HEV-positive blood donations represent a relevant infection risk for immunosuppressed recipients

Assessment of Hepatitis E virus transmission risks: a comprehensive review of cases among blood transfusion recipients and blood donors

Background

Hepatitis E Virus is a major cause of acute and fulminant hepatitis, particularly in developing countries. While the virus is commonly spread through the fecal-oral route, numerous cases of transfusion transmitted Hepatitis E Virus (TT-HEV) have been reported, raising concerns about its transmission via blood transfusions, especially in industrialized countries. The high prevalence of antibodies and viremia among asymptomatic blood donors further heightens the risk of transfusion-related transmission. However, there is still debate about the best strategy to minimize TT-HEV.

Objective

The review was conducted to Summarize the literature on TT-HEV infection cases and the prevalence of HEV among blood donors.

Methods

The databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, and CINAHL were searched for relevant studies from 2000 to 2022.Serological and molecular screening data of HEV in blood donors were used to gather prevalence and incidence rates.TT-HEV cases were reviewed by examining evidence of HEV infection before and after transfusion.

Results

A total of 121 manuscripts reports the prevalence and incidence of HEV among blood donors and cases of TT-HEV. Twenty-six articles reported confirmed cases of TT-HEV and 101 articles reported on HEV prevalence or incidence among blood donors.

Conclusion

TT-HEV transmission through blood products is a real concern, especially for immunocompromised patients.The risk and severity of infection could vary between immunocompetent and immunosuppressed patients.To increase transfusion safety, the evaluation recommends HEV screening protocols, especially in endemic region.

Hepatitis E Virus in the United States and Canada: Is It Time to Consider Blood Donation Screening?

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the most common cause of acute viral hepatitis in the world and can lead to severe complications in immunocompromised individuals. HEV is primarily transmitted through eating pork, which has led to an increased in anti-HEV IgG seropositivity in the general population of Europe in particular. However, it can also be transmitted intravenously, such as through transfusions. The growing evidence of HEV contamination of blood products and documented cases of transmission have given rise to practice changes and blood product screening of HEV in many European countries. This review covers the abundant European literature and focuses on the most recent data pertaining to the prevalence of HEV RNA positivity and IgG seropositivity in the North American general population and in blood products from Canada and the United States. Currently, Health Canada and the Food and Drug Administration do not require testing of HEV in blood products. For this reason, awareness among blood product prescribers about the possibility of HEV transmission through blood products is crucial. However, we also demonstrate that the province of Quebec has a prevalence of anti-HEV and HEV RNA positivity similar to some European countries. In light of this, we believe that HEV RNA blood donation screening be reevaluated with the availability of more cost-effective assays.

Hepatitis E virus infections in German blood donors: results of 8 years of screening, 2015 to 2022

BackgroundAwareness of transfusion-transmitted hepatitis E raised in recent years led to the mandatory testing of blood donations in some European countries for hepatitis E virus (HEV) RNA. However, little is known about the epidemiology of HEV infections.AimTo and describe and analyse the epidemiology of HEV infections in blood donors in Germany.MethodsData from routine testing of therapeutic blood products donated between January 2015 and December 2022 at the Uni.Blutspendedienst OWL were analysed at the Institute of Laboratory and Transfusion Medicine, Heart and Diabetes Centre North Rhine-Westphalia. A total of 731,630 allogenic blood donations from 119,610 individual blood donors were tested for HEV RNA in minipools of 96 samples. The HEV RNA-positive donations were analysed for the presence of anti-HEV IgM and IgG. The HEV strains were genotyped and various clinical liver-specific parameters were determined.ResultsA total of 497 HEV-positive blood donations were identified, resulting in a yearly incidence of 1:1,474, from which 78.4% of the donations were RNA-only positive. Increased alanine aminotransferase activity was determined in 26.6% of HEV RNA-positive donors and was associated with the detection of IgG antibodies (1.2% anti-HEV IgM-positive, 11.9% anti-HEV IgM- and IgG-positive and 8.5% anti-HEV IgG-positive). An average incidence of 0.084-0.083% HEV RNA-positive donations in June and July in all years was observed, and a higher proportion of HEV RNA-positive men compared with women. All isolated HEV sequences corresponded to genotype 3.ConclusionOur results underline the necessity of HEV RNA screening in blood donations.

Prevalence of Acute Hepatitis E Virus Infections in Swiss Blood Donors 2018-2020

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 3 is the major cause of acute viral hepatitis in several European countries. It is acquired mainly by ingesting contaminated pork, but has also been reported to be transmitted through blood transfusion. Although most HEV infections, including those via blood products, are usually self-limiting, they may become chronic in immunocompromised persons. It is thus essential to identify HEV-infected blood donations to prevent transmission to vulnerable recipients.

AIMS

Prior to the decision whether to introduce HEV RNA screening for all Swiss blood donations, a 2-year nationwide prevalence study was conducted.

METHODS

All blood donations were screened in pools of 12-24 samples at five regional blood donation services, and HEV RNA-positive pools were subsequently resolved to the individual donation index donation (X). The viral load, HEV IgG and IgM serology, and HEV genotype were determined. Follow-up investigations were conducted on future control donations (X + 1) and previous archived donations of the donor (X - 1) where available.

RESULTS

Between October 2018 and September 2020, 541,349 blood donations were screened and 125 confirmed positive donations were identified (prevalence 1:4331 donations). At the time of blood donation, the HEV RNA-positive individuals were symptom-free. The median viral load was 554 IU/mL (range: 2.01-2,500,000 IU/mL). Men (88; 70%) were more frequently infected than women (37; 30%), as compared with the sex distribution in the Swiss donor population (57% male/43% female, p < 0.01). Of the 106 genotyped cases (85%), all belonged to genotype 3. Two HEV sub-genotypes predominated; 3h3 (formerly 3s) and 3c. The remaining sub-genotypes are all known to circulate in Europe. Five 3ra genotypes were identified, this being a variant associated with rabbits. In total, 85 (68%) X donations were negative for HEV IgM and IgG. The remaining 40 (32%) were positive for HEV IgG and/or IgM, and consistent with an active infection. We found no markers of previous HEV in 87 of the 89 available and analyzed archive samples (X - 1). Two donors were HEV IgG-positive in the X - 1 donation suggesting insufficient immunity to prevent HEV reinfection. Time of collection of the 90 (72%) analyzed X + 1 donations varied between 2.9 and 101.9 weeks (median of 35 weeks) after X donation. As expected, none of those tested were positive for HEV RNA. Most donors (89; 99%) were positive for anti-HEV lgG/lgM (i.e., seroconversion). HEV lgM-positivity (23; 26%) indicates an often-long persistence of lgM antibodies post-HEV infection.

CONCLUSION

The data collected during the first year of the study provided the basis for the decision to establish mandatory HEV RNA universal screening of all Swiss blood donations in minipools, a vital step in providing safer blood for all recipients, especially those who are immunosuppressed.

Kinetics of Hepatitis E Virus Infections in Asymptomatic Persons

To determine the kinetics of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in asymptomatic persons and to evaluate viral load doubling time and half-life, we retrospectively tested samples retained from 32 HEV RNA-positive asymptomatic blood donors in Germany. Close-meshed monitoring of viral load and seroconversion in intervals of ≈4 days provided more information about the kinetics of asymptomatic HEV infections. We determined that a typical median infection began with PCR-detectable viremia at 36 days and a maximum viral load of 2.0 × 104 IU/mL. Viremia doubled in 2.4 days and had a half-life of 1.6 days. HEV IgM started to rise on about day 33 and peaked on day 36; IgG started to rise on about day 32 and peaked on day 53. Although HEV IgG titers remained stable, IgM titers became undetectable in 40% of donors. Knowledge of the dynamics of HEV viremia is useful for assessing the risk for transfusion-transmitted hepatitis E.

Lack of evidence of acute HEV infections as a sexually transmitted disease: Data from a German cohort of PrEP users

BACKGROUND

While the sexual transmissibility of HAV in MSM has been extensively described, the potential for sexual transmission of HEV has not been definitively established. Although HEV has been detected in the ejaculate of chronically infected men, studies among MSM PrEP users in France did not observe an elevated anti-HEV seroprevalence as an indicator of increased exposure risk by sexual intercourse.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 111 unselected PrEP users and 111 age- and sex-matched blood donors were tested for anti-HEV IgG, IgM and HEV (PCR). Of the participants 79/111 (71 %) responded to a questionnaire covering topics as sexual preferences, previous sexually transmitted diseases, profession, food consumption, and pet ownership.

RESULTS

The anti-HEV IgG seroprevalence in PrEP users (22 %) did not differ significantly from the rate in controls (17 %). While one PrEP user and three controls tested positive for anti-HEV IgM, all PrEP users and controls tested PCR negative.

CONCLUSION

In immunocompetent individuals with frequent changes of sexual partners, the epidemiology of Hepatitis E Virus does not significantly involve the sexual transmission route.

High Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Seroprevalence and No Evidence of HEV Viraemia in Vietnamese Blood Donors

The prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in the Vietnamese population remains underestimated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the seroprevalence of HEV IgG/IgM antibodies and the presence of HEV RNA in blood donors as a part of epidemiological surveillance for transfusion-transmitted viruses. Serum samples from blood donors (n = 553) were analysed for markers of past (anti-HEV IgG) and recent/ongoing (anti-HEV IgM) HEV infections. In addition, all serum samples were subsequently tested for HEV RNA positivity. The overall prevalence of anti-HEV IgG was 26.8% (n = 148/553), while the seroprevalence of anti-HEV IgM was 0.5% (n = 3/553). Anti-HEV IgG seroprevalence in male and female donors was similar (27.1% and 25.5%, respectively). A higher risk of hepatitis E exposure was observed with increasing age. None of the blood donors were HEV RNA positive, and there was no evidence of HEV viraemia. Although the absence of HEV viraemia in blood donors from Northern Vietnam is encouraging, further epidemiological surveillance in other geographical regions is warranted to rule out transfusion-transmitted HEV.

Transfusion-transmission of hepatitis E virus through red blood cell transfusion but not through platelet concentrates: A case report from Spain

BACKGROUND

Few cases of transfusion-transmitted hepatitis E virus (HEV) have been published in Spain. Here, we describe a well-characterized lookback investigation of a transfusion-transmitted HEV case at the Community Centre for Blood and Tissues of Asturias (Spain).

CASE REPORT

A female patient with chronic myeloid leukemia underwent an allogeneic bone marrow transplant in March 2019 and showed alterations in liver function shortly afterwards. This patient received blood components from 30 different donors in the 3 months before the transplant. Frozen plasma samples from these donations were investigated for the presence of HEV-RNA. One frequent donor was identified as asymptomatic HEV RNA-positive at the time of his whole blood donation. The investigation revealed that this donor's plasma unit, originally intended for the fractionation industry, had a viral RNA concentration of 1.9 × 104 copies/mL. HEV RNA was detected initially in the index patient who received the red cell concentrate from this donor 25 days after the transfusion. HEV RNA isolated from both donor and recipient were identified as subtype 3f. The recipient of platelet concentrate (PC), treated with a riboflavin-based pathogen reduction technology (PRT) was not infected, being negative for the presence of HEV IgM, IgG, and HEV RNA before and after the transfusion.

CONCLUSION

This case study shows that HEV was transmitted through red cell transfusion to a recipient, while the patient who received riboflavin/UV light treated PC did not develop signs of infection. A causal relationship between PRT treatment of the PC and the non-transmission of HEV remains to be established.

Case Report: Chronic hepatitis E virus Infection in an individual without evidence for immune deficiency

Chronic hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection occurs mainly in immunosuppressed populations. We describe an investigation of chronic HEV infection of genotype 3a in an individual without evidence for immune deficiency who presented hepatitis with significant HEV viremia and viral shedding. We monitored HEV RNA in plasma and stools, and assessed anti-HEV specific immune responses. The patient was without apparent immunodeficiency based on quantified results of white blood cell, lymphocyte, neutrophilic granulocyte, CD3+ T cell, CD4+ T cell, and CD8+ T cell counts and CD4/CD8 ratio, as well as total serum IgG, IgM, and IgA, which were in the normal range. Despite HEV specific cellular response and strong humoral immunity being observed, viral shedding persisted up to 10⁹ IU/mL. After treatment with ribavirin combined with interferon, the indicators of liver function in the patient returned to normal, accompanied by complete suppression and clearance of HEV. These results indicate that HEV chronicity can also occur in individuals without evidence of immunodeficiency.

Intrinsic disorder in the open reading frame 2 of hepatitis E virus: a protein with multiple functions beyond viral capsid

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the cause of a liver disease hepatitis E. The translation product of HEV ORF2 has recently been demonstrated as a protein involved in multiple functions besides performing its major role of a viral capsid. As intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) are linked to various essential roles in the virus's life cycle, we analyzed the disorder pattern distribution of the retrieved ORF2 protein sequences by employing different online predictors. Our findings might provide some clues on the disorder-based functions of ORF2 protein that possibly help us in understanding its behavior other than as a HEV capsid protein.

RESULTS

The modeled three dimensional (3D) structures of ORF2 showed the predominance of random coils or unstructured regions in addition to major secondary structure components (alpha helix and beta strand). After initial scrutinization, the predictors VLXT and VSL2 predicted ORF2 as a highly disordered protein while the predictors VL3 and DISOPRED3 predicted ORF2 as a moderately disordered protein, thus categorizing HEV-ORF2 into IDP (intrinsically disordered protein) or IDPR (intrinsically disordered protein region) respectively. Thus, our initial predicted disorderness in ORF2 protein 3D structures was in excellent agreement with their predicted disorder distribution patterns (evaluated through different predictors). The abundance of MoRFs (disorder-based protein binding sites) in ORF2 was observed that signified their interaction with binding partners which might further assist in viral infection. As IDPs/IDPRs are targets of regulation, we carried out the phosphorylation analysis to reveal the presence of post-translationally modified sites. Prevalence of several disordered-based phosphorylation sites further signified the involvement of ORF2 in diverse and significant biological processes. Furthermore, ORF2 structure-associated functions revealed its involvement in several crucial functions and biological processes like binding and catalytic activities.

CONCLUSIONS

The results predicted ORF2 as a protein with multiple functions besides its role as a capsid protein. Moreover, the occurrence of IDPR/IDP in ORF2 protein suggests that its disordered region might serve as novel drug targets via functioning as potential interacting domains. Our data collectively might provide significant implication in HEV vaccine search as disorderness in viral proteins is related to mechanisms involved in immune evasion.

Higher Risk of HEV Transmission and Exposure among Blood Donors in Europe and Asia in Comparison to North America: A Meta-Analysis

Background and aims: The increasing number of diagnosed hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in Europe has led to the implementation of the testing of blood products in various countries. Many nations have not yet implemented such screening. To assess the need for HEV screening in blood products worldwide, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis assessing HEV RNA positivity and anti-HEV seroprevalence in blood donors. Methods: Studies reporting anti-HEV IgG/IgM or HEV RNA positivity rates among blood donors worldwide were identified via predefined search terms in PubMed and Scopus. Estimates were calculated by pooling study data with multivariable linear mixed-effects metaregression analysis. Results: A total of 157 (14%) of 1144 studies were included in the final analysis. The estimated HEV PCR positivity rate ranged from 0.01 to 0.14% worldwide, with strikingly higher rates in Asia (0.14%) and Europe (0.10%) in comparison to North America (0.01%). In line with this, anti-HEV IgG seroprevalence in North America (13%) was lower than that in Europe (19%). Conclusions: Our data demonstrate large regional differences regarding the risk of HEV exposure and blood-borne HEV transmission. Considering the cost–benefit ratio, this supports blood product screening in high endemic areas, such as Europe and Asia, in contrast to low endemic regions, such as the U.S.

Transmission of Hepatitis E Virus

Transmission of hepatitis E virus (HEV) occurs predominantly by the fecal-oral route. Large epidemics of hepatitis E in the developing countries of Asia and Africa are waterborne and spread through contaminated drinking water. The reservoir of HEV in developed countries is believed to be in animals with zoonotic transmission to humans, possibly through direct contact or the consumption of undercooked contaminated meat. And HEV transmission through blood transfusion, organ transplantation, and vertical transmission has been reported.

Analysis of seroprevalence and risk factors for hepatitis E virus (HEV) in donation candidates and blood donors in Northeast Brazil

Oral transmission is the main route of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection; however, genotypes 3 and 4 may also be transmitted by blood transfusion. Individuals who need blood products are often immunosuppressed, which increase the risk of severe disease and death by HEV. Despite this, blood banks in Brazil do not screen for HEV and epidemiological studies in this population are rare; this is an important issue as HEV-3 is frequently identified in the country. Herein, we analyzed the seroprevalence and risk factors for HEV seropositivity in donor candidates/blood donors from Northeast Brazil. Nine hundred and ninety-six donor candidates/blood donors from Foundation of Hematology and Hemotherapy of Pernambuco (HEMOPE) were interviewed regarding socioeconomic, sociodemographic, and behavioral data and analyzed for anti-HEV IgG. Anti-HEV IgG was detected using the HEV IgG (EUROIMMUN) kit. Associations between seropositivity and potential risk factors were analyzed by the χ2 test and Fisher's exact test. Seroprevalence was 0.9% (9/996), 77.77% (7/9) and 22.22% (2/9) in blood donors and donor candidates, respectively. HEV seropositivity was associated with male (OR: 11.65; CI: 0.6755-200.9; p = 0.0163), income higher than BRL 20,000/month (p = 0.0002), and lake bathing (OR: 4.553; CI: 1.391-15.25; p = 0.0258). Importantly, about 43% (3/7) of anti-HEV positive donors made their first donation more than 20 years ago, which must be taken as a warning sign, given the possibility that these individuals may have been infected after registration as donors. Finally, the report of HEV seropositivity, especially in regular blood donors, as well as the identification of potential risk factors, reinforces the need for viral screening in Brazilian blood banks.

Is Hepatitis E Virus a Neglected or Emerging Pathogen in Egypt?

Though Egypt ranks among the top countries for viral hepatitis and death-related liver disease, Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a neglected pathogen. Living in villages and rural communities with low sanitation, use of underground well water and contact with animals are the main risk factors for HEV infection. Domestic animals, especially ruminants and their edible products, are one source of infection. Contamination of water by either human or animal stools is the main route of infection. In addition, HEV either alone or in coinfection with other hepatotropic viruses has been recorded in Egyptian blood donors. HEV seropositivity among Egyptian villagers was 60-80%, especially in the first decade of life. Though HEV seropositivity is the highest among Egyptians, HEV infection is not routinely diagnosed in Egyptian hospitals. The initial manifestations of HEV among Egyptians is a subclinical infection, although progression to fulminant hepatic failure has been recorded. With the improvement in serological and molecular approaches and increasing research on HEV, it is becoming clear that HEV represents a threat for Egyptians and preventive measures should be considered to reduce the infection rate and possible complications.

Chronic hepatitis E: Advancing research and patient care

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) was initially thought to exclusively cause acute hepatitis. However, the first diagnosis of chronic hepatitis E in transplant recipients in 2008 profoundly changed our understanding of this pathogen. We have now begun to understand that specific HEV genotypes can cause chronic infection in certain immunocompromised populations. Over the past decade, dedicated clinical and experimental research has substantiated knowledge on the epidemiology, transmission routes, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnosis, clinical features and treatment of chronic HEV infection. Nevertheless, many gaps and major challenges remain, particularly regarding the translation of knowledge into disease prevention and improvement of clinical outcomes. This article aims to highlight the latest developments in the understanding and management of chronic hepatitis E. More importantly, we attempt to identify major knowledge gaps and discuss strategies for further advancing both research and patient care.

Evaluating the prevalence of Hepatitis E virus infection in a large cohort of European blood donors, 2015-2018

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is endemic in Europe. However, standardized methods for the surveillance of HEV viremia in the general population are lacking. This study aimed to compare the incidence of HEV among blood donors in two European countries, Germany and Portugal, during the period 2015-2018. The seasonal distribution of HEV infection, as well as host risk factors including age, sex, and blood group phenotype were explored. A total of 191,236 donations from Germany and Portugal were tested for HEV RNA in plasma mini-pools of up to 96 donations using an internally controlled reverse transcription real-time PCR (RT-PCR) assay. The 95% cut-off of the assay was 15 International Units (IU)/mL (CI 10-35 IU/mL) as determined by dilution of the WHO International Standard for HEV RNA. Blood type was determined by agglutination and pattern recognition using the Beckmann Coulter PK 7300 AB0- and Rhesus-Assay. The overall positivity rate was 0.09% with significantly more infections observed in the German cohort (p < 0.0001). Infections peaked in the summer months, and investigation of risk factors revealed that incidence was significantly higher amongst males (p = 0.0002), but was not associated with ABO or Rh(D) blood group phenotypes. No significant relationships between risk factors and viral load were observed. Our findings confirm that HEV infections are highly prevalent in Europe, even amongst otherwise healthy blood donors. Increasing awareness of the seasonal spread and risk factors for HEV transmission is of great importance for individuals susceptible to more severe forms of the disease, such as immunocompromised patients.

Clinical features of hepatitis E infections in patients with hematologic disorders

Hepatitis E virus is increasingly being reported to cause chronic infection in immunocompromised patients. However, less is known about patients with an underlying hematologic disease. In particular, the impact of hepatitis E infection on oncological therapy has been poorly described. In this retrospective single-center study, we analyzed 35 hematologic patients with hepatitis E, including 20 patients under active oncological treatment and 15 patients who were in the posttreatment follow-up or under active surveillance. The primary aim was to describe the clinical courses with particular focus on any hepatitis E-related therapy modifications of cancer-directed therapy. In the majority (60%) of patients who were under active oncological treatment, hepatitis E-related therapy modifications were made, and 25% of deaths were due to progression of the hematologic disease. In patients receiving concomitant oncological treatment, no hepatitis Erelated deaths occurred. In contrast, two patients in the follow-up group died from hepatitis E-associated acute-onchronic liver failure. Chronic hepatitis E was observed in 34% of all cases and 43% received ribavirin therapy; of those, 27% achieved a sustained virological response. CD20-directed therapy was the only independent risk factor for developing chronic hepatitis E. We conclude that CD20-directed treatment at any time point is a risk factor for developing chronic hepatitis E. Nevertheless, since mortality from the progression of hematologic disease was higher than hepatitis E-related mortality, we suggest careful case-by-case decisions on modifications of cancer treatment. Patients in the posttreatment follow-up phase may also suffer from severe courses and hepatitis E chronicity occurs as frequently as in patients undergoing active therapy.

Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus infection among volunteer blood donors in Central Brazil

A cross-sectional study was carried out in the Hematology and Hemotherapy Institute of the state of Mato Grosso do Sul (Hemosul) to evaluate the seroprevalence and risk factors of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) exposure among volunteer blood donors in Central Brazil. Two-hundred fifty samples from the biorepository were tested for anti-HEV IgG and IgM using the Wantai HEV ELISA test. The seroprevalence of HEV exposure was 6.4% (95% CI: 3.9–10.2). Being born in another state of Brazil, mainly in the Southeast and South regions, was associated with a higher risk of HEV exposure (p < 0.001).

First Report of the HEV Seroprevalence and the Risk Factor Assessment in the West Bank, Palestine, during the Period of 2015-2017

Hepatitis E virus is emerging viral hepatitis with hyperendemicity in many countries. Data on the burden of disease is not available in Palestine. This study aims to determine the seroprevalence and the risk factors of the HEV among the general population of the West Bank, Palestine. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 432 sera samples from 40 localities in the eleven districts of the West Bank and Jerusalem, Palestine, during the period of March 2015 to March 2017, were tested for HEV-IgG. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data of the participants' demographics and disease risk factors. The overall seroprevalence was 3.7%. Level of education was significantly inversely associated with HEV seropositivity (P=0.04). Purely spatial analysis did not detect any significant cluster related to the distribution of HEV-IgG cases; however, living in the southern West Bank is shown to be significantly associated with HEV. Age was also associated with HEV seropositivity. The young (<19 years) and adults (>40 years) had the highest prevalence, compared to those between 20 to 39 years old (P=0.12). Furthermore, males and those in contact with animals were associated with HEV seropositivity (P=0.1 and 0.3, respectively). In conclusion, the seroprevalence of HEV IgG in the West Bank, Palestine is low. Several well-investigated risk factors cannot be supported by our results due to the small number of the positive HEV-IgG samples. Finally, this study is useful for providing a first look into the seroepidemiology of HEV in Palestine.

[Safety of blood and blood products: test methods for the detection of hepatitis B, C, and E virus]

Infections with hepatitis B, C, and E virus (HBV, HCV, and HEV) can be transmitted via blood and cause severe acute or chronic liver infections. To ensure the safety of blood donations and protect recipients from virus transmissions, blood donations in Germany are tested for viral genomes using nucleic acid amplification techniques (NATs) as well as for viral antigens and antibodies by serological testing. This article describes the relevant regulations on the safety of blood and blood products in Germany and the various screening methods. The safety of blood products is assessed.Currently used NAT methods for detection of hepatitis viruses are based either on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or isothermal methods such as transcription-mediated amplification (TMA), which enable a highly sensitive detection of viral infections and thereby contribute to the reduction of the diagnostic window. Antigen tests for the detection of viral surface protein of hepatitis B virus in blood donations were introduced in the 1970s in order to prevent potential transmissions. Since the introduction of mandatory testing for HCV-specific antibodies in 1992, HCV NAT testing in 1999, anti-HBc antibody testing in 2006, and the non-mandatory HBV NAT, which is voluntarily performed by most of the blood establishments, blood safety has increased tremendously. Only a few isolated cases of transfusion-transmitted infections in the early window period have been reported since. The success of the recent introduction of mandatory HEV NAT testing in 2020 will have to be assessed in the upcoming years. Besides blood donor screening, the system for blood safety in Germany is supplemented by additional measures for donor selection and pathogen inactivation.

Transfusion-transmitted hepatitis E: What we know so far?

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a major cause of viral hepatitis globally. There is growing concern about transfusion-transmitted HEV (TT-HEV) as an emerging global health problem. HEV can potentially result in chronic infection in immunocompromised patients, leading to a higher risk of liver cirrhosis and even death. Between 0.0013% and 0.281% of asymptomatic blood donors around the world have HEV viremia, and 0.27% to 60.5% have anti-HEV immunoglobulin G. HEV is infectious even at very low blood concentrations of the virus. Immunosuppressed patients who develop persistent hepatitis E infection should have their immunosuppressant regimen reduced; ribavirin may be considered as treatment. Pegylated interferon can be considered in those who are refractory or intolerant to ribavirin. Sofosbuvir, a nucleotide analog, showed modest antiviral activity in some clinical studies but sustained viral response was not achieved. Therefore, rescue treatment remains an unmet need. The need for HEV screening of all blood donations remains controversial. Universal screening has been adopted in some countries after consideration of risk and resource availability. Various pathogen reduction methods have also been proposed to reduce the risk of TT-HEV. Future studies are needed to define the incidence of transmission through transfusion, their clinical features, outcomes and prognosis.

Effect of Hepatitis E Virus RNA Universal Blood Donor Screening, Catalonia, Spain, 2017‒2020

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the major cause of acute viral hepatitis in several countries in Europe. HEV is acquired mainly by consumption of contaminated pork but can also be transmitted through blood transfusion. HEV infection is usually self-limited but can become persistent in immunocompromised persons. During the first 30 months of HEV RNA universal screening of blood donations in Catalonia, Spain, we identified 151 HEV RNA-positive donations (1/4,341 blood donations). Most infected donors reported consumption of pates and sausages, and 58% were negative for HEV IgM and IgG. All HEV isolates belonged to genotype 3. All infected donors spontaneously resolved the infection, and no neurologic symptoms and reinfections were observed after 1 year of follow-up. Since the implementation of HEV RNA universal screening, no new cases of transfusion-transmitted HEV infection were reported. Our data indicate HEV screening of blood donations provides safer blood for all recipients, especially for immunosuppressed persons.

Prognostic Nomogram for Patients with Hepatitis E Virus-related Acute Liver Failure: A Multicenter Study in China

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Timely and effective assessment scoring systems for predicting the mortality of patients with hepatitis E virus-related acute liver failure (HEV-ALF) are urgently needed. The present study aimed to establish an effective nomogram for predicting the mortality of HEV-ALF patients.

METHODS

The nomogram was based on a cross-sectional set of 404 HEV-ALF patients who were identified and enrolled from a cohort of 650 patients with liver failure. To compare the performance with that of the model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) scoring and CLIF-Consortium-acute-on-chronic liver failure score (CLIF-C-ACLFs) models, we assessed the predictive accuracy of the nomogram using the concordance index (C-index), and its discriminative ability using time-dependent receiver operating characteristics (td-ROC) analysis, respectively.

RESULTS

Multivariate logistic regression analysis of the development set carried out to predict mortality revealed that γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, albumin, total bilirubin, urea nitrogen, creatinine, international normalized ratio, and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio were independent factors, all of which were incorporated into the new nomogram to predict the mortality of HEV-ALF patients. The area under the curve of this nomogram for mortality prediction was 0.671 (95% confidence interval: 0.602-0.740), which was higher than that of the MELD and CLIF-C-ACLFs models. Moreover, the td-ROC and decision curves analysis showed that both discriminative ability and threshold probabilities of the nomogram were superior to those of the MELD and CLIF-C-ACLFs models. A similar trend was observed in the validation set.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel nomogram is an accurate and efficient mortality prediction method for HEV-ALF patients.

HEV infection in stem cell transplant recipients-retrospective study of EBMT Infectious Diseases Working Party

HEV infection is an emerging cause of acute and chronic hepatitis in stem cell transplant (SCT) recipients. We performed a retrospective observational study among EBMT centers with the aim of describing characteristics, management and outcome of HEV after SCT. There were 34 cases of HEV infection from 12 centers in 6 countries, diagnosed in median 4.5 months after SCT; 20 of acute and 14 of chronic infection. Non-hepatic findings possibly associated with HEV infection were present in 9 (26%). Patients with chronic infection had more characteristics associated with severely immunocompromised status. Ribavirin was provided to 16 patients (47%; 40% with acute and 57% with chronic infection), in median for 75 days. Three (19%) patients discontinued it due to side effects. HEV-RNA clearance occurred in 29 patients (85%; 85% in acute and 86% in chronic infection). HEV was considered a cause of death in 3 (9%), with 2 cases with late diagnosis. Reduction of immunosuppression in those receiving it, and ribavirin treatment in those with chronic infection were associated with shorter time to HEV-RNA clearance. Policy on HEV testing varied between the centers. In conclusion, acute and chronic HEV hepatitis should be promptly diagnosed and managed in SCT recipients.

Role of "dual-personality" fragments in HEV adaptation-analysis of Y-domain region

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E is a liver disease caused by the pathogen hepatitis E virus (HEV). The largest polyprotein open reading frame 1 (ORF1) contains a nonstructural Y-domain region (YDR) whose activity in HEV adaptation remains uncharted. The specific role of disordered regions in several nonstructural proteins has been demonstrated to participate in the multiplication and multiple regulatory functions of the viruses. Thus, intrinsic disorder of YDR including its structural and functional annotation was comprehensively studied by exploiting computational methodologies to delineate its role in viral adaptation.

RESULTS

Based on our findings, it was evident that YDR contains significantly higher levels of ordered regions with less prevalence of disordered residues. Sequence-based analysis of YDR revealed it as a "dual personality" (DP) protein due to the presence of both structured and unstructured (intrinsically disordered) regions. The evolution of YDR was shaped by pressures that lead towards predominance of both disordered and regularly folded amino acids (Ala, Arg, Gly, Ile, Leu, Phe, Pro, Ser, Tyr, Val). Additionally, the predominance of characteristic DP residues (Thr, Arg, Gly, and Pro) further showed the order as well as disorder characteristic possessed by YDR. The intrinsic disorder propensity analysis of YDR revealed it as a moderately disordered protein. All the YDR sequences consisted of molecular recognition features (MoRFs), i.e., intrinsic disorder-based protein-protein interaction (PPI) sites, in addition to several nucleotide-binding sites. Thus, the presence of molecular recognition (PPI, RNA binding, and DNA binding) signifies the YDR's interaction with specific partners, host membranes leading to further viral infection. The presence of various disordered-based phosphorylation sites further signifies the role of YDR in various biological processes. Furthermore, functional annotation of YDR revealed it as a multifunctional-associated protein, due to its susceptibility in binding to a wide range of ligands and involvement in various catalytic activities.

CONCLUSIONS

As DP are targets for regulation, thus, YDR contributes to cellular signaling processes through PPIs. As YDR is incompletely understood, therefore, our data on disorder-based function could help in better understanding its associated functions. Collectively, our novel data from this comprehensive investigation is the first attempt to delineate YDR role in the regulation and pathogenesis of HEV.

Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus in Argentinean blood donors

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the main cause of enteric acute viral hepatitis worldwide. In this epidemiological framework, it has become a threat to blood safety and a relevant issue for blood transfusions. However, there is a paucity of data regarding prevalence of HEV infection. The aim of this study was to determine HEV seroprevalence in blood donors from different regions from Argentina.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Serum samples from 391 individuals attending five blood donor centers located in different regions from Argentina were analyzed for anti-HEV IgG and anti-HEV IgM.

RESULTS

Overall, anti-HEV IgG was detected in 44 out of 391 (11.3%) samples. HEV prevalence ranged from 5.1 to 20.0% among different country regions. A significant difference in blood donors' age was observed between anti-HEV IgG positive and negative individuals [44 (37-51) vs. 35 (27-43), P < 0.001, respectively]. Anti-HEV IgM was detected in 8 out of 44 (18.2%) anti-HEV IgG positive cases.

CONCLUSION

Anti-HEV IgG was detected in blood donor samples from five analyzed Argentinean regions, highlighting the wide distribution of the virus in the country. HEV prevalence was variable among different regions and significantly higher in older donors. Given the evidence of anti-HEV IgM presence in blood donors, suggesting a potential risk of transfusion-transmitted HEV, screening for HEV in blood units to be used in vulnerable population would be desirable. Molecular studies for detection of viremic donors and donor-recipients follow-up are necessary to certainly determine the risk of transfusion-transmitted HEV in Argentina.

Hepatitis E Virus Infection-Immune Responses to an Underestimated Global Threat

Infection with the hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the main ubiquitous causes for developing an acute hepatitis. Moreover, chronification plays a predominant role in immunocompromised patients such as transplant recipients with more frequent severe courses. Unfortunately, besides reduction of immunosuppression and off-label use of ribavirin or pegylated interferon alfa, there is currently no specific anti-viral treatment to prevent disease progression. So far, research on involved immune mechanisms induced by HEV is limited. It is very difficult to collect clinical samples especially from the early phase of infection since this is often asymptomatic. Nevertheless, it is certain that the outcome of HEV-infected patients correlates with the strength of the proceeding immune response. Several lymphoid cells have been identified in contributing either to disease progression or achieving sustained virologic response. In particular, a sufficient immune control by both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells is necessary to prevent chronic viral replication. Especially the mechanisms underlying fulminant courses are poorly understood. However, liver biopsies indicate the involvement of cytotoxic T cells in liver damage. In this review, we aimed to highlight different parts of the lymphoid immune response against HEV and point out questions that remain unanswered regarding this underestimated global threat.

Hepatitis E virus genotyping in Pakistan: a regional study to explore the implications for pregnant females

Aim: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has different genotypes 1–4, which is generally associated with mild to severe complications among immunocompromised patients and pregnant women. Materials & methods: Immunoglobulin M (IgM) HEV-positive samples were collected from the diagnostic center. HEV infection was further confirmed by RT-based PCR and genotyping was done to affirm the prevailing genotype. Results: This study identified 28 patients from Islamabad who were confirmed to have immunoglobulins type M against HEV showing acute infection, of which 17 were pregnant and 11 were non-pregnant women. All pregnant women were in their third trimester of pregnancy. Conclusion: Genotype-1 is commonly associated with pregnant females presenting with HEV infections in Islamabad. There is a need to further identify both the sources & route of infections.

Hepatitis E virus prevalence among blood donors in Dali, China

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a nonenveloped RNA virus causing hepatitis E worldwide. The increase in transfusion-transmitted cases of HEV infections from asymptomatic blood donors causing serious illnesses among immunosuppressed recipients has been reported in the past few years. China is one of the most prevalent regions of HEV; as a result, it is important to evaluate the risk of transfusion-transmitted HEV.

METHODS

A total of 1864 serum samples (including demographic characteristics) from blood donors were randomly collected from February to March 2018 in Dali city. Anti-HEV IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies and HEV antigen were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). HEV RNA was detected by real-time PCR. Multivariable logistic regression modelling was used to examine the risk factors associated with HEV prevalence.

RESULTS

Overall, the positive rates of anti-HEV IgG, IgM, and IgA antibodies were 13.36% (249/1864), 1.13% (21/1864), and 1.82% (34/1864), respectively. However, none of the 1864 serum samples were HEV antigen positive or HEV RNA positive. Females (16.69%) had a significantly higher HEV seroprevalence than males (13.04%) (odds ratio [OR] 1.34 [95% CI, 1.02-1.75]). Bai (18.85%) donors had a significantly higher HEV seroprevalence than Han (12.21%) blood donors (odds ratio [OR], 1.65 [95% CI, 1.24-2.19] for Bai).

CONCLUSIONS

HEV showed a seroprevalence among blood donors in Yunnan Province, some of which were even recent infections, indicating a threat to the safety of blood transfusions. Whether to formulate a strategy for HEV screening in blood centres needs further research.

Hepatitis E: An update on One Health and clinical medicine

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the main causes of acute hepatitis and the de facto global burden is underestimated. HEV-related clinical complications are often undetected and are not considered in the differential diagnosis. Convincing findings from studies suggest that HEV is clinically relevant not only in developing countries but also in industrialized countries. Eight HEV genotypes (HEV-1 to HEV-8) with different human and animal hosts and other HEV-related viruses are in circulation. Transmission routes vary by genotype and location, with large waterborne outbreaks in developing countries and zoonotic food-borne infections in developed countries. An acute infection can be aggravated in pregnant women, organ transplant recipients, patients with pre-existing liver disease and immunosuppressed patients. HEV during pregnancy affects the fetus and newborn with an increased risk of vertical transmission, preterm and stillbirth, neonatal jaundice and miscarriage. Hepatitis E is associated with extrahepatic manifestations that include neurological disorders such as neuralgic amyotrophy, Guillain-Barré syndrome and encephalitis, renal injury and haematological disorders. The risk of transfusion-transmitted HEV is increasingly recognized in Western countries where the risk may be because of a zoonosis. RNA testing of blood components is essential to determine the risk of transfusion-transmitted HEV. There are currently no approved drugs or vaccines for HEV infections. This review focuses on updating the latest developments in zoonoses, screening and diagnostics, drugs in use and under development, and vaccines.

Comparison of Hepatitis E Virus Sequences from Humans and Swine, the Netherlands, 1998-2015

Pigs are suspected to be a major source of zoonotic hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in industrialized countries, but the transmission route(s) from pigs to humans are ill-defined. Sequence comparison of HEV isolates from pigs with those from blood donors and patients in 372 samples collected in The Netherlands in 1998 and 1999 and between 2008 and 2015 showed that all sequences were genotype 3 except for six patients (with travel history). Subgenotype 3c (gt3c) was the most common subtype. While the proportion of gt3c increased significantly between 1998 and 2008, it remained constant between 2008 and 2015. Among the few circulating HEV subtypes, there was no difference observed between the human and the pig isolates. Hepatitis E viruses in humans are very likely to originate from pigs, but it is unclear why HEV gt3c has become the predominant subtype in The Netherlands.

Risk of hepatitis-E virus infections among blood donors in a regional blood transfusion centre in western India

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis-E virus (HEV) is an emerging infectious threat to blood safety. The enormity of the transmission of HEV and its clinical consequence are issues currently under debate. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of HEV-RNA in blood donors in western India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We screened 13 050 blood donors for HEV using HEV-RNA screening of 10 mini-pools using RealStar HEV RT-PCR Kit (95% limit of detection (LOD): 4.7 IU/ml). Furthermore, all HEV-RNA-positive donors were investigated for the presence of IgM/IgG antibody along with liver function tests.

RESULTS

Of the 13 050 blood donations, 7 (0.53%) were found to be HEV-RNA positive, and the prevalence of HEV nucleic acid testing yield cases among blood donors was 1 in 1864. All seven HEV-RNA-positive samples were tested with anti-HEV IgM and anti-HEV IgG antibodies; this resulted in two (28.5%) positive anti-HEV IgM and two (28.5%) positive anti-HEV IgG antibodies. Hepatic activity was measured, with two of seven HEV-RNA-positive donors demonstrating abnormal serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) andserum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT). Two HEV-RNA-positive blood donors who had abnormal SGOT and SGPT were found to have a high HEV viral load. Furthermore, we were able to follow up two HEV-RNA donors, and both were HEV-RNA positive and had anti-HEV IgM and anti-HEV IgG antibodies; moreover, their liver function tests were also abnormal. One of the HEV-RNA donors with high viral load did show hepatitis-E-like virus on electron microscopy.

CONCLUSION

Our studies indicate that there is a significant risk of blood-borne transmission of HEV. This finding may help to provide a direction towards the safety of blood transfusions in clinical settings in countries like India, which fall under the endemic category for HEV infection.

Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus in risk populations and blood donors in a referral hospital in the south of Brazil

The prevalence of anti-hepatitis E virus (HEV) antibodies has a high heterogeneity worldwide. South American data are still scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of HEV in populations at risk in comparison to blood donors (BD). A cross-sectional study was carried out in adults of different risk populations including crack users (CK), residents in a low income area (LIA), cirrhotic (CIR) and liver transplant patients (LT) compared with BD. The WANTAI HEV ELISA test was used and real-time PCR (in-house for screening and ALTONA as confirmatory test) for HEV RNA screening. A total of 400 participants were included. Anti-HEV IgG was positive in 19.5% of the total sample, reaching the highest rate in the CIR group, 22.5%, followed by CK, LT, and LIA (20%, 18.7%, and 17.5%, respectively). The prevalence found in BD individuals was of 18.7% (p = NS). Anti-HEV IgM was positive in only 1.5% of the sample (6/400). No blood or stools samples were positive for HEV RNA. The seroprevalence reported is among the highest rates ever found in Brazil. Considering the intense diagnostic investigation, data show that HEV circulation is more common that might be expected in our country.

Hepatitis E virus: Efficacy of pasteurization of plasma-derived VWF/FVIII concentrate determined by pig bioassay

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the leading cause of acute hepatitis throughout the world. Increasing blood component transfusion-associated HEV infections highlight the need for reliable virus inactivation procedures for plasma derivatives from pooled plasma donations.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

An animal infection study was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of HEV inactivation by pasteurization during the manufacturing process of the von Willebrand Factor/Factor VIII (VWF/FVIII) concentrate Haemate P/Humate-P (CSL Behring, Marburg, Germany). For this purpose, groups of pigs were inoculated with stabilized VWF/FVIII intermediate spiked with HEV-positive liver homogenate and exposed to increasing incubation times of 0, 3, 6, and 10 h at 60°C. Animals were evaluated for virus replication over 27 days and in a subsequent trial over 92 days.

RESULTS

Virus replication was detected in animals up to the 6-h pasteurization group. In contrast, pasteurization for 10 h did not reveal virus detection when the observation period was 27 days. In an additional experiment using the 10-h pasteurized material, two individuals started virus excretion and seroconverted when the observation period was extended to 92 days. Based on the total infection rate (2 of 12) of the animals inoculated with the sample pasteurized for 10 h, a virus reduction factor of at least 4.7 log₁₀ is calculated.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that pasteurization at 60°C for 10 h of an HEV-positive plasma derivative leads to the effective reduction of infectivity, resulting in a VWF/FVIII product with an appropriate margin of safety for HEV.

[Viral hepatitis A-E]

Hepatitis viruses A-E cause acute and chronic liver inflammation and thus lead to significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. They differ significantly in their biology, course of disease and therapy options. While hepatitis A virus only causes acute infection, hepatitis B can become chronic, even reactivate or occur as coinfection with hepatitis D virus. Whereas these infections are preventable through vaccination, a vaccine does not exist against HCV. However, new direct antiviral agents reliably lead to cure of chronic hepatitis C. Hepatitis E virus frequently causes acute or-in case of immunosuppression-even chronic hepatitis. Continual screening of patients with elevated liver enzymes or risk groups using simple serological markers can enable virus-specific therapy of mostly asymptomatic chronic virus hepatitis, preventing the development of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Prevalence of anti-Hepatitis E antibodies and impact on disease severity in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

AIM

In most immune-competent individuals, hepatitis E (HEV) infections appear silent. It is unclear whether past HEV infections deteriorate disease severity in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

METHODS

Patients with biopsy-proven NAFLD and data on anti-HEV immunoglobulin M (HEV-IgM) and anti-HEV IgG antibodies (HEV-IgG) were included. The NAFLD activity score (NAS) was used to grade and stage all liver biopsy samples. The HEV-IgG prevalence was compared to a healthy cohort of 997 subjects.

RESULTS

One hundred sixty-seven patients with NAFLD were included with the following characteristics: age, 50 ± 13 years; NAS ≤4, 89 (53.3%); NAS 5-8, 78 (46.7%); cirrhosis, 16 (9.6%). Two patients (1.2%) were HEV-IgM-positive, however HEV polymerase chain reaction remained negative and no signs of acute hepatitis were seen. Forty-four patients (26.3%) were HEV-IgG-positive and they were significantly older (55 ± 10 years vs. 48 ± 13 years, P < 0.001) and predominantly men (31 [70.5%] vs.13 [29.5%], P = 0.022). Distribution across NAS (P = 0.610) was not different. However, HEV-IgG-positive patients were significantly more often found with cirrhosis (8 [18.2%] vs. 8 [6.5%], P = 0.024) and liver stiffness values >10 kPa (14 [58.2%] vs. 29 [43.3%], P = 0.026). Multivariable analyses revealed age (odds ratio [OR], 1.054 [1.022-1.086]) and male sex (OR 2.77 [1.27-6.04]) associated with HEV-IgG positivity. Presence of diabetes (OR 3.86 [1.18-12.59]), higher aspartate aminotransferase levels (OR, 1.02 [1.006-1.033]), and HEV-IgG seropositivity (OR 3.52 [1.11-11.13]) were independently linked to cirrhosis. Finally, HEV-IgG positivity was not independently associated with NAFLD patients in a case-control study including healthy subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of anti-HEV-IgG antibodies in patients with NAFLD is linked to age and male sex. Furthermore, previous HEV infection was an independent risk factor for cirrhosis. Whether this finding is causal or solely associative is unclear and should be elucidated in future studies.

Hepatitis E virus re-infection accelerates hepatocellular carcinoma development and relapse in a patient with liver cirrhosis: A case report and review of literature

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) superinfection is a suspected promoting factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis. However, to date, very few cases of HEV-related HCC have been reported. Nevertheless, the role of HEV re-infection in cirrhotic liver without other chronic hepatitis infections has rarely been explored.

CASE SUMMARY

A 53-year-old male farmer was diagnosed with liver cirrhosis and splenomegaly in August 2016, accompanied with negative HEV-IgM and positive HEV-IgG. No evidence of hepatitis B virus or hepatitis C virus infection was found. Since then the patient was evaluated for liver function and viral parameters every 3 mo. In June 2017, the patient presented severe fatigue with whole body itching and was diagnosed with HCC. Afterwards this patient experienced quick HCC development, progression, relapse, and metastasis in the following 8 mo, and presented persistent dual positivity of HEV-IgM and HEV-IgG. This patient had a long history of smoking and alcohol consumption.

CONCLUSION

This unique case invokes the importance of HEV surveillance and treatment among cirrhotic patients, HCC cases, and blood donors.

Hepatitis E seroprevalence in a German cohort of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The incidence of hepatitis E virus (HEV)-infections in industrialized nations has been increasing over the past years. Patients suffering from inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) may be more prone to transmission. Data on HEV seroprevalence in IBD patients is scarce and has not been reported in German IBD patients. The German Health Examination Survey for Adults 2008-2011, which included 4.422 samples, found a HEV seroprevalence of 16.8%, increasing with age. The aim of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence of anti-HEV IgG in a German cohort of IBD patients, and to explore which parameters have an impact on HEV seroprevalence.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This is an uncontrolled, cross-sectional, retrospective monocentric study. Among the patients visiting the IBD outpatient clinic between 25 January, 2019 and 24 September, 2019, 328 patients with Crohn's disease (CD) and 150 patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) were included in the study. IgG antibodies against HEV were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Positive antibody titers were verified using immunoblot analysis. Medical records were reviewed for demographic and clinical parameters to identify potential risk factors for HEV infection.

RESULTS

The prevalence of anti-HEV IgG antibodies was 17.4% in CD patients and 24.7% in UC patients. No patient with positive HEV PCR was detected. Greater age of CD und UC patients and longer duration of anti-interleukin 12/23 treatment in CD patients were associated with higher anti-HEV IgG antibody rates.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, we conclude that patients with UC have a higher anti-HEV IgG antibody prevalence than the general population in Germany, and that immunosuppressive therapy may carry no higher risk for HEV infection.

Significance of Anti-Nuclear Antibodies and Cryoglobulins in Patients with Acute and Chronic HEV Infection

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been associated with immunological phenomena. Their clinical significance, however, still needs to be clarified, that is, whether cryoglobulins or autoantibodies impact overt disease in HEV-infected individuals. To better understand, we analyzed these different immune phenomena in three cohorts, each representing different types of HEV infection.

METHODS

The cohorts included: (i) immunocompetent patients with acute hepatitis E, (ii) immunosuppressed patients with chronic hepatitis E, and (iii) individuals with asymptomatic HEV infection. Together, they consisted of 57 individuals and were studied retrospectively for the presence of anti-nuclear antibodies (ANAs), cryoglobulins, and serum total IgG. They were then compared with a control cohort of 17 untreated patients with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.

RESULTS

Thirteen (23%) were immunocompetent patients with acute hepatitis E (median alanine aminotransferase (ALT) = 872 U/L), 15 (26%) were immunosuppressed patients with chronic hepatitis E (median ALT = 137 U/L), and 29 (51%) were blood donors with asymptomatic HEV infection (median ALT = 35 U/L). Overall, 24% tested positive for elevated ANA titers of >1:160, and 11% presented with a specific ANA pattern. ANA detection was not associated with the type of HEV infection, IgG levels, sex, or age. All individuals tested negative for anti-mitochondrial antibodies, anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies, liver-kidney microsomal antibodies, anti-myeloperoxidase-, and anti-proteinase-3 antibodies. Five patients (9%) tested positive for cryoglobulins. Notably, cryoglobulinemia was present in overt hepatitis E (Groups (i) and (ii); one acute and four chronic HEV infections), but was not present in any of the asymptomatic blood donors (p = 0.02). The frequency of cryoglobulins and elevated ANAs did not differ significantly between HEV and HBV/HCV patients.

CONCLUSION

In line with findings on HBV and HCV infections, we frequently observed detection of ANAs (24%) and cryoglobulins (9%) in association with HEV infections. The presence of cryoglobulins was limited to patients with overt hepatitis E. We add to the findings on the immune phenomena of hepatitis E.

The global epidemiology of hepatitis E virus infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Hepatitis E virus (HEV), as an emerging zoonotic pathogen, is a leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide, with a high risk of developing chronic infection in immunocompromised patients. However, the global epidemiology of HEV infection has not been comprehensively assessed. This study aims to map the global prevalence and identify the risk factors of HEV infection by performing a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

A systematic searching of articles published in Medline, Embase, Web of science, Cochrane and Google scholar databases till July 2019 was conducted to identify studies with HEV prevalence data. Pooled prevalence among different countries and continents was estimated. HEV IgG seroprevalence of subgroups was compared and risk factors for HEV infection were evaluated using odd ratios (OR).

RESULTS

We identified 419 related studies which comprised of 1 519 872 individuals. A total of 1 099 717 participants pooled from 287 studies of general population estimated a global anti-HEV IgG seroprevalence of 12.47% (95% CI 10.42-14.67; I²  = 100%). Notably, the use of ELISA kits from different manufacturers has a substantial impact on the global estimation of anti-HEV IgG seroprevalence. The pooled estimate of anti-HEV IgM seroprevalence based on 98 studies is 1.47% (95% CI 1.14-1.85; I²  = 99%). The overall estimate of HEV viral RNA-positive rate in general population is 0.20% (95% CI 0.15-0.25; I²  = 98%). Consumption of raw meat (P = .0001), exposure to soil (P < .0001), blood transfusion (P = .0138), travelling to endemic areas (P = .0244), contacting with dogs (P = .0416), living in rural areas (P = .0349) and receiving education less than elementary school (P < .0001) were identified as risk factors for anti-HEV IgG positivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Globally, approximately 939 million corresponding to 1 in 8 individuals have ever experienced HEV infection. 15-110 million individuals have recent or ongoing HEV infection. Our study highlights the substantial burden of HEV infection and calls for increasing routine screening and preventive measures.

Hepatitis E virus and blood transfusion safety

While the majority of worldwide hepatitis E viral (HEV) infections that occur in people are from contaminated water or food sources, there has also been a steadily rising number of reported cases of transfusion-transmitted HEV (TT-HEV) in blood donation recipients. For most, HEV infection is acute, self-limiting and asymptomatic. However, patients that are immunocompromised, especially transplant patients, are at much higher risk for developing chronic infections, which can progress to cirrhosis and liver failure, along with overall increased mortality. Because of the rising trend of HEV serological prevalence among the global population, and the fact that TT-HEV infection can cause serious clinical consequences among those patients most at need for blood donation, the need for screening for TT-HEV has been gaining in prominence as an important public health concern for both developing and developed countries. In the review, we summarise evidence for and notable cases of TT-HEV infections, the various aspects of HEV screening protocols and recent trends in the implementation of TT-HEV broad-based blood screening programmes.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of predictors of human hepatitis E virus exposure in non-endemic countries

The reported incidence of clinical hepatitis E cases is rising in some non-endemic countries, with concurrent concerns regarding potential hepatitis E virus (HEV) contamination of the blood supply. Therefore, the characterization of major potential sources of human HEV exposure is important to inform risk assessment and public health policy. A systematic review was conducted, including a comprehensive search in six electronic bibliographic databases, verified by hand-searching reference lists of HEV reviews, and a grey literature search, of the broad research question 'what is the evidence of the association between predictors of human HEV exposure, and HEV IgG seropositivity, in non-endemic countries?' Using forms designed a priori, captured studies were appraised at first-level screening, second-level characterization, and third-level data extraction and risk of bias assessment. Meta-analysis yielded summary estimates of association between potential predictors and odds of HEV seropositivity. Meta-analysis and meta-regression of the odds of HEV seroprevalence in specific groups characterized potential sources of HEV exposure. From 4,163 captured citations, 245 relevant studies underwent data extraction, investigating HEV seroprevalence or predictors in both healthy subjects and targeted patient groups. Across these groups, increasing age was a predictor of HEV IgG seropositivity. Both human immunodeficiency virus patients and haemodialysis patients had significantly increased odds of HEV seropositivity relative to the general population. Working with pigs, in forestry, or in hospitals, was significantly associated with increased odds of HEV seropositivity, as were consumption of meat, pork or game meat, or hunting. Chronological time was not associated with HEV seropositivity within our data sets. Further study of the distribution of potential dietary or behavioural predictors between high and lower prevalence areas within non-endemic countries could improve our understanding of the relative importance of specific HEV transmission pathways.

Prevalence of hepatitis E viraemia among blood donors: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is usually transmitted by faecal-oral route. Recent reports have documented HEV viraemia in donated blood units and HEV transmission through blood transfusion. This systematic review summarizes the available data on prevalence of HEV viraemia in blood donors.

METHODS

Electronic databases were searched on 17 December 2018 to identify full-text English papers reporting original data on prevalence of HEV RNA in donated blood units. Two authors independently extracted the relevant data, which were pooled using simple aggregation as well as a random-effects meta-analysis; heterogeneity was assessed using the I2 method.

RESULTS

In all, 59 data sets from 28 countries were identified. The available data showed marked heterogeneity. Of a total of 2 127 832 units studied, 561 (263·6 [95% confidence intervals = 242·7-286·4] per million units) tested positive for HEV RNA. On random-effects meta-analysis, the pooled prevalence was 60·9 [6·7-155·4] per million units. In the viraemic units, HEV RNA titre varied by nearly one million-fold, and most had genotype 3 HEV. The prevalence was higher in blood units with anti-HEV antibodies or elevated alanine aminotransferase. Only nearly one-fourth of viraemic units had anti-HEV antibodies.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of HEV viraemia among healthy blood donors is low, though the available data had limited geographical representation and marked heterogeneity. There is a need for further data on HEV viraemia in blood donors from areas with non-3 HEV genotype preponderance.

Hepatitis E Is a Rare Finding in Liver Transplant Patients With Chronic Elevated Liver Enzymes and Biopsy-Proven Acute Rejection

BACKGROUND

In past decades, liver transplant (LT) patients were not routinely screened for hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection, and thus it might have been misdiagnosed as an acute rejection episode. Our aim was to analyze a real-world cohort of LT patients who presented with at least 1 episode of biopsy-proven acute rejection (BPAR) and suffered from persistent elevated transaminases, to evaluate the frequency of HEV infection misdiagnosed as a rejection episode.

METHODS

Data from 306 patients transplanted between 1997 and 2017, including 565 liver biopsies, were analyzed. Biopsies from patients suffering from hepatitis C (n = 79; 25.8%) and from patients who presented with a Rejection Activity Index <5 (n = 134; 43.8%) were excluded. A subgroup of 74 patients (with 134 BPAR) with persistently elevated liver enzymes was chosen for further HEV testing.

RESULTS

Positive HEV IgG was detectable in 18 of 73 patients (24.7%). Positive HEV RNA was diagnosed in 3 of 73 patients with BPAR (4.1%). Patients with HEV infection showed no difference in etiology of the liver disease, type of immunosuppression, or median Rejection Activity Index.

CONCLUSION

Few HEV infections were misdiagnosed as acute rejection episodes in this real-world cohort. Thus, HEV infection is an infrequent diagnosis in cases with persistent elevated liver enzymes and BPAR after LT.

Rituximab-Containing Treatment Regimens May Imply a Long-Term Risk for Difficult-To-Treat Chronic Hepatitis E

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is an emerging disease in industrialized countries which is usually characterized by a self-limited course. However, there is an increased risk of HEV persistence in immunocompromised risk populations, comprising patients following solid organ transplantation or hematological malignancies. Recently, chronic HEV infection following rituximab-containing treatment regimens has been described. Here we report five patients with chronic hepatitis E after prior rituximab therapy for various indications. We determined the immunological characteristics of these patients and analyzed the development of ribavirin (RBV) treatment failure-associated mutations in the HEV genome. One patient became chronically HEV-infected 110 months after administration of rituximab (RTX). Immunological characterization revealed that all patients exhibited significant hypogammaglobulinemia and CD4+ T cell lymphopenia. One patient permanently cleared HEV following weight-based ribavirin treatment while three patients failed to reach a sustained virological response. In depth mutational analysis confirmed the presence of specific mutations associated with RBV treatment failure in these patients. Our cases indicate that rituximab-containing treatment regimens might imply a relevant risk for persistent HEV infection even years after the last rituximab application. Moreover, we provide further evidence to prior observations suggesting that chronically HEV infected patients following RTX-containing treatment regimens might be difficult to treat.

HEV-LFS : A novel scoring model for patients with hepatitis E virus-related liver failure

A noninvasive assessment method for acute or acute-on-chronic liver failure in patients with hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is urgently needed. We aimed to develop a scoring model for diagnosing HEV patients who developed liver failure (HEV-LF) at different stages. A cross-sectional set of 350 HEV-LF patients were identified and enrolled, and the Guidelines for Diagnosis and Treatment of Liver Failure in China and the Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver were adopted as references. HEV-LF_S , a novel scoring model that incorporates data on cholinesterase (CHE), urea nitrogen (UREA), platelets and international normalized ratio was developed using a derived dataset. For diagnosing HEV-LF stages F1 to F3, the HEV-LF_S scoring model (F1: 0.87; F2: 0.90; F3: 0.92) had a significantly higher AUROC than did the CLIF-C-ACLFs (F1: 0.65; F2: 0.56; F3: 0.51) and iMELD (F1: 0.70; F2: 0.57; F3: 0.51) scoring models, of which the HEV-LF_S scoring model had the best sensitivity and specificity. In addition, the HEV-LF_S scoring model was correlated with mortality, length of hospitalization and ICU stay. As the GDTLF score increased, the CHE level decreased and the UREA increased gradually. Encouragingly, a calibration curve showed good agreement between the derivation and validation sets. Notably, we also established a nomogram to facilitate the practical operability of the HEV-LF_S scoring model in clinical settings. In conclusion, both CHE and UREA may be indicators for HEV-LF patients. The HEV-LF_S scoring model is an efficient and accessible model for classifying HEV-LF at different stages.

Hepatitis E virus prevalence in Flemish blood donors

Transmission of hepatitis E virus (HEV) through transfusion of blood components has already been reported in several European countries. Here, we assessed the HEV prevalence in Flemish blood donors. This study is of importance in order to assess the risk of HEV transmission through blood transfusion. We analysed 38 137 blood donation samples that were collected by the Red Cross Flanders during the period May-June 2015. All samples were screened for the presence of HEV RNA and a selection for HEV-specific IgM/IgG. After pooling per 6, 11 pools reacted positive during RNA screening. Reactive pools were deconstructed, and individual samples were retested. After deconstruction, seven samples were confirmed as HEV RNA positive. Serological screening of the confirmed RNA-positive samples showed that six out of these seven samples were HEV IgM positive, of which three donors were also IgG positive. Serological screening was also performed on the samples that constituted the four initially HEV RNA reactive pools where RNA positivity was not confirmed on the individual level. In three pools, we found indirect evidence of recent HEV exposure. Within 356 randomly selected samples, 31 donations were HEV IgG positive. Here we show that at least 1:5448 of blood donations in Flanders may originate from donors that are actively infected with HEV. Upon transfusion, these donations may pose a major threat towards patients at risk. Finally, a serological analysis showed that the anti-HEV IgG prevalence in Flemish blood donors is 8.71%.