhov AN, Zhang D, Wang L, Guo S. A comprehensive review on the phytochemistry, pharmacokinetics, and antidiabetic effect of Ginseng. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 92:153717. [PMID: 34583224 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2021.153717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Radix Ginseng, one of the well-known medicinal herbs, has been used in the management of diabetes and its complications for more than 1000 years. PURPOSE The aim of this review is devoted to summarize the phytochemistry and pharmacokinetics of Ginseng, and provide evidence for the antidiabetic effects of Ginseng and its ingredients as well as the underlying mechanisms involved. METHODS For the purpose of this review, the following databases were consulted: the PubMed Database (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov), Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (http://www.cnki.net), National Science and Technology Library (http://www.nstl.gov.cn/), Wanfang Data (http://www.wanfangdata.com.cn/) and the Web of Science Database (http://apps.webofknowledge.com/). RESULTS Ginseng exhibits glucose-lowering effects in different diabetic animal models. In addition, Ginseng may prevent the development of diabetic complications, including liver, pancreas, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, nephropathy, cardiomyopathy, retinopathy, atherosclerosis and others. The main ingredients of Ginseng include ginsenosides and polysaccharides. The underlying mechanisms whereby this herb exerts antidiabetic activities may be attributed to the regulation of multiple signaling pathways, including IRS1/PI3K/AKT, LKB1/AMPK/FoxO1, AGEs/RAGE, MAPK/ERK, NF-κB, PPARδ/STAT3, cAMP/PKA/CERB and HIF-1α/VEGF, etc. The pharmacokinetic profiles of ginsenosides provide valuable information on therapeutic efficacy of Ginseng in diabetes. Although Ginseng is well-tolerated, dietary consumption of this herb should follow the doctors' advice. CONCLUSION Ginseng may offer an alternative strategy in protection against diabetes and its complications through the regulations of the multi-targets via various signaling pathways. Efforts to understand the underlying mechanisms with strictly-controlled animal models, combined with well-designed clinical trials and pharmacokinetic evaluation, will be important subjects of the further investigations and weigh in translational value of this herb in diabetes management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yage Liu
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xuan Dai
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Ruyuan Zhu
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Beibei Chen
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Bingke Xia
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Zimengwei Ye
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Dandan Zhao
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Sihua Gao
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Alexander N Orekhov
- Laboratory of Angiopathology, Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow 125315, Russia
| | - Dongwei Zhang
- Diabetes Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Lili Wang
- Department of TCM Pharmacology, School of Chinese Material Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Shuzhen Guo
- Department of Scientific Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
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What Role Does the Endocannabinoid System Play in the Pathogenesis of Obesity? Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13020373. [PMID: 33530406 PMCID: PMC7911032 DOI: 10.3390/nu13020373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is an endogenous signaling system formed by specific receptors (cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 (CB1 and CB2)), their endogenous ligands (endocannabinoids), and enzymes involved in their synthesis and degradation. The ECS, centrally and peripherally, is involved in various physiological processes, including regulation of energy balance, promotion of metabolic process, food intake, weight gain, promotion of fat accumulation in adipocytes, and regulation of body homeostasis; thus, its overactivity may be related to obesity. In this review, we try to explain the role of the ECS and the impact of genetic factors on endocannabinoid system modulation in the pathogenesis of obesity, which is a global and civilizational problem affecting the entire world population regardless of age. We also emphasize that the search for potential new targets for health assessment, treatment, and the development of possible therapies in obesity is of great importance.
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Zawada A, Rychter AM, Ratajczak AE, Lisiecka-Masian A, Dobrowolska A, Krela-Kaźmierczak I. Does Gut-Microbiome Interaction Protect against Obesity and Obesity-Associated Metabolic Disorders? Microorganisms 2020; 9:microorganisms9010018. [PMID: 33374597 PMCID: PMC7822472 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
More research has recently focused on the role of the gut microbiota in the development or course of numerous diseases, including non-communicable diseases. As obesity remains prevalent, the question arises as to what microbial changes are associated with increased obesity prevalence and what kind of prevention and treatment approaches it could provide. Moreover, the influence of the gut-brain axis on obesity is also crucial, since it can affect metabolism and food intake. The quantitative and qualitative changes in the microbiota composition are called dysbiosis; however, in view of the current knowledge, it is difficult to conclude which microbial imbalances are adverse or beneficial. Increased numbers of pathological microorganisms were observed among patients with obesity and comorbidities associated with it, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and insulin resistance. Our review provides current knowledge regarding changes in the intestinal microbiota associated with obesity and obesity-associated comorbidities. Nevertheless, given that dietary patterns and nutrients are two of the factors affecting the intestinal microbiota, we also discuss the role of different dietary approaches, vitamins, and minerals in the shaping of the intestinal microbiota.
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Liu L, Xu FR, Wang YZ. Traditional uses, chemical diversity and biological activities of Panax L. (Araliaceae): A review. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 263:112792. [PMID: 32311488 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.112792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Panax L. (Araliaceae) is globally-recognized plant resource suitable for the globalization of traditional Chinese medicines. It has traditionally been used as tonic agents in various ethnomedicinal systems of East Asia, especially in China. It is often used to regulate bodily functions and considered as adjuvant therapy for tumor, resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock, etc. AIM OF THIS REVIEW: This review systematically summarized the information on distributions, botanical characteristics, traditional uses, chemical components and biological activities of the genus Panax, in order to explore and exploit the therapeutic potential of this plant. MATERIALS AND METHODS The available information about genus Panax was collected via the online search on Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Science Direct, China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Springer search. The keywords used include Panax, saponin, secondary metabolites, chemical components, biological activity, pharmacology, traditional medicinal uses, safety and other related words. The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) and Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist (www.catalogueoflife.org/col/) databases were used to provide the scientific names, subspecies classification and distribution information of Panax. RESULTS Panax is widely assessed concerning its phytochemistry and biological activities. To date, at least 748 chemical compounds from genus Panax were isolated, including saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and phenols. Among them, triterpenoid saponins and polysaccharides were the representative active ingredients of Panax plants, which have been widely investigated. Modern pharmacological studies showed that these compounds exhibited a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, hepatorenal protective, neuroprotective, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective and antidiabetic activities. Many studies also confirmed that the mechanisms of organ-protective were closely related to molecular signaling pathways, the expression of related proteins and antioxidant reactions. To sum up, genus Panax has high medicinal and social value, deserving further investigation. CONCLUSIONS The genus Panax is very promising to be fully utilized in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. However, there is a lack of in-depth studies on ethnomedicinal uses of Panax plants. In addition, further studies of single chemical component should be performed based on the diversity of chemical structure, significant biological activities and clinical application. If the bioactive molecules and multicomponent interactions are discovered, it will be of great significance to the clinical application of Panax plants. It is an urgent requirement to carry out detailed phytochemical, pharmacology and clinical research on Panax classical prescriptions for the establishment of modern medication guidelines. Exploring the molecular basis of herbal synergistic actions may provide a new understanding of the complex disease mechanisms and accelerate the process of pharmaceutical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Liu
- Medicinal Plants Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, China; College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Fu-Rong Xu
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China.
| | - Yuan-Zhong Wang
- Medicinal Plants Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, China.
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Prebiotics enhance the biotransformation and bioavailability of ginsenosides in rats by modulating gut microbiota. J Ginseng Res 2020; 45:334-343. [PMID: 33841014 PMCID: PMC8020290 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2020.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Gut microbiota mainly function in the biotransformation of primary ginsenosides into bioactive metabolites. Herein, we investigated the effects of three prebiotic fibers by targeting gut microbiota on the metabolism of ginsenoside Rb1 in vivo. Methods Sprague Dawley rats were administered with ginsenoside Rb1 after a two-week prebiotic intervention of fructooligosaccharide, galactooligosaccharide, and fibersol-2, respectively. Pharmacokinetic analysis of ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolites was performed, whilst the microbial composition and metabolic function of gut microbiota were examined by 16S rRNA gene amplicon and metagenomic shotgun sequencing. Results The results showed that peak plasma concentration and area under concentration time curve of ginsenoside Rb1 and its intermediate metabolites, ginsenoside Rd, F2, and compound K (CK), in the prebiotic intervention groups were increased at various degrees compared with those in the control group. Gut microbiota dramatically responded to the prebiotic treatment at both taxonomical and functional levels. The abundance of Prevotella, which possesses potential function to hydrolyze ginsenoside Rb1 into CK, was significantly elevated in the three prebiotic groups (P < 0.05). The gut metagenomic analysis also revealed the functional gene enrichment for terpenoid/polyketide metabolism, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, propanoate metabolism, etc. Conclusion These findings imply that prebiotics may selectively promote the proliferation of certain bacterial stains with glycoside hydrolysis capacity, thereby, subsequently improving the biotransformation and bioavailability of primary ginsenosides in vivo.
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Key Words
- ANOVA, analysis of variance
- AUC, area under the concentration-time curve
- Bioavailability
- Biotransformation
- CAT, CAZymes Analysis Toolkit
- CAZymes, carbohydrate active enzymes
- CK, compound K
- Cmax, peak plasma concentration
- FDR, false discovery rate
- FOS, fructooligosaccharide
- GOS, galactooligosaccharide
- Ginsenoside
- Gut microbiota
- IS, internal standard
- KEGG, the Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes
- LCA, lowest common ancestor
- LDA, linear discriminant analysis
- LEfSe, LDA effect size
- LLOQs, lower limits of quantifications
- MANOVA, multivariate ANOVA
- MRM, multiple reaction monitoring
- NMDS, non-metric multidimensional scaling
- PCA, principal component analysis
- PCoA, principal coordinates analysis
- Prebiotic
- SD, Sprague Dawley
- SRA, Sequence Read Archive
- Tmax, time of maximum plasma concentration
- UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS, ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to an electrospray ionization source and a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer
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Effects of Gut Microbiota on the Bioavailability of Bioactive Compounds from Ginkgo Leaf Extracts. Metabolites 2019; 9:metabo9070132. [PMID: 31284440 PMCID: PMC6680440 DOI: 10.3390/metabo9070132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Ginkgo leaf extract (GLE) is a popular herbal medicine and dietary supplement for the treatment of various diseases, including cardiovascular disease. GLE contains a variety of secondary plant metabolites, such as flavonoids and terpenoids, as active components. Some of these phytochemicals have been known to be metabolized by gut microbial enzymes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of the main constituents of GLE using antibacterial-treated mice. The bilobalide, ginkgolide A, ginkgolide B, ginkgolide C, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, and quercetin pharmacokinetic profiles of orally administered GLE (600 mg/kg), with or without ciprofloxacin pretreatment (150 mg/kg/day for 3 days), were determined. In the antibacterial-treated mice, the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC) of isorhamnetin were significantly (p < 0.05) increased when compared with the control group. The Cmax and AUC of kaempferol and quercetin (other flavonol glycosides) were slightly higher than those of the control group, but the difference was not statistically significant, while both parameters for terpenoids of GLE showed no significant difference between the antibacterial-treated and control groups. These results showed that antibacterial consumption may increase the bioavailability of isorhamnetin by suppressing gut microbial metabolic activities.
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Kim JK, Choi MS, Jeung W, Ra J, Yoo HH, Kim DH. Effects of gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides Rd, Rg3, F2, and compound K in healthy volunteers treated orally with red ginseng. J Ginseng Res 2019; 44:611-618. [PMID: 32617041 PMCID: PMC7322745 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is well recognized that gut microbiota is involved in the biotransformation of ginsenosides by converting the polar ginsenosides to nonpolar bioactive ginsenosides. However, the roles of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in humans have not yet been fully elucidated. Methods Red ginseng (RG) or fermented red ginseng was orally administered to 34 healthy Korean volunteers, and the serum concentrations of the ginsenosides were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, the fecal ginsenoside Rd- and compound K (CK)-forming activities were measured. Then, the correlations between the pharmacokinetic profiles of the ginsenosides and the fecal ginsenoside-metabolizing activities were investigated. Results For the RG group, the area under the serum concentration-time curve values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 8.20 ± 11.95 ng·h/mL, 4.54 ± 3.70 ng·h/mL, 36.40 ± 19.68 ng·h/mL, and 40.30 ± 29.83 ng·h/mL, respectively. For the fermented red ginseng group, the the area under curve from zero to infinity (AUC∞) values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 187.90 ± 95.87 ng·h/mL, 30.24 ± 41.87 ng·h/mL, 28.68 ± 14.27 ng·h/mL, and 137.01 ± 96.16 ng·h/mL, respectively. The fecal CK-forming activities of the healthy volunteers were generally proportional to their ginsenoside Rd-forming activities. The area under the serum concentration-time curve value of CK exhibited an obvious positive correlation (r = 0.566, p < 0.01) with the fecal CK-forming activity. Conclusion The gut microbiota may play an important role in the bioavailability of the nonpolar RG ginsenosides by affecting the biotransformation of the ginsenosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeon-Kyung Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Sun Choi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| | - Woonhee Jeung
- R&BD Center, Korea Yakult Co. Ltd., Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Jehyeon Ra
- R&BD Center, Korea Yakult Co. Ltd., Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Hyun Yoo
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dong-Hyun Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
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Kim HI, Kim JK, Kim JY, Han MJ, Kim DH. Fermented red ginseng and ginsenoside Rd alleviate ovalbumin-induced allergic rhinitis in mice by suppressing IgE, interleukin-4, and interleukin-5 expression. J Ginseng Res 2019; 43:635-644. [PMID: 31695569 PMCID: PMC6823749 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To increase the pharmacological effects of red ginseng (RG, the steamed root of Panax ginseng Meyer), RG products modified by heat process or fermentation have been developed. However, the antiallergic effects of RG and modified/fermented RG have not been simultaneously examined. Therefore, we examined the allergic rhinitis (AR)-inhibitory effects of water-extracted RG (wRG), 50% ethanol-extracted RG (eRG), and bifidobacteria-fermented eRG (fRG) in vivo. Methods RBL-2H3 cells were stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate/A23187. Mice with AR were prepared by treatment with ovalbumin. Allergic markers IgE, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-4, and IL-5 were assayed in the blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal mucosa, and colon using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 cell populations were assayed using a flow cytometer. Results RG products potently inhibited IL-4 expression in phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate/A23187-stimulated RBL-2H3 cells. Of tested RG products, fRG most potently inhibited IL-4 expression. RG products also alleviated ovalbumin-induced AR in mice. Of these, fRG most potently reduced nasal allergy symptoms and blood IgE levels. fRG treatment also reduced IL-4 and IL-5 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, nasal mucosa, and reduced mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 cell populations. Furthermore, treatment with fRG reduced IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 levels in the colon and restored ovalbumin-suppressed Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria populations and ovalbumin-induced Firmicutes population in gut microbiota. Treatment with ginsenoside Rd significantly alleviated ovalbumin-induced AR in mice. Conclusion fRG and ginsenoside Rd may alleviate AR by suppressing IgE, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 expression and restoring the composition of gut microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye In Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeon-Kyung Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Young Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Myung Joo Han
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hyun Kim
- Neurobiota Research Center and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Pan W, Xue B, Yang C, Miao L, Zhou L, Chen Q, Cai Q, Liu Y, Liu D, He H, Zhang Y, Yin T, Tang X. Biopharmaceutical characters and bioavailability improving strategies of ginsenosides. Fitoterapia 2018; 129:272-282. [PMID: 29883635 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Deglycosylation is the most important gastrointestinal metabolism in which ginsenosides are split off from glycosyl moieties by the enzymes secreted from intestinal microflora, and two possible metabolic pathways of protopanaxdiol-type ginsenosides (PPD-type ginsenosides) and protopanaxtriol-type ginsenosides (PPT-type ginsenosides) have been concluded. The former is deglycosylated at C-3 and/or C-20, and transformed to protopanaxdiol (PPD). By comparison, the latter is deglycosylated at C-6 and/or C-20, and eventually transformed to protopanaxtriol (PPT) instead. The pharmacokinetic behavior of PPD-type ginsenosides and PPT-type ginsenosides is different, mainly in a faster absorption and elimination rate of PPT-type ginsenosides, but almost all of ginsenosides have a low oral bioavailability, which is relevant to the properties, the stability in the gastrointestinal tract, membrane permeability and the intestinal and hepatic first-pass effect of ginsenosides. Fortunately, its bioavailability can be improved by means of pharmaceutical strategies, including nanoparticles, liposomes, emulsions, micelles, etc. These drug delivery systems can significantly increase the bioavailability of ginsenosides, as well as controlling or targeting drug release. Ginsenosides are widely used in the treatment of various diseases, the most famous one is the Shen Yi capsule, which is the world's first clinical application of tumor neovascularization inhibitors. Hence, this article aims to draw people's attention on ocotillol-type ginsenosides, which have prominent anti-Alzheimer's disease activity, but have been overlooked previously, such as its representative compound-Pseudoginsenoside F11(PF11), and then provide a reference for the druggability and further developments of ocotillol-type ginsenosides by utilizing the homogeneous structure between dammarane-type ginsenosides and ocotillol-type ginsenosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenli Pan
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Binli Xue
- Shaanxi Blood Center, Zhuque Street 407, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Chulei Yang
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Linlin Miao
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Lingli Zhou
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Qiuyue Chen
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Qing Cai
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Yi Liu
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Dongchun Liu
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Haibing He
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Tian Yin
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Xing Tang
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning Province, PR China.
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Kim DH. Gut microbiota-mediated pharmacokinetics of ginseng saponins. J Ginseng Res 2018; 42:255-263. [PMID: 29983606 PMCID: PMC6026358 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2017.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Orally administered ginsengs come in contact with the gut microbiota, and their hydrophilic constituents, such as ginsenosides, are metabolized to hydrophobic compounds by gastric juice and gut microbiota: protopanxadiol-type ginsenosides are mainly transformed into compound K and ginsenoside Rh2; protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides to ginsenoside Rh1 and protopanaxatriol, and ocotillol-type ginsenosides to ocotillol. Although this metabolizing activity varies between individuals, the metabolism of ginsenosides to compound K by gut microbiota in individuals treated with ginseng is proportional to the area under the blood concentration curve for compound K in their blood samples. These metabolites such as compound K exhibit potent pharmacological effects, such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiallergic, and neuroprotective effects compared with the parent ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rb2, and Re. Therefore, to monitor the potent pharmacological effects of ginseng, a novel probiotic fermentation technology has been developed to produce absorbable and bioactive metabolites. Based on these findings, it is concluded that gut microbiota play an important role in the pharmacological action of orally administered ginseng, and probiotics that can replace gut microbiota can be used in the development of beneficial and bioactive ginsengs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Hyun Kim
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Ku S. Finding and Producing Probiotic Glycosylases for the Biocatalysis of Ginsenosides: A Mini Review. Molecules 2016; 21:molecules21050645. [PMID: 27196878 PMCID: PMC6273753 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21050645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Various microorganisms have been widely applied in nutraceutical industries for the processing of phytochemical conversion. Specifically, in the Asian food industry and academia, notable attention is paid to the biocatalytic process of ginsenosides (ginseng saponins) using probiotic bacteria that produce high levels of glycosyl-hydrolases. Multiple groups have conducted experiments in order to determine the best conditions to produce more active and stable enzymes, which can be applicable to produce diverse types of ginsenosides for commercial applications. In this sense, there are various reviews that cover the biofunctional effects of multiple types of ginsenosides and the pathways of ginsenoside deglycosylation. However, little work has been published on the production methods of probiotic enzymes, which is a critical component of ginsenoside processing. This review aims to investigate current preparation methods, results on the discovery of new glycosylases, the application potential of probiotic enzymes and their use for biocatalysis of ginsenosides in the nutraceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seockmo Ku
- Laboratory of Renewable Resources Engineering, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2022, USA.
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