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Zhang Z, He D, Zhao S, Qu J. Recent Developments in Semiconductor-Based Photocatalytic Degradation of Antiviral Drug Pollutants. TOXICS 2023; 11:692. [PMID: 37624197 PMCID: PMC10458903 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11080692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence of antiviral drugs (ATVs) has seen a substantial increase in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to heightened concentrations of these pharmaceuticals in wastewater systems. The hydrophilic nature of ATVs has been identified as a significant factor contributing to the low degradation efficiency observed in wastewater treatment plants. This characteristic often necessitates the implementation of additional treatment steps to achieve the complete degradation of ATVs. Semiconductor-based photocatalysis has garnered considerable attention due to its promising potential in achieving efficient degradation rates and subsequent mineralization of pollutants, leveraging the inexhaustible energy of sunlight. However, in recent years, there have been few comprehensive reports that have thoroughly summarized and analyzed the application of photocatalysis for the removal of ATVs. This review commences by summarizing the types and occurrence of ATVs. Furthermore, it places a significant emphasis on delivering a comprehensive summary and analysis of the characteristics pertaining to the photocatalytic elimination of ATVs, utilizing semiconductor photocatalysts such as metal oxides, doped metal oxides, and heterojunctions. Ultimately, the review sheds light on the identified research gaps and key concerns, offering invaluable insights to steer future investigations in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaocheng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Geographical Processes and Ecological Security of Changbai Mountains, Ministry of Education, School of Geographical Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China;
| | - Dongyang He
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, China;
| | - Siyu Zhao
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, China;
| | - Jiao Qu
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, China;
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2
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Paniagua-López M, Aguilar-Garrido A, Contero-Hurtado J, García-Romera I, Sierra-Aragón M, Romero-Freire A. Ecotoxicological Assessment of Polluted Soils One Year after the Application of Different Soil Remediation Techniques. TOXICS 2023; 11:298. [PMID: 37112525 PMCID: PMC10143980 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11040298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The present work evaluated the influence of eight different soil remediation techniques, based on the use of residual materials (gypsum, marble, vermicompost) on the reduction in metal(loid)s toxicity (Cu, Zn, As, Pb and Cd) in a polluted natural area. Selected remediation treatments were applied in a field exposed to real conditions and they were evaluated one year after the application. More specifically, five ecotoxicological tests were carried out using different organisms on either the solid or the aqueous (leachate) fraction of the amended soils. Likewise, the main soil properties and the total, water-soluble and bioavailable metal fractions were determined to evaluate their influence on soil toxicity. According to the toxicity bioassays performed, the response of organisms to the treatments differed depending on whether the solid or the aqueous fraction was used. Our results highlighted that the use of a single bioassay may not be sufficient as an indicator of toxicity pathways to select soil remediation methods, so that the joint determination of metal availability and ecotoxicological response will be determinant for the correct establishment of any remediation technique carried out under natural conditions. Our results indicated that, of the different treatments used, the best technique for the remediation of metal(loid)s toxicity was the addition of marble sludge with vermicompost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Paniagua-López
- Departamento de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (A.A.-G.); (J.C.-H.); (M.S.-A.)
- Departamento de Microbiología del Suelo y Sistemas Simbióticos, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (EEZ-CSIC), 18008 Granada, Spain;
| | - Antonio Aguilar-Garrido
- Departamento de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (A.A.-G.); (J.C.-H.); (M.S.-A.)
| | - José Contero-Hurtado
- Departamento de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (A.A.-G.); (J.C.-H.); (M.S.-A.)
| | - Inmaculada García-Romera
- Departamento de Microbiología del Suelo y Sistemas Simbióticos, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (EEZ-CSIC), 18008 Granada, Spain;
| | - Manuel Sierra-Aragón
- Departamento de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (A.A.-G.); (J.C.-H.); (M.S.-A.)
| | - Ana Romero-Freire
- Departamento de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (A.A.-G.); (J.C.-H.); (M.S.-A.)
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Eryildiz B, Yavuzturk Gul B, Koyuncu I. A sustainable approach for the removal methods and analytical determination methods of antiviral drugs from water/wastewater: A review. JOURNAL OF WATER PROCESS ENGINEERING 2022; 49:103036. [PMID: 35966450 PMCID: PMC9359512 DOI: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.103036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In the last years, antiviral drugs especially used for the treatment of COVID-19 have been considered emerging contaminants because of their continuous occurrence and persistence in water/wastewater even at low concentrations. Furthermore, as compared to antiviral drugs, their metabolites and transformation products of these pharmaceuticals are more persistent in the environment. They have been found in environmental matrices all over the world, demonstrating that conventional treatment technologies are unsuccessful for removing them from water/wastewater. Several approaches for degrading/removing antiviral drugs have been studied to avoid this contamination. In this study, the present level of knowledge on the input sources, occurrence, determination methods and, especially, the degradation and removal methods of antiviral drugs are discussed in water/wastewater. Different removal methods, such as conventional treatment methods (i.e. activated sludge), advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), adsorption, membrane processes, and combined processes, were evaluated. In addition, the antiviral drugs and these metabolites, as well as the transformation products created as a result of treatment, were examined. Future perspectives for removing antiviral drugs, their metabolites, and transformation products were also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahriye Eryildiz
- Istanbul Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
- National Research Center on Membrane Technologies, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Bahar Yavuzturk Gul
- National Research Center on Membrane Technologies, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ismail Koyuncu
- Istanbul Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
- National Research Center on Membrane Technologies, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
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Kiyanmehr K, Moussavi G, Mohammadi S, Naddafi K, Giannakis S. The efficacy of the VUV/O 3 process run in a continuous-flow fluidized bed reactor for simultaneous elimination of favipiravir and bacteria in aqueous matrices. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 304:135307. [PMID: 35716652 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The efficacy of the Vacuum UV/Ozonation (VUV/O3) process was evaluated for the degradation of favipiravir (FAV). It was found that coupling O3 and VUV resulted in a considerable synergistic catalytic effect on FAV removal. The VUV/O3 process performed better in moderately alkaline conditions than in acidic ones; complete FAV degradation and 99.4% TOC removal were achieved within 10 and 60 min, respectively. HO• played the dominant role in FAV degradation, with a second-order reaction rate constant with HO• at 1.05 × 1010 M-1 s-1. The VUV/O3 process could effectively treat tap water spiked with FAV. Efficient FAV and TOC removal, as well as total bacterial inactivation, was attained when treating municipal secondary effluent by the VUV/O3 process. Finally, the VUV/O3 process was operated in a continuous-flow mode in a fluidized-bed (FBR) reactor for treating FAV-spiked tap water. Complete degradation and 75.1% mineralization of 10 mg/L FAV were obtained at a hydraulic retention time of 1 and 8 min, respectively. The findings clearly suggest that the VUV/O3 process operated in a continuous-flow FBR is a promising, efficient technology for the removal of novel and emerging contaminants, such as the antiviral FAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyan Kiyanmehr
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Moussavi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Samira Mohammadi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kazem Naddafi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Stefanos Giannakis
- Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, E.T.S. Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Departamento de Ingeniería Civil: Hidráulica, Energía y Medio Ambiente, Unidad docente Ingeniería Sanitaria, c/ Profesor Aranguren, s/n, ES-28040, Madrid, Spain
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Kasza P, Pociecha K, Wójcik-Pszczoła K, Canale V, Wyska E, Zajdel P, Szafrański PW, Cegła M. Ligand assisted CuAAC labelling and RP-HPLC analysis of zidovudine and Retrovir using propargyl-Fmoc probe. Eur J Pharm Sci 2022; 178:106293. [PMID: 36116697 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2022.106293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The extensive application of zidovudine (ZDV) as a stand-alone anti-HIV drug and a component in antiviral combination therapies, has made its analysis important both in the pharmaceutical and environmental context. The azide group in ZDV structure makes it a ready-to-use substrate for copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), which is an efficient method for "click chemistry" labeling. In this paper, we describe a ligand-assisted CuAAC procedure for the precolumn derivatization of ZDV. We used propargyl-Fmoc fluorescent label and trans-2-(4-((dimethylamino)methyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-yl)cyclohexan-1-ol (AMTC) as a copper-binding ligand. We tested the applicability of AMTC for precolumn derivatization and developed chromatographic analytical procedures for ZDV and its formulation (50 mg/5 ml oral solution, Retrovir™ syrup). Our research aimed to improve labeling efficiency with a Cu-chelating ligand, using an accessible and affordable fluorescent probe. We also developed a sustainable mechanochemical synthesis procedure for obtaining propargyl-Fmoc in a gram scale and thus boosted the accessibility of this probe. The advantages of the developed derivatization procedure are its simplicity and easy availability of the propargyl-Fmoc probe. Moreover, the high lipophilicity of the propargyl-Fmoc probe enables efficient separation of the analyte from polar matrix components. In addition, the derivatization procedure can be performed directly on a sample solution. We tested its usability for samples in environmental and biological matrices, including tap water, river water, urine, and human serum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patryk Kasza
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Krakow 30-688, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Pociecha
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Krakow 30-688, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Wójcik-Pszczoła
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Kraków 30-688, Poland
| | - Vittorio Canale
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Krakow 30-688, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Wyska
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Krakow 30-688, Poland
| | - Paweł Zajdel
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Krakow 30-688, Poland
| | - Przemysław W Szafrański
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Krakow 30-688, Poland.
| | - Marek Cegła
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, Krakow 30-688, Poland
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Mahaye N, Musee N. Effects of Two Antiretroviral Drugs on the Crustacean Daphnia magna in River Water. TOXICS 2022; 10:toxics10080423. [PMID: 36006102 PMCID: PMC9416331 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10080423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Antiretroviral (ARVs) drugs are used to manage the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease and are increasingly being detected in the aquatic environment. However, little is known about their effects on non-target aquatic organisms. Here, Daphnia magna neonates were exposed to Efavirenz (EFV) and Tenofovir (TFV) ARVs at 62.5–1000 µg/L for 48 h in river water. The endpoints assessed were mortality, immobilization, and biochemical biomarkers (catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and malondialdehyde (MDA)). No mortality was observed over 48 h. Concentration- and time-dependent immobilization was observed for both ARVs only at 250–1000 µg/L after 48 h, with significant immobilization observed for EFV compared to TFV. Results for biochemical responses demonstrated that both ARVs induced significant changes in CAT and GST activities, and MDA levels, with effects higher for EFV compared to TFV. Biochemical responses were indicative of oxidative stress alterations. Hence, both ARVs could potentially be toxic to D. magna.
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7
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Ortúzar M, Esterhuizen M, Olicón-Hernández DR, González-López J, Aranda E. Pharmaceutical Pollution in Aquatic Environments: A Concise Review of Environmental Impacts and Bioremediation Systems. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:869332. [PMID: 35558129 PMCID: PMC9087044 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.869332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of emerging contaminants in the environment, such as pharmaceuticals, is a growing global concern. The excessive use of medication globally, together with the recalcitrance of pharmaceuticals in traditional wastewater treatment systems, has caused these compounds to present a severe environmental problem. In recent years, the increase in their availability, access and use of drugs has caused concentrations in water bodies to rise substantially. Considered as emerging contaminants, pharmaceuticals represent a challenge in the field of environmental remediation; therefore, alternative add-on systems for traditional wastewater treatment plants are continuously being developed to mitigate their impact and reduce their effects on the environment and human health. In this review, we describe the current status and impact of pharmaceutical compounds as emerging contaminants, focusing on their presence in water bodies, and analyzing the development of bioremediation systems, especially mycoremediation, for the removal of these pharmaceutical compounds with a special focus on fungal technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maite Ortúzar
- Department of Microbiology and Genetics, Edificio Departamental, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Maranda Esterhuizen
- Ecosystems and Environment Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Finland and Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Joint Laboratory of Applied Ecotoxicology, Korea Institute of Science and Technology Europe, Saarbrücken, Germany.,University of Manitoba, Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Environment, Earth, and Resources, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Darío Rafael Olicón-Hernández
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jesús González-López
- Environmental Microbiology Group, Institute of Water Research, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Elisabet Aranda
- Environmental Microbiology Group, Institute of Water Research, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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8
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Ye C, Ma X, Deng J, Li X, Li Q, Dietrich AM. Degradation of saccharin by UV/H 2O 2 and UV/PS processes: A comparative study. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 288:132337. [PMID: 34592214 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Artificial sweeteners have raised emerging concern due to their potential threats to human health, which were frequently detected in aquatic environment with median concentrations. Although current researches have widely reported that ultraviolet light-activated persulfate process (UV/PS) was superior to UV/H2O2 process for the degradation of refractory organic contaminants, UV/H2O2 process presented a more satisfactory saccharin (SAC) removal efficiency than UV/PS process, completely degraded 20 mg/L SAC within 45 min. Hence, quenching and probe experiments were employed to investigate the difference between hydroxyl radical (OH)- and sulfate radical (SO4-)-mediated oxidation mechanisms, which revealed the higher reactivity of OH (1.37-1.56 × 109 M-1 s-1) toward SAC than SO4- (3.84-4.13 × 108 M-1 s-1). A combination of density functional theory calculation and transformation products identification disclosed that OH preferred to attack the benzene ring of SAC via hydrogen atom transfer pathway, whereas SO4- oxidation was conducive to the cleavage of -C-NH2 bond. Increasing oxidant concentration significantly accelerated SAC degradation in both processes, while UV/H2O2 process consumed lower electrical energy with respect to UV/PS process. Additionally, UV/H2O2 system presented excellent adaptability and stability under various water matrices parameters (e.g. pH, anions and humic acid). While both UV/H2O2 and UV/PS processes promoted the generation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during subsequent chlorination, and prolonging pretreatment time posed positive effect on reducing the formation of DBPs. Overall, the results clearly demonstrate the high efficiency, economy and practicality of UV/H2O2 process in the remediation of SAC-contaminated water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Ye
- College of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
| | - Xiaoyan Ma
- College of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China.
| | - Jing Deng
- College of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
| | - Xueyan Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou, 215009, China
| | - Qingsong Li
- Water Resources and Environmental Institute, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Andrea M Dietrich
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
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Köse K, Tüysüz M, Aksüt D, Uzun L. Modification of cyclodextrin and use in environmental applications. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:182-209. [PMID: 34212318 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15005-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Water pollution, which has become a global problem in parallel with environmental pollution, is a problem that needs to be solved urgently, considering the gradual depletion of water resources. The inadequacy of the water treatment methods and the materials used somehow directed the researchers to look for dual character structures such as biocompatible and biodegradable β-cyclodextrin (β-CD). β-CD, which is normally insoluble in water, is used in demanding wastewater applications by being modified with the help of different agents to be water soluble or transformed into polymeric adsorbents as a result of co-polymerization via cross-linkers. In this way, in addition to the host-guest interactions offered by β-CD, secondary forces arising from these interactions provide advantages in terms of regeneration and reusability. However, the adsorption efficiency and synthesis steps need to be improved. Based on the current studies presented in this review, in which cross-linkers and modification methods are also mentioned, suggestions for novel synthesis methods of new-generation β-CD-based materials, criticisms, and recent methods of removal of micropollutants such as heavy metals, industrial dyes, harmful biomolecules, and pharmaceutics wastes are mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazım Köse
- Department of Joint Courses, Hitit University, 19040, Çorum, Turkey.
| | - Miraç Tüysüz
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Davut Aksüt
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Lokman Uzun
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
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Reddy K, Renuka N, Kumari S, Bux F. Algae-mediated processes for the treatment of antiretroviral drugs in wastewater: Prospects and challenges. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 280:130674. [PMID: 34162077 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence of pharmaceuticals (PCs), especially antiretroviral (ARV) drugs in various aquatic ecosystems has been expansively reported, wherein wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are identified as the primary point source. Consequently, the occurrence, ecotoxicity and treatment of ARV drugs in WWTPs have drawn much attention in recent years. Numerous studies have shown that the widely employed activated sludge-based WWTPs are incapable of removing ARV drugs efficiently from wastewater. Recently, algae-based wastewater treatment processes have shown promising results in PCs removal from wastewater, either completely or partially, through different processes such as biosorption, bioaccumulation, and intra-/inter-cellular degradation. Algal species have also shown to tolerate high concentrations of ARV drugs than the reported concentrations in the environmental matrices. In this review, emphasis has been given on discussing the current status of the occurrence of ARV drugs in the aquatic environment and WWTPs. Besides, the current trends and future perspectives of PCs removal by algae are critically reviewed and discussed. The potential pathways and mechanisms of ARV drugs removal by algae have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Reddy
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Nirmal Renuka
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Sheena Kumari
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Faizal Bux
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa.
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Kreuzig R, Haller-Jans J, Bischoff C, Leppin J, Germer J, Mohr M, Bliedung A, Dockhorn T. Reclaimed water driven lettuce cultivation in a hydroponic system: the need of micropollutant removal by advanced wastewater treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:50052-50062. [PMID: 33945089 PMCID: PMC8445861 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14144-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
For a novel approach of resource-efficient water reuse, a municipal wastewater treatment plant was extended at pilot scale for advanced wastewater treatment, i.e., ozonation and biological activated carbon filtration, and a hydroponic system for reclaimed water driven lettuce cultivation. The treatment specific wastewater lines with the corresponding lettuce plants, differentiated into roots and shoots, were monitored for priority wastewater micropollutants, i.e., acesulfame (sweetener), caffeine (stimulant), carbamazepine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, sulfamethoxazole with acetyl-sulfamethoxazole (human pharmaceuticals), 1H-benzotriazole, and 4/5-methylbenzotriazole (industrial chemicals). As clearly demonstrated, conventional tertiary treatment could not efficiently clean up wastewater. Removal efficiencies ranged from 3% for carbamazepine to 100% for ibuprofen. The resulting pollution of the hydroponic water lines led to the accumulation of acesulfame, carbamazepine, and diclofenac in lettuce root systems at 32.0, 69.5, and 135 μg kg-1 and in the uptake of acesulfame and carbamazepine into lettuce shoots at 23.4 and 120 μg kg-1 dry weight, respectively. In contrast, both advanced treatment technologies when operating under optimized conditions achieved removal efficiencies of > 90% also for persistent micropollutants. Minimizing the pollution of reclaimed water thus met one relevant need for hydroponic lettuce cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Kreuzig
- Institute of Environmental and Sustainable Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Jaqueline Haller-Jans
- Institute of Environmental and Sustainable Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Cornelia Bischoff
- Institute of Environmental and Sustainable Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Johannes Leppin
- Institute of Environmental and Sustainable Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jörn Germer
- Hans-Ruthenberg-Institut, Universität Hohenheim, Garbenstraße 13, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Marius Mohr
- Bioprocess Engineering in Water Management and Circular Economy, Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology, Nobelstraße 12, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alexa Bliedung
- Institute of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Pockelsstraße 2a, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Thomas Dockhorn
- Institute of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Pockelsstraße 2a, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
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Nippes RP, Macruz PD, da Silva GN, Neves Olsen Scaliante MH. A critical review on environmental presence of pharmaceutical drugs tested for the covid-19 treatment. PROCESS SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION : TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS, PART B 2021; 152:568-582. [PMID: 34226801 PMCID: PMC8243632 DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2021.06.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic. The outbreak caused a worldwide impact, becoming a health threat to the general population and its professionals. To date, there are no specific antiviral treatments or vaccines for the COVID-19 infection, however, some drugs are being clinically tested. The use of these drugs on large scale raises great concern about their imminent environmental risk, since the elimination of these compounds by feces and urine associated with the inefficiency of sewage treatment plants in their removal can result in their persistence in the environment, putting in risk the health of humans and of other species. Thus, the goal of this work was to conduct a review of other studies that evaluated the presence of the drugs chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, ivermectin, dexamethasone, remdesivir, favipiravir and some HIV antivirals in the environment. The research indicated the presence of these drugs in the environment in different regions, with concentration data that could serve as a basis for further comparative studies following the pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramiro Picoli Nippes
- State University of Maringa, Department of Chemical Engineering, Maringa, 87020-900, Parana, Brazil
| | - Paula Derksen Macruz
- State University of Maringa, Department of Chemical Engineering, Maringa, 87020-900, Parana, Brazil
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Funke J, Prasse C, Dietrich C, Ternes TA. Ozonation products of zidovudine and thymidine in oxidative water treatment. WATER RESEARCH X 2021; 11:100090. [PMID: 33604534 PMCID: PMC7873472 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Ozonation is an advanced treatment technology that is increasingly used for the removal of organic micropollutants from wastewater and drinking water. However, reaction of organic compounds with ozone can also result in the formation of toxic transformation products. In the present study, the degradation of the antiviral drug zidovudine during ozonation was investigated. To obtain further insights into the reaction mechanisms and pathways, results of zidovudine were compared with the transformation of the naturally occurring derivative thymidine. Kinetic experiments were accompanied by elucidation of formed transformation products using lab-scale batch experiments and subsequent liquid chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) analysis. Degradation rate constants for zidovudine with ozone in the presence of t-BuOH as radical scavenger varied between 2.8 ∙ 104 M-1 s-1 (pH 7) and 3.2 ∙ 104 M-1 s-1 (pH 3). The structural difference of zidovudine to thymidine is the exchange of the OH-moiety by the azide function at position 3'. In contrast to inorganic azide, no reaction with ozone was observed for the organic bound azide. In total, nine transformation products (TPs) were identified for both zidovudine and thymidine. Their formation can be attributed to the attack of ozone at the C-C-double bond of the pyrimidine-base. As a result of rearrangements, the primary ozonide decomposed in three pathways forming two different TPs, including hydroperoxide TPs. Rearrangement reactions followed by hydrolysis and subsequent release of H2O2 further revealed a cascade of TPs containing amide moieties. In addition, a formyl amide riboside and a urea riboside were identified as TPs indicating that oxidations of amide groups occur during ozonation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Funke
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Carsten Prasse
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068, Koblenz, Germany
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Christian Dietrich
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Thomas A. Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068, Koblenz, Germany
- Corresponding author.
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Kinetic Modeling of Advanced Oxidation Processes Using Microreactors: Challenges and Opportunities for Scale-Up. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11031042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
With the increasing number of recalcitrant pollutants in wastewater treatment plants, there will be a stringent need for rapid and convenient development of tertiary treatment processes such as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Microreactors offer a great opportunity for ultrafast and safe intrinsic kinetic parameters determination, by-products identification, and ecotoxicity assessment. Despite the considerable potential of these devices, they have been mostly used for catalyst screening or pseudo-first order kinetics determination, not allowing for knowledge transfer across scales. This work offers an overview of the adoption of micro- and photo-microreactors for intrinsic kinetics investigations in the field of AOPs to guide future research efforts.
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Rey-García F, Sieira BJ, Bao-Varela C, Leis JR, Angurel LA, Quintana JB, Rodil R, de la Fuente GF. Can UV-C laser pulsed irradiation be used for the removal of organic micropollutants from water? Case study with ibuprofen. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 742:140507. [PMID: 32629255 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A novel approach based on the direct pulsed irradiation of UV-C light onto ibuprofen (IBP) solutions was evaluated in this work, as proof of concept for the direct removal of micropollutants. The experiments confirmed that laser irradiation is able to completely degrade IBP in 15 min in distilled water, with a DOC depletion of ca. 25% and with transformation products (TPs) remaining in solution and estimated to represent ca. 10% of the initial IBP concentration. In wastewater spiked samples, removal efficiency is slightly lower but still significant (ca. 5% IBP remaining after 15 min). Hence, this work suggests that low power solid state pulsed lasers, emitting at 266 nm wavelength, show promise for the removal of these type of micropollutants from water. These results open new opportunities towards the development of chemical-free water treatment methods based on direct, selective irradiation using state of the art, miniaturized laser devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Rey-García
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Aragón (CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza), c/María de Luna 3, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; Unidad Asociada de Microóptica & Óptica GRIN, "Photonics4life" group, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, c/Campus Sur s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Benigno José Sieira
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IAQBUS - Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Carmen Bao-Varela
- Unidad Asociada de Microóptica & Óptica GRIN, "Photonics4life" group, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, c/Campus Sur s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - José Ramón Leis
- Unidad Asociada de Microóptica & Óptica GRIN, "Photonics4life" group, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, c/Campus Sur s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Luis Alberto Angurel
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Aragón (CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza), c/María de Luna 3, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IAQBUS - Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IAQBUS - Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Germán Francisco de la Fuente
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Aragón (CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza), c/María de Luna 3, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain.
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16
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Development and Validation of a LC-MS/MS Method for Determination of Multi-Class Antibiotic Residues in Aquaculture and River Waters, and Photocatalytic Degradation of Antibiotics by TiO2 Nanomaterials. Catalysts 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/catal10030356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This study presents a multi-residue method for simultaneous qualitative and quantitative analysis of eight antibiotics from some common classes, including beta-lactam, tetracyclines, lincosamides, glycopeptides, and sulfonamides in 39 aquaculture and river water samples from the Mekong Delta (Vietnam) using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). As a result, doxycycline (DXC), oxytetracycline (OTC), lincomycin (LCM), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), and sulfamethazine (SMZ) were detected with high frequency over 65% and an average concentration of 22.6–76.8 ng·mL−1. The result suggests that antibiotic residues in the aquaculture and river waters are considered as an emerging environmental problem of the region. To address this issue, we fabricated the well-defined TiO2 nanotube arrays (TNAs) and nanowires on nanotube arrays (TNWs/TNAs) using the anodization method. The TNAs had an inner tube diameter of ~95 nm and a wall thickness of ~25 nm. Meanwhile, the TNWs/TNAs had a layer of TiO2 nanowires with a length of ~6 µm partially covering the TNAs. In addition, both TNAs and TNWs/TNAs had pure anatase phase TiO2 with (101) and (112) dominant preferred orientations. Moreover, the TNAs and TNWs/TNAs effectively and rapidly degraded the antibiotic residues under UV-VIS irradiation at 120 mW/cm2 and obtained over 95% removal at 20 min. Indeed, the photocatalytic reaction rate constants (k) were in the range of 0.14–0.36 min−1 for TNAs, and 0.15–0.38 min−1 for TNWs/TNAs. Noticeably, the k values of TNWs/TNAs were slightly higher than those of TNAs for LCM, DXC, OTC, SMZ, and SMX that could be attributed to the larger surface area of TNWs/TNAs than TNAs when TNWs/TNAs had an additional ~6μm TNWs top layer.
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17
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Fenyvesi É, Barkács K, Gruiz K, Varga E, Kenyeres I, Záray G, Szente L. Removal of hazardous micropollutants from treated wastewater using cyclodextrin bead polymer - A pilot demonstration case. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 383:121181. [PMID: 31541954 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Increasing amount of micropollutants such as drugs, cosmetics and nutritional supplements detected in surface waters represents increasing risk to humans and to the whole environment. These hazardous materials deriving mostly from wastewaters often cannot be effectively removed by conventional water treatment technologies due to their persistence. Some of the innovative technologies use specific sorbents for their removal. Cyclodextrin-based sorbents have already proved to be efficient in laboratory-scale experiments, but no pilot-plant scale demonstration has been performed so far. We are the first who applied this sorption-technology as a tertiary treatment in a pilot-plant scale operating, biomachine-type municipal wastewater treatment plant. As a result of the treatment 7 of 9 typical micropollutants (estradiol, ethinyl estradiol, estriol, diclofenac, ibuprofen, bisphenol A and cholesterol) were removed with >80% efficiency from effluent (reducing their concentration from ∼5 μg/L to <0.001-1 μg/L). GC-MS analysis of water samples showed that many of the micropollutants were removed from the water within a short time, demonstrating the high potential of the applied cyclodextrin-based sorbent in micropollutant removal. The effect-based testing also confirmed the efficiency. There was a correlation between sorption efficacies and binding constants of micropollutant/cyclodextrin inclusion complexes, showing that among others also inclusion complex formation of pollutants with cyclodextrin played important role in sorption mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Éva Fenyvesi
- CycloLab Cyclodextrin R&D Laboratory Ltd., Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Katalin Barkács
- Cooperation Research Center of Environmental Sciences, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Katalin Gruiz
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Erzsébet Varga
- CycloLab Cyclodextrin R&D Laboratory Ltd., Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Gyula Záray
- Cooperation Research Center of Environmental Sciences, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Lajos Szente
- CycloLab Cyclodextrin R&D Laboratory Ltd., Budapest, Hungary
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Russo D, Cochran KH, Westerman D, Li Puma G, Marotta R, Andreozzi R, Richardson SD. Ultrafast photodegradation of isoxazole and isothiazolinones by UV 254 and UV 254/H 2O 2 photolysis in a microcapillary reactor. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 169:115203. [PMID: 31669902 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The photodegradation process of methylisothiazolinone (MIT), benzisothiazolinone (BIT), and isoxazole (ISOX) in ultrapure water and synthetic wastewater by means of UV254 photolysis and by UV254/H2O2 advanced oxidation process were investigated in a microcapillary photoreactor designed for ultrafast photochemical transformation of microcontaminants. For the first time, we estimated key photo-kinetic parameters, i.e. quantum yields (35.4 mmol·ein-1 for MIT, and 13.5 and 55.8 mmol·ein-1 for BIT at pH = 4-6 and 8, respectively) and rate constants of the reaction of photo-generated OH radicals with MIT and BIT (2.09·109 and 5.9·109 L mol-1·s-1 for MIT and BIT). The rate constants of the reaction of photo-generated OH radicals with ISOX in MilliQ water was also estimated (2.15·109 L mol-1·s-1) and it was in good agreement with literature indications obtained in different aqueous matrices. The models were extended and validated to the case of simultaneous degradation of mixtures of these compounds and using synthetic wastewater as an aqueous matrix. High resolution-accurate mass spectrometry analysis enabled identification of the main intermediates (BIT200, B200, saccharin, BIT166) and enabled proposal of a novel degradation pathway for BIT under UV254/H2O2 treatment. This study demonstrates an ultrafast method to determine key photo-kinetic parameters of contaminants of emerging concern in water and wastewater, which are needed for design and validation of photochemical water treatment processes of municipal and industrial wastewaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo Russo
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, Dei Materiali e Della Produzione Industriale, Università di Napoli Federico II, Italy.
| | - Kristin H Cochran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, USA
| | - Danielle Westerman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, USA
| | - Gianluca Li Puma
- Environmental Nanocatalysis & Photoreaction Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, UK
| | - Raffaele Marotta
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, Dei Materiali e Della Produzione Industriale, Università di Napoli Federico II, Italy
| | - Roberto Andreozzi
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, Dei Materiali e Della Produzione Industriale, Università di Napoli Federico II, Italy
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, USA.
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Nannou C, Ofrydopoulou A, Evgenidou E, Heath D, Heath E, Lambropoulou D. Antiviral drugs in aquatic environment and wastewater treatment plants: A review on occurrence, fate, removal and ecotoxicity. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 699:134322. [PMID: 31678880 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The environmental release of antiviral drugs is of considerable concern due to potential ecosystem alterations and the development of antiviral resistance. As a result, interest on their occurrence and fate in natural and engineered systems has grown substantially in recent years. The main scope of this review is to fill the void of information on the knowledge on the worldwide occurrence of antiviral drugs in wastewaters and natural waters and correlate their levels with their environmental fate. According to the conducted literature survey, few monitoring data exists for several European countries, such as Germany, France, and the UK. Lesser data are available for Asia, where approximately 80% of the studies focus on Japan. Several articles study the occurrence of mostly antiretroantivirals in sub-Saharan African countries, while there is a lack of data for other developing regions of the world, including the rest of Africa, South America, and the biggest part of Asia. An importantly smaller number of studies exists for North America, while no studies exist for Oceania. The against innfluenza drug oseltamivir along with its active carboxy metabolite is found to be the most studied antiviral drug. The distribution of antiviral drugs across all geographic regions varies from low ng L-1 to high μg L-1 levels, in some cases, even in surface waters. This overarching review reveals that monitoring of antiviral drugs is necessary, and some of those compounds may require toxicological attention, in the light of either spatial and temporal high concentration or potential antiviral resistance. Based on the information provided herein, the need for a better understanding of the water quality hazards posed by antiviral drugs existence in wastewater outputs and freshwater ecosystems is demosntrated. Finally, the future challenges concerning the occurrence, fate, and potential ecotoxicological risk to organisms posed by antiviral drug residues are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Nannou
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. GR 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anna Ofrydopoulou
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. GR 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Eleni Evgenidou
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. GR 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - David Heath
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ester Heath
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Dimitra Lambropoulou
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. GR 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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