Less SO2 residue may not indicate higher quality, better efficacy and weaker toxicity of sulfur-fumigated herbs: Ginseng, a pilot study

Integrating UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS and UPLC-DAD to evaluate the influence of sulfur-fumigated Paeoniae Radix Alba on the overall quality of three Si-Wu-Tang formulations

INTRODUCTION

Sulfur-fumigation of Paeoniae Radix Alba (PRA) could induce the chemical transformation of its bioactive component paeoniflorin into a sulfur-containing derivative paeoniflorin sulfite, and thus alter the quality, bioactivities, pharmacokinetics, and toxicities of PRA. However, how sulfur-fumigated PRA (S-PRA) affects the quality of PRA-containing complex preparations has not been intensively evaluated.

OBJECTIVES

We intend to evaluate the influence of S-PRA on the overall quality of three kinds of Si-Wu-Tang (SWT) formulations, i.e., decoction (SWT-D), granule (SWT-G), and mixture (SWT-M).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

An UPLC-DAD multi-components quantification method was used to compare the transfer rates of paeoniflorin sulfite and other 10 bioactive components between S-PRA-containing and NS-PRA-containing SWT formulations. An UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS-based target metabolomics approach was applied to explore the differential sulfur-containing derivatives in S-PRA-containing SWT formulations.

RESULTS

The transfer rates of paeoniflorin sulfite in three S-PRA-containing SWT formulations were all higher than 100%. Moreover, S-PRA also increased the transfer rate of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, 1,2,3,4,6-O-pentagalloylglucose, whereas decreased that of paeoniflorin, albiflorin, and ferulic acid in three SWT formulations. Six pinane monoterpene glucoside sulfites originally identified in S-PRA, were also detectable in three S-PRA-containing SWT formulations. In addition, seven phenolic acid sulfites including (3Z)-6-sulfite-ligustilide, (3E)-6-sulfite-ligustilide, 6,8-disulfite-ligustilide, ferulic acid sulfite, neochlorogenic acid sulfite, chlorogenic acid sulfite, and angelicide sulfite (or isomer) were newly identified in these three S-PRA-containing formulations.

CONCLUSION

S-PRA could differentially affect the transfer rate of paeoniflorin sulfite and other bioactive components during the preparation of three SWT formulations and subsequently the overall quality thereof.

Quality variation of maidong (Ophiopogon japonicus and Liriope spicata) - A HPTLC-based approach

The tuberous roots of Ophiopogon japonicus and Liriope spicata are used for the same therapeutic purpose in traditional Chinese medicine and are collectively referred to as maidong medicine. Interestingly, it was observed that the price of tuberous roots varies depending on their location on the plant, and fibrous roots are usually discarded post-harvest. Mislabeling might be of concern due to similarities in morphological features between the two species. Moreover, paclobutrazol has been observed to be heavily applied during the production, and therefore might be of health concern. Overall, maidong might suffer from quality inconsistencies while its metabolomic complexity is influenced by growing region and cultivation practices, botanical species, and plant parts. To address these challenges, this study employed High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) approach, in which sample preparation and derivatization procedure were optimized to enable to capture more detailed and comprehensive metabolomic fingerprints. By integrating with rTLC algorithm and Multivariate Data Analysis (MVDA), an improved quality assessment was achieved. Samples were collected from four production regions and supplemented with commercial products from markets. The optimized HPTLC analysis recognized species- and region-specific metabolomic patterns of maidong, uncovering a 4% of mislabelled cases. Moreover, findings highlight the underexplored therapeutic potential of fibrous roots, and comparable therapeutic efficacy between different root types. Additionally, complemented by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) for paclobutrazol residue evaluation, 24.66% of the commercial maidong samples surpassed maximum residue limits of paclobutrazol, raising safety concerns. This research represents a significant analytical advancement, offering a robust, cost-effective, and comprehensive method for maidong quality control, and paving the way for more strict residue regulation and updates to herbal pharmacopoeias and monographs.

Advancing herbal medicine: enhancing product quality and safety through robust quality control practices

This manuscript provides an in-depth review of the significance of quality control in herbal medication products, focusing on its role in maintaining efficiency and safety. With a historical foundation in traditional medicine systems, herbal remedies have gained widespread popularity as natural alternatives to conventional treatments. However, the increasing demand for these products necessitates stringent quality control measures to ensure consistency and safety. This comprehensive review explores the importance of quality control methods in monitoring various aspects of herbal product development, manufacturing, and distribution. Emphasizing the need for standardized processes, the manuscript delves into the detection and prevention of contaminants, the authentication of herbal ingredients, and the adherence to regulatory standards. Additionally, it highlights the integration of traditional knowledge and modern scientific approaches in achieving optimal quality control outcomes. By emphasizing the role of quality control in herbal medicine, this manuscript contributes to promoting consumer trust, safeguarding public health, and fostering the responsible use of herbal medication products.

Impacts of sulfur fumigation on the chemistry and immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharides in ginseng

Ginseng is widely regarded as a panacea in Oriental medicine mainly due to its immunomodulatory activity. We previously found that sulfur fumigation, a commonly used pesticidal and anti-bacterial processing practice, weakened the immunomodulatory activity of ginseng. However, if and how sulfur fumigation affects the polysaccharides in ginseng, the crucial components contributing to the immunomodulatory function, remain unknown. Here we report that polysaccharides extracted from sulfur-fumigated ginseng (SGP) presented different chemical properties with polysaccharides extracted with non-fumigated ginseng (NGP), particularly increased water extraction yield and decreased branching degree. SGP had weaker immunomodulatory activity than NGP in immunocompromised mice, as evidenced by less improved immunophenotypes involving body weight, immune organ indexes, white blood cells, lymphocyte cell populations and inflammation. The different immunomodulatory activities were accompanied by changes in the interaction between the polysaccharides and gut microbiota, in which SGP stimulated the growth of different bacteria but produced less SCFAs as compared to NGP. Fecal microbiota transplantation experiment suggested that gut microbiota played a central role in causing the weakened immunomodulatory activity in vivo. This study provides definite evidence that sulfur fumigation affects the chemistry and bioactivity of ginseng polysaccharides, thereby contributing to understanding how sulfur fumigation weakens the immunomodulatory activity of ginseng.

Novel insight into the role of sulfur dioxide in fruits and vegetables: Chemical interactions, biological activity, metabolism, applications, and safety

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) are a category of chemical compounds widely used as additives in food industry. So far, the use of SO₂ in fruit and vegetable industry has been indispensable although its safety concerns have been controversial. This article comprehensively reviews the chemical interactions of SO₂ with the components of fruit and vegetable products, elaborates its mechanism of antimicrobial, anti-browning, and antioxidation, discusses its roles in regulation of sulfur metabolism, reactive oxygen species (ROS)/redox, resistance induction, and quality maintenance in fruits and vegetables, summarizes the application technology of SO₂ and its safety in human (absorption, metabolism, toxicity, regulation), and emphasizes the intrinsic metabolism of SO₂ and its consequences for the postharvest physiology and safety of fresh fruits and vegetables. In order to fully understand the benefits and risks of SO₂, more research is needed to evaluate the molecular mechanisms of SO₂ metabolism in the cells and tissues of fruits and vegetables, and to uncover the interaction mechanisms between SO₂ and the components of fruits and vegetables as well as the efficacy and safety of bound SO₂. This review has important guiding significance for adjusting an applicable definition of maximum residue limit of SO₂ in food.

Impact of sulfur-fumigation on carbohydrate components of Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma

Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma (AMR) is one of commonly used medicinal and edible herbs in China. It is often sulfur-fumigated during post-harvest processing. Carbohydrates are important active components of AMR. However, it is unknown whether sulfur-fumigation would induce changes on carbohydrates. Here, carbohydrates including polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and free monosaccharides were comprehensively analyzed to characterize the quality changes of sulfur-fumigated AMR. Determination of both homemade sulfur-fumigated AMR samples and commercial samples from market revealed that sulfur-fumigation did not affect molecular weight distribution of polysaccharides, but altered polysaccharides content and its ratios of constituent monosaccharides, especially glucose (Glc) and fructose (Fru), as well as the contents of oligosaccharides DP2-10 and free monosaccharide Fru. Moreover, the variations enhanced with the increasing of residual SO₂ content. The potential transformation mechanisms could be due to the hydrolysis of polysaccharides. The research outcomes could provide a chemical basis for the safety and efficacy evaluations of sulfur-fumigated AMR.

Exploring the nephrotoxicity of sulfur-containing derivatives in sulfur-fumigated Panacis Quinquefolii Radix based on chemical profiling and untargeted metabolomics

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panacis Quinquefolii Radix (PQR) is often illegally sulfur fumigated to extend shelf life and improve appearance, but existing regulations of detecting SO₂ residues do not accurately identify desulfurized sulfur-fumigated PQR (SF-PQR). Although sulfur-containing derivatives (SCDs) have been reported in some sulfur-fumigated herbs, there is a lack of research on the generation mechanisms and toxicity of SCDs. Our previous study reported the nephrotoxicity of SF-PQR, and there is an urgent necessity to illuminate the mechanism of toxicity as well as its association with SCDs.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the transformation pattern of chemical components and SCDs in SF-PQR, and to disclose the linkage between SCDs and SF-PQR nephrotoxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The extracts of PQR (before and after SF) were detected by the UPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS method, and SCDs were screened as quality markers (Q-markers). The composition of sulfur combustion products was examined by ion chromatography to exploit the conversion mechanism of SCDs. After administration of PQR extracts to mice for two weeks, serum was collected for GC-MS-based untargeted metabolomics study to mine for differential metabolites. The upstream genes were traced by network analysis to probe toxicity targets. Molecular docking was used to uncover the interactions between SCDs and the targets.

RESULTS

Thirty-three compounds were identified and 11 SCDs of saponins were screened, including four SO₃ sulfonation products and five H₂SO₃ sulfonation products. Metabolomics study showed significant alterations in serum biochemistry of SF-PQR group, with substantial increases in fumarate and 2-heptanone content, and induced disturbances in glycerolipid metabolism and phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis in mice. Network analysis revealed that the key toxicity targets were DECR1, PLA2G1B, and CAT. Molecular docking indicated that SCDs had stable interaction forces with the above three toxicity targets.

CONCLUSION

SF-PQR caused kidney damage by affecting glycerolipid metabolism and phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis. Eleven SCDs were potential nephrotoxic substances and Q-markers for identifying SF-PQR. This study is the first to systematically elucidate the mechanism of SF-PQR-related nephrotoxicity, providing a robust basis for the construction of new quality control standards and a global prohibition of sulfur fumigation.

Effects and contributory factors of sulfur-fumigation on the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs evaluated by meta-analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sulfur-fumigation undoubtedly alters the chemical and metabolic profiles, but controversially affects the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To comprehensively evaluate the effects of sulfur-fumigation on the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs using a meta-analysis approach and further investigate the potential contributory factors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literatures were retrieved on PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Chinese VIP Information and Wanfang, and the outcomes involved activities and toxicities were extracted using standard data extraction forms. The effects of sulfur-fumigation on the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs were evaluated by meta-analysis approaches.

RESULTS

A total of sixteen studies were included in this study. Sulfur-fumigation reduced the efficacies of medicinal herbs with immune activity [thymus index (SMD = -1.81; P < 0.00001); spleen index (SMD = -1.11; P < 0.0001)], anti-oxidative activity [MDA (SMD = 2.60; P = 0.04); SOD (SMD = -2.21; P < 0.00001)], analgesic activity [heat tolerate time (SMD = -2.51; P = 0.001); writhing time (SMD = 0.36; P = 0.006)], anti-platelet aggregation activity (SMD = -1.84; P = 0.001), and anti-inflammatory activity [ear swelling degree (SMD = 0.47; P = 0.006)]. The reductions might be ascribed to sulfur-fumigation significantly reduced the contents of active ingredients in medicinal herbs, leading to dramatic decrease in the absorption of these ingredients and their metabolites in vivo. Furthermore, sulfur-fumigation induced the toxicities of medicinal herbs, mainly on hepatotoxicity, which might due to fumigation-induced residues of sulfur dioxide and heavy metal, and generations of sulfur-containing derivatives and toxic metabolites. Besides, administrated with sulfur-fumigated medicinal herbs with high sulfur ratio and/or higher dosage showed more significant toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Sulfur-fumigation reduced the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs, indicating sulfur-fumigation might not a feasible approach to process medicinal herbs. However, with obvious limitations, much more rigorous designed-trials are still needed to confirm the conclusion.

Effects of sulfur-fumigated ginseng on the global quality of Si-Jun-Zi decoction, a traditional ginseng-containing multi-herb prescription, evaluated by metabolomics and glycomics strategies

Si-Jun-Zi decoction (SJZD) with ginseng as the principal medicinal herb is a traditional Chinese Medicine multi-herb prescription that commonly employed to treat colorectal cancer etc. Previous studies showed that nearly half of the commercial ginseng was sulfur-fumigated, one of the postharvest processing methods that commonly causes sulfur-dioxide (SO₂) residue and chemical composition transformation in medical herbs. In this study, the effect of sulfur-fumigated ginseng on global quality of SJZD was evaluated by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS based metabolomics and multiple chromatographic techniques based glycomics strategies. For non-saccharides components, sulfur-fumigated ginseng led to the emergence of sulfur-containing derivatives and alteration of saponins and flavonoids in SJZD. For saccharide components, sulfur-fumigated ginseng decreased the total contents and molecular weights of polysaccharides, changed the monosaccharide composition of polysaccharides, and increased the contents of oligosaccharides and free monosaccharides of SJZD. The alterations of SJZD were aggravated with the sulfur-fumigated content of ginseng. Those phenomena might be attributed to 1) sulfur-fumigation caused the generation of sulfur-containing derivatives in ginseng, which further transferred to SJZD, and 2) sulfur-fumigation caused the residue of SO₂ in ginseng, which reduced the pH value and further changed the dissolution of saponins and flavonoids and accelerated the degradation of the polysaccharides to oligosaccharides and/or monosaccharides in SJZD. Furthermore, although storage reduced the SO₂ residue in sulfur-fumigated ginseng, it couldn't recover the alterations of chemical profiles in SJZD. In conclusion, sulfur-fumigated ginseng altered the global quality of SJZD, which promoted that extra attention must be paid during the application of herbal formulas that containing sulfur-fumigated herbs.

Practical Protocol for Comprehensively Evaluating Sulfur-Fumigation of Baizhi Based on Metabolomics, Pharmacology, and Cytotoxicity

Sulfur Angelicae Dahuricae Radix (Baizhi) is a common medicinal herb in Asian countries. A practical protocol combining metabolomics, pharmacology, and cytotoxicity was developed to comprehensively evaluate the influence of sulfur-fumigation on the quality of Baizhi. Furocoumarins could be transformed into sulfur-containing compounds during the sulfuring process, among which 1 and 3 were purified with relatively high abundance and identified as 3,4-dihydrobyakangelicin-4-sulfonic acid and (4R,12S)-3,4-dihydrooxypeucedanin hydrate-4-sulfonic acid (OXH-S), respectively. OXH-S was found to be an addition product of sulfite and oxypeucedanin hydrate (OXH-N). Then, the cytotoxicity and anti-inflammatory activity of OXH-N, OXH-S, and water extracts of sulfured (extraction-S), and unsulfured Baizhi (extraction-N) were evaluated. OXH-S and extraction-S were less toxic than OXH-N and extraction-N, respectively. A comparison of OXH-N with OXH-S and extraction-N with extraction-S showed no significant differences in anti-inflammatory activity. These results suggest that sulfur fumigation can reduce toxicity and does not influence the anti-inflammatory activity of Baizhi, even after chemical composition changes. The proposed protocol based on marker screening, pharmacology, and safety evaluation provides a scientific basis for the standardization and regulation of sulfured Baizhi and other medical materials.

Rapid and practical qualitative and quantitative evaluation of non-fumigated ginger and sulfur-fumigated ginger via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and chemometric methods

A strategy was developed to distinguish and quantitate nonfumigated ginger (NS-ginger) and sulfur-fumigated ginger (S-ginger), based on Fourier transform near infrared spectroscopy (FT-NIR) and chemometrics. FT-NIR provided a reliable method to qualitatively assess ginger samples and batches of S-ginger (41) and NS-ginger (39) were discriminated using principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis of FT-NIR data. To generate quantitative methods based on partial least squares (PLS) and counter propagation artificial neural network (CP-ANN) from the FT-NIR, major gingerols were quantified using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the data used as a reference. Finally, PLS and CP-ANN were deployed to predict concentrations of target compounds in S- and NS-ginger. The results indicated that FT-NIR can provide an alternative to HPLC for prediction of active components in ginger samples and was able to work directly on solid samples.

Effects of sulfur fumigation and heating desulfurization on quality of medicinal herbs evaluated by metabolomics and glycomics: Codonopsis Radix, a pilot study

Sulfur fumigation and heating desulfurization are used together in the post-harvest processing of many medicinal herbs. However, little is known about the effects of sulfur fumigation on saccharide components, nor about the effects of heating desulfurization on all herbal constituents. In this study, metabolomics and glycomics were integrated to investigate the effects of these two processes on the chemistry of Codonopsis Radix (CR) as a pilot study. The results showed that both sulfur fumigation and heating desulfurization significantly changed the non-saccharide small-molecule metabolome and the glycome of CR in different ways. Chemical mechanisms, such as esterification, glycosidic hydrolysis, esterolysis, amide bond hydrolysis, oxidation and dehydration, are proposed to be involved. These facts strongly inspire that, in addition to investigations of how sulfur fumigation impacts non-saccharide small-molecule metabolites, researches on heating desulfurization and saccharides should be conducted so as to enable accurate, comprehensive evaluation of the quality of sulfur-fumigated herbs.

Effect of sulfur-fumigation process on ginseng: Metabolism and absorption evidences

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sulfur-fumigation has been developed to prevent insects and molds during post-harvest handling of Panax ginseng C.A. Mey (ginseng) in the near decades. Our previous study indicated sulfur-fumigation could transform ginsenosides, the active components of ginseng, into sulfur-containing derivatives (SFCDs), the artifacts with unknown toxicity. However, whether the biotransformation could be occurred and absorption characteristics between ginsenosides and SFCDs are still needed to further investigate.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the effect of sulfur-fumigation process on ginseng through comparing the metabolic profile and absorption characteristics between ginsenoside Rg1, Re and their SFCDs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Intestinal microflora and liver S9 fraction were utilized to compare the metabolic profile, and single-pass intestinal perfusion and Caco-2 cell models were applied to compare the absorption characteristics, between Rg1, Re and their SFCDs.

RESULTS

Rg1 and Re were metabolized to 7 none sulfur-containing metabolites, while their SFCDs were metabolized to 18 sulfur-containing metabolites. The intestinal absorption and transport of Rg1 and Re were much greater than their SFCDs. Besides, the uptakes of Rg1 and Re were transport-dependent, but their SFCDs were non-transport-dependent.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenosides and their SFCDs could not be bio-transformed with each other and their absorption characteristics were quite different, which suggested that sulfur-fumigation is not a feasible post-harvest process of ginseng.

The effects of sulfur fumigation processing on Panacis Quinquefolii Radix in chemical profile, immunoregulation and liver and kidney injury

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The influence of sulfur fumigation processing on chemical profile, pharmacological activity and safety of Chinese herbs has attracted great attention. Panacis Quinquefolii Radix (PQR) was more widely used as edible and medicinal than Ginseng because of its tonifying effect and characteristic of not getting inflamed. The disadvantage of sulfur fumigated (SF) Ginseng has been reported, but the systematic study of SF-PQR is deficient and urgently needed.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To systematically describe the influence of sulfur fumigation on chemical profile, characteristic products, immunoregulation and liver and kidney injury of PQR.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ICP-MS and HPLC-DAD were used to detect 11 inorganic elements and 3 ginsenosides, respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to distinguish SF-PQR from non-sulfur fumigated (NSF)-PQR by combining the content changes of inorganic elements and ginsenosides. UPLC/Orbitrap-MS was applied to screen the characteristic products (m/z) after sulfur fumigation. For the effectiveness and safety, male KM mice were used to compare the immunomodulatory effects of NSF-PQR or SF-PQR under both healty and cyclophosphamide induced immunosuppressive conditions by net growth rate of body weight, thymus and spleen indices, serum IL-6, SOD, BUN, AST levels, and HE staining of liver and kidney.

RESULTS

Sulfur fumigation processing significantly reduced the contents of ginsenosides Rb₁, Re and Rg₁ with the elevation of inorganic elements in 20 batches PQR. Based on the scatter distribution of PCA, SF-PQR and NSF-PQR can be distinguished. According to the Rt, Precursor ion (m/z) and Product ion (m/z) produced by UPLC/Orbit trap-MS, R₁-SO₃ (m/z, 1059.53), Re-SO₃ (m/z, 1025.55), Rg₁-SO₃ (m/z, 878.47), Ro-SO₃ (m/z, 1035.32), Rb₁-SO₃ (m/z, 1179.58), and Rk₃-SO₃ (m/z, 745.40) could be confirmed as important markers for identifying SF-PQR. The effect of SF-PQR on reversing immunosuppression induced by cyclophosphamide was significantly reduced (P < 0.05) evidenced by the inhibition of net growth rate of body weight, immune organ index, IL-6 level and SOD activity. For healthy mice, SF-PQR not only failed to maintain the normal indexes, but also reduced the indexes to lower levels. After 2 weeks of continuous gastric administration, the abnormal liver and kidney functions in healthy mice were damaged and manifested by the increasing of BUN and AST levels, which was consistent with hepatic lesion area and renal tubular injury observed by HE staining.

CONCLUSION

Sulfur fumigation processing not only reduced the immunomodulatory effect of PQR, but also brought the hidden danger in liver and kidney injury. The sulfonated products provided in this paper can be applied for the identification of SF-PQR accurately.

Dammarane-type leads panaxadiol and protopanaxadiol for drug discovery: Biological activity and structural modification

Based on the definite therapeutic benefits, such as neuroprotective, cardioprotective, anticancer, anti-diabetic and so on, the Panax genus which contains many valuable plants, including ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), notoginseng (Panax notoginseng) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), attracts research focus. Actually, the biological and pharmacological effects of the Panax genus are mainly attributed to the abundant ginsenosides. However, the low membrane permeability and the gastrointestinal tract influence seriously limit the absorption and bioavailability of ginsenosides. The acid or base hydrolysates of ginsenosides, 20 (R,S)-panaxadiol and 20 (R,S)-protopanaxadiol showed improved bioavailability and diverse pharmacological activities. Moreover, relative stable skeletons and active hydroxyl group at C-3 position and other reactive sites are suitable for structural modification to improve biological activities. In this review, the pharmacological activities of panaxadiol, protopanaxadiol and their structurally modified derivatives are comprehensively summarized.