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Chang X, Wang WX. Differential cellular uptake and trafficking of nanoplastics in two hemocyte subpopulations of mussels Perna viridis. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 471:134388. [PMID: 38669925 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Chang
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Wen-Xiong Wang
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China.
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Nguyen TTT, Foysal MJ, Gupta SK, Tay A, Fotedar R, Gagnon MM. Effects of carbon source addition in rearing water on sediment characteristics, growth and health of cultured marron (Cherax cainii). Sci Rep 2024; 14:1349. [PMID: 38228662 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51585-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Carbon sources are considered as critical input for the health and immunity of aquatic animals. The present study investigated the impact of different carbon sources on water quality parameters, carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio and microbial community in sediments, and health responses of marron (Cherax cainii) under laboratory conditions. Following one week of acclimation, 120 marron were randomly assigned to 12 experimental tanks. There were four treatments including one untreated control and three groups with carbon addition to maintain a C/N ratio of 12 maintained in culture water. Carbon supplementation groups included corn flour (CBC12), molasses (MBC12) and wheat flour (WBC12). At the end of the 60-day trial, MBC12 resulted in the highest sediment C/N ratio, followed by CBC12. Weight gain and specific growth rate were higher in MBC12, compared to control. The protease activity in marron hepatopancreas, total haemocyte count and lysozyme activity in haemolymph were highest in MBC12. Analysis of 16S rRNA sequence data of tank sediments revealed increased bacterial alpha diversity in MBC12 and WBC12. Proteobacteria was the most abundant phylum in MBC12 (88.6%), followed by control (82.4%) and CBC12 (72.8%). Sphingobium and Novosphingobium were the most abundant genera in control and MBC12 groups, respectively. Higher Aeromonas abundance in CBC12 and Flavobacterium in WBC12 were observed. Overall results indicated that MBC12 led to improved water quality, retaining high C/N ratio and enriched the bacterial populations in sediments resulting in improved growth and immune performance of marron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi Thu Thuy Nguyen
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia.
- Department of Experimental Biology, Research Institute for Aquaculture No.2, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
| | - Md Javed Foysal
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia.
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh.
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia.
| | - Sanjay Kumar Gupta
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
| | - Alfred Tay
- Helicobacter Research Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Training, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Ravi Fotedar
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
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Sharma SS, Venter L, Frost EJ, Alfaro AC, Ragg NLC, Zamora LN. Behavioural and physiological responses of juvenile geoduck (Panopea zelandica) following acute thermal stress. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2024; 269:110892. [PMID: 37573964 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2023.110892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Climate extremes, such as heatwaves, are expected to become more intense and of longer duration in the near future. These climatic conditions may have a significant impact on the prospects of establishing a new aquaculture industry for the endemic New Zealand geoduck, Panopea zelandica. This study focused on characterising animal behaviour, haemocytes , and heat shock protein (HSP70 & HSP90) mRNA expression following exposure to elevated temperatures, such as those encountered during marine heatwaves around 20 °C and an extreme scenario of 25 °C, contrasted to an ambient temperature of 17 °C. After 24 h of heat challenge, P. zelandica were found to be significantly influenced by the thermal changes, as there were differences recorded in all the responses examined. With increasing temperatures, juvenile geoduck were observed to fully emerge from the sediment a behaviour that has not previously been quantified nor associated with stress in this species. The ability of P. zelandica juveniles to re-bury still warrants further investigation, as adults are unable to do so. Haemocyte analyses revealed an increase in the abundance of granulocytes, cellular aggregations, and size of these aggregations at the highest temperature exposure. Increased expression of the hsp70 gene in the haemolymph after exposure at 25 °C for 24 h was detected and attributed to attempts to mitigate protein denaturation caused by thermal stress. The inter-individual variability in the response of heat shock proteins recorded could aid in future selective breeding programs if it is reflected in net thermotolerance. P. zelandica shows great potential for growing in subtidal habitats around New Zealand, and this study highlights the importance of temperature considerations when selecting potential farm and reseeding locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaneel S Sharma
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, Department of Environmental Science, School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Leonie Venter
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, Department of Environmental Science, School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Emily J Frost
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, Department of Environmental Science, School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Andrea C Alfaro
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, Department of Environmental Science, School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
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Luo Y, Wang WX. Lysosomal Cu(I)/Cu(II) Dependence of Antimicrobial Ability of Oyster Hemocytes and Regulation of Phagolysosomal System. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:20219-20227. [PMID: 37955256 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c06627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) is hyperaccumulated in oyster hemocytes and is an essential trace metal indispensable for diverse innate immune functions. However, the roles of Cu in oyster immune defense are still unclear. In this study, Cu exposure enhanced the phagocytosis of zymosan by increasing the number and length of filopodia, as well as mitochondrial ROS (mitoROS) production mainly in granulocytes, followed by semigranulocytes and agranulocytes. The intracellular calcium level increased to promote the phagosome-lysosome fusion after Cu exposure. The enhancement of phagosomal acidification and mitochondrion-phagosome juxtaposition were also found in granulocytes after Cu exposure. These results indicated that Cu could regulate the phagolysosomal system to enhance the antimicrobial ability of oyster hemocytes with the assistance of mitoROS. Furthermore, Cu(I) and Cu(II) were predominately located in lysosomes, and degranulation may provide a mechanism for exposing Cu to bacteria to prevent their survival and proliferation. Specifically, we showed that the newly formed Cu(I) arising from lysosomal Cu(II) moved to lysosomes and mitochondria in activated hemocytes to induce strong immune responses. The ability of the transformation of Cu(I) from Cu(II) followed granulocytes > semigranlocytes > agranulocytes, indicating that granulocytes played important roles in immune functions of oysters. Our results provided new insights into the understanding of antimicrobial effects of Cu in oyster hemocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Luo
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China
- Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Wen-Xiong Wang
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong 999077, China
- Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
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5
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Freire JMS, Farias ND, Hégaret H, da Silva PM. Morphological and functional characterization of the oyster Crassostrea gasar circulating hemocytes: Cell types and phagocytosis activity. FISH AND SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY REPORTS 2023; 4:100089. [PMID: 36941832 PMCID: PMC10023951 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsirep.2023.100089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Hemocytes are the circulating cells of the hemolymph of oysters and are responsible for numerous physiological functions, including immune defense. The oyster Crassostrea gasar is a native species inhabiting mangrove habitat and is of great commercial interest, cultured throughout the Brazilian coast, mainly in the north and northeast. Despite its commercial importance, little is known about its immunological aspects and defense cells, the hemocytes. This work aimed to morphologically characterize hemocytes of the oyster C. gasar and to study one of the main cellular defense response, phagocytosis, using light microscopy and flow cytometry. The results showed the presence of six hemocyte populations in C. gasar hemolymph. These comprise of large and small granulocytes, large and small hyalinocytes, blast-like cells and a rare type classified as vesicular or serous hemocytes. Hyalinocytes were highly abundant and the most heterogeneous cell population, while small granulocytes, along with vesicular hemocytes were the less abundant population. Hemocytes of C. gasar oysters demonstrated capabilities to phagocytose three different types of particles tested: zymosan A, latex particles and Escherichia coli, indicating a broad defense capacity. The zymosan A were the most engulfed particles, followed by beads, mainly phagocytized by granulocytes, the most phagocytic cells, and finally E. coli, which were the least phagocytized. This study is the first characterization of C. gasar oyster hemocytes and will support future studies that aim to understand the participation of different hemocyte types in defense responses against pathogens and/or environmental changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesarela Merabe Silva Freire
- Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba – Campus I, 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Natanael Dantas Farias
- Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba – Campus I, 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin LEMAR-UMR6539, Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Place Copernic, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Patricia Mirella da Silva
- Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba – Campus I, 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
- Corresponding author.
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Dang C, Donaghy L, Macnab A, Gholipour-Kanani H. Optimising flow-cytometry methods for marine mollusc haemocytes using the pearl oyster Pinctada maxima as a model. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 143:109220. [PMID: 37977546 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.109220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Flow-cytometry has become increasingly popular to assess the haemocytes morphology and functions of marine molluscs. Indeed, haemocytes are the first line of defence of the immune system in molluscs and are used as a proxy for oyster health. Authors publishing in the field of flow-cytometry and molluscs health seemed to utilise the same methods for all model species used, independently of their geographical location in the world (temperate, tropical, etc.). Hence, this paper dived into flow-cytometry methodology and investigated if using different plates, different thresholds, different incubation times and temperatures as well as different fluorochromes concentrations affected the results. This study revealed that the cell count did not change when using different thresholds on the FSC-H parameter of the instrument but was affected by the plate type, the temperature of incubation, and the time of incubation. Indeed, non-adherent plates yielded the highest cell count and lower cell counts were associated with a higher temperature and a longer time of incubation. Furthermore, the haemocytes functions such as the phagocytosis, the lysosomal content, the intracellular oxidative activity, and the mitochondria activity were also affected by the temperature and the time of incubation. An increase in the phagocytosis capacity, lysosomal content and mitochondria activity was observed with a higher temperature. At the exception of the phagocytosis rate, all the other parameters such as the phagocytosis capacity, the intracellular oxidative activity, and the lysosomal content increased with a longer incubation time. We also showed that it is best to optimise the amount of fluorochromes used to avoid unnecessary background or non-specific staining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecile Dang
- Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Government of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, 6000, Australia.
| | - Ludovic Donaghy
- Department of Marine Life Science (BK21 Four), Jeju National University, Jeju, 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Annie Macnab
- Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Government of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, 6000, Australia; Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Ecosystems, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia
| | - Hosna Gholipour-Kanani
- Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Government of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, 6000, Australia
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Zhang N, Pan L, Liao Q, Tong R, Li Y. Potential molecular mechanism underlying the harmed haemopoiesis upon Benzo[a]pyrene exposure in Chlamys farreri. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 141:109032. [PMID: 37640119 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.109032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), a ubiquitous contamination in the marine environments, has the potential to impact the immune response of bivalves by affecting the hemocyte parameters, especially total hemocyte count (THC). THC is mainly determined by haematopoietic mechanisms and apoptosis of hemocytes. Many studies have found that B[a]P can influence the proliferation and differentiation of hemocytes. However, the link between the toxic mechanisms of haematopoietic and environmental pollutants is not explicitly stated. This study is to investigate the toxic effects of B[a]P on haematopoietic mechanisms in C. farreri. Through the tissue expression distribution experiment and EDU assay, gill is identified as a potential haematopoietic tissue in C. farreri. Subsequently, the scallops were exposed to B[a]P (0.05, 0.5, 5 μg/L) for 1d, 3d, 6d, 10d and 15d. Then BPDE content, DNA damage, gene expression of haematopoietic factors and haematopoietic related pathways were determined in gill and hemocytes. The results showed that the expression of CDK2 was significantly decreased under B[a]P exposure through three pathways: RYR/IP3-calcium, BPDE-CHK1 and Notch pathway, resulting in cell cycle arrest. In addition, B[a]P also significantly reduced the number of proliferating hemocytes by affecting the Wnt pathway. Meanwhile, B[a]P can significantly increase the content of ROS, causing a downregulation of FOXO gene expression. The gene expression of Notch pathway and ERK pathway was also detected. The present study suggested that B[a]P disturbed differentiation by multiple pathways. Furthermore, the expression of SOX11 and CD9 were significantly decreased, which directly indicated that differentiation of hemocytes was disturbed. In addition, phagocytosis, phenoloxidase activity and THC were also significant decreased. In summary, the impairment of haematopoietic activity in C. farreri further causes immunotoxicity under B[a]P exposure. This study will improve our understanding of the immunotoxicity mechanism of bivalve under B[a]P exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, PR China
| | - Luqing Pan
- The Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, PR China.
| | - Qilong Liao
- The Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, PR China
| | - Ruixue Tong
- The Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, PR China
| | - Yaobing Li
- The Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, PR China
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8
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Zhou C, Zou Y, Hu Z, Yang MJ, Shi P, Li YR, Guo YJ, Zhang T, Song H. ROS-induced moderate autophagy of haemocytes confers resistance of Mercenaria mercenaria to air exposure stress. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 141:109084. [PMID: 37722439 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.109084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Air exposure (AE) is a significant environmental stressor that can lead to desiccation, hypoxia, starvation, and disruption of cellular homeostasis in marine bivalves. Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic pathway that facilitates the degradation of damaged macromolecules and organelles, thereby supporting cellular stress responses. To date, autophagy-mediated resistance mechanisms to AE stress remain largely elusive in bivalves. In this study, we performed a multi-tool approach to investigate the autophagy-related physiological regulation in hard clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) under different duration of AE (T = 0, 1, 5, 10, 20, 30 days). We observed that autophagy of haemocytes was significantly activated on day 5. However, autophagy activity began to significantly decline from day 10 to day 30. Autophagy was significantly inhibited after antioxidant treatment, indicating that reactive oxygen species (ROS) was an endogenous inducer of autophagy. A significant decline in the survival rate of hard clams was observed after injection of ammonium chloride or carbamazepine during AE stress, suggesting that moderate autophagy was conducive for clam survival under AE stress. We also observed DNA breaks and high levels of apoptosis in haemocytes on day 10. Activation of apoptosis lagged behind autophagy, and the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis might shift from antagonism to synergy with the duration of stress. This study provides novel insights into the stress resistance mechanisms in marine bivalves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; CAS Engineering Laboratory for Marine Ranching, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Yan Zou
- Marine Science Research Institute of Shandong Province, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Zhi Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; CAS Engineering Laboratory for Marine Ranching, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Mei-Jie Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; CAS Engineering Laboratory for Marine Ranching, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Pu Shi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; CAS Engineering Laboratory for Marine Ranching, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Yong-Ren Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aqua-ecology and Aquaculture, Fisheries College, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, 300384, China
| | - Yong-Jun Guo
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aqua-ecology and Aquaculture, Fisheries College, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, 300384, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; CAS Engineering Laboratory for Marine Ranching, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Hao Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; CAS Engineering Laboratory for Marine Ranching, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Qingdao, 266071, China.
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Brianik CJ, Bouallagui Y, Allam B. Triploid animals, a potential model for ETosis research: Influence of polyploidy on the formation and efficacy of extracellular traps in the eastern oyster. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 140:108992. [PMID: 37567455 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.108992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Decondensation and the subsequent release of chromatin from specific immune cells in response to inflammatory stimuli is a highly conserved aspect of the innate immune system and leads to the formation of extracellular traps, observable in nearly all forms of multicellular life. This process is known as ETosis, with the release of DNA and its associated antimicrobial proteins physically capturing and neutralizing pathogens following an infection or tissue damage. Despite the universality of this response, data concerning extracellular traps in non-model organisms is limited, with most invertebrate studies doing little more than proving their existence due to difficulties in stimulation and high interindividual variability in trap production. This study provides a novel, simple, and inexpensive method for the consistent stimulation of extracellular traps in eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) hemocytes. Using the methods described in this study, we compared how ploidy impacts the rate, size, and efficacy of extracellular traps. Findings demonstrated that hemocyte extracellular traps were potent antimicrobials against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, we provide evidence to suggest that agranulocytes may be the primary ETosis effector cells in C. virginica. This study is the first to describe extracellular traps in C. virginica and highlights the possible benefits of using triploid animals to gain a further understanding of ETosis and the factors that regulate its induction and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Brianik
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11790, USA
| | - Younes Bouallagui
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11790, USA
| | - Bassem Allam
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11790, USA.
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10
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Achmad H, Chaklader MR, Fotedar R, Foysal MJ. From waste to feed: Microbial fermented abalone waste improves the digestibility, gut health, and immunity in marron, Cherax cainii. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 137:108748. [PMID: 37087026 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.108748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
New aquafeed ingredients produced by a circular economy approach are the opportunity for sustainable and resilient aquaculture. In the light of this approach, the mixture of abalone waste and Sargassum spp (9:1) fermented by Saccharomyces cereviceae and Lactobacillus casei (Yakult®) (FMAS) were used to replace 0% (FMAS0), 25% (FMAS-25), 50% (FMAS-50), 75% (FMAS-75), and 100% (FMAS-100) of fishmeal (FM) protein in marron, Cherax cainii diet. The marron was fed these diets in triplicate for 90 days. Growth, feed utilization and protein efficiency ratio were unchanged in marron-fed all test diets. Improvement in apparent protein digestibility was aligned with an increase in the size and number of B-cells in the hepatopancreas. Most of the immune responses, except for haemocyte clotting time, hyaline cells and neutral red retention time (NRR time) were unchanged by 42- and 90-days feeding trials compared to those of the control group. 90 days post-feeding marron with FMAS25 showed a lower haemocyte clotting time than the post 42 days feeding marron with the same diet. Hyaline cells increased in marron fed FMAS75 for 90 days compared to marron fed the same diet for 42 days. The challenge test involved injecting marron with Vibrio mimicus resulted in a 100% survival rate after 96 h of exposure. During the challenge test, phagocytosis activity in 24 and 48-h post-challenged marron fed FMAS75 decreased which recovered after 96 h post-challenge. Marron fed FMAS50 also recorded a significantly higher proportion of granular cells after 24 h and NRR time at 96 h compared with that of other treatments. Given the above indicators of bio-growth, feed efficiency and immune responses, total replacement of FM protein of marron practical feed with FMAS are considered feasible and optimum to maintain health status and resistance to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himawan Achmad
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
| | - Md Reaz Chaklader
- Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Fleet Street, Fremantle, Western Australia, 6160, Australia.
| | - Ravi Fotedar
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
| | - Md Javed Foysal
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, 3114, Bangladesh
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11
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Li Y, Xue Y, Peng Z, Zhang L. Immune diversity in lophotrochozoans, with a focus on recognition and effector systems. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2023; 21:2262-2275. [PMID: 37035545 PMCID: PMC10073891 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2023.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Lophotrochozoa is one of the most species-rich but immunologically poorly explored phyla. Although lack of acquired response in a narrow sense, lophotrochozoans possess various genetic mechanisms that enhance the diversity and specificity of innate immune system. Here, we review the recent advances of comparative immunology studies in lophotrochozoans with focus on immune recognition and effector systems. Haemocytes and coelomocytes are general important yet understudied player. Comparative genomics studies suggest expansion and functional divergence of lophotrochozoan immune reorganization systems is not as "homogeneous and simple" as we thought including the large-scale expansion and molecular divergence of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) (TLRs, RLRs, lectins, etc.) and signaling adapters (MyD88s etc.), significant domain recombination of immune receptors (RLR, NLRs, lectins, etc.), extensive somatic recombination of fibrinogenrelated proteins (FREPs) in snails. Furthermore, there are repeatedly identified molecular mechanisms that generate immune effector diversity, including high polymorphism of antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs), reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) and cytokines. Finally, we argue that the next generation omics tools and the recently emerged genome editing technicism will revolutionize our understanding of innate immune system in a comparative immunology perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongnan Li
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Yu Xue
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhangjie Peng
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Corresponding author at: CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China.
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Weng N, Meng J, Huo S, Wu F, Wang WX. Hemocytes of bivalve mollusks as cellular models in toxicological studies of metals and metal-based nanomaterials. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 312:120082. [PMID: 36057327 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the impacts of environmental pollutants on immune systems is indispensable in ecological and health risk assessments due to the significance of normal immunological functions in all living organisms. Bivalves as sentinel organisms with vital ecological importance are widely distributed in aquatic environments and their innate immune systems are the sensitive targets of environmental pollutants. As the central component of innate immunity, bivalve hemocytes are endowed with specialized endolysosomal systems for particle internalization and metal detoxification. These intrinsic biological features make them a unique cellular model for metal- and nano-immunotoxicology research. In this review, we firstly provided a general overview of bivalve's innate immunity and the classification and immune functions of hemocytes. We then summarized the recent progress on the interactions of metals and nanoparticles with bivalve hemocytes, with emphasis on the involvement of hemocytes in metal regulation and detoxification, the interactions of hemocytes and nanoparticles at eco/bio-nano interface and hemocyte-mediated immune responses to the exposure of metals and nanoparticles. Finally, we proposed the key knowledge gaps and future research priorities in deciphering the fundamental biological processes of the interactions of environmental pollutants with the innate immune system of bivalves as well as in developing bivalve hemocytes into a promising cellular model for nano-immuno-safety assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanyan Weng
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Jie Meng
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Shouliang Huo
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Fengchang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Wen-Xiong Wang
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China.
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Burnett KG, Burnett LE. Immune Defense in Hypoxic Waters: Impacts of CO 2 Acidification. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2022; 243:120-133. [PMID: 36548972 DOI: 10.1086/721322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
AbstractPeriodic episodes of low oxygen (hypoxia) and elevated CO2 (hypercapnia) accompanied by low pH occur naturally in estuarine environments. Under the influence of climate change, the geographic range and intensity of hypoxia and hypercapnic hypoxia are predicted to increase, potentially jeopardizing the survival of economically and ecologically important organisms that use estuaries as habitat and nursery grounds. In this review we synthesize data from published studies that evaluate the impact of hypoxia and hypercapnic hypoxia on the ability of crustaceans and bivalve molluscs to defend themselves against potential microbial pathogens. Available data indicate that hypoxia generally has suppressive effects on host immunity against bacterial pathogens as measured by in vitro and in vivo assays. Few studies have documented the effects of hypercapnic hypoxia on crustaceans or bivalve immune defense, with a range of outcomes suggesting that added CO2 might have additive, negative, or no interactions with the effects of hypoxia alone. This synthesis points to the need for more partial pressure of O2 × low pH factorial design experiments and recommends the development of new host∶pathogen challenge models incorporating natural transmission of a wide range of viruses, bacteria, and parasites, along with novel in vivo tracking systems that better quantify how pathogens interact with their hosts in real time under laboratory and field conditions.
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14
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Muznebin F, Alfaro AC, Venter L, Young T. Acute thermal stress and endotoxin exposure modulate metabolism and immunity in marine mussels (Perna canaliculus). J Therm Biol 2022; 110:103327. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2022.103327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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15
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Dong M, Wang W, Wang L, Liu Y, Ma Y, Li M, Liu H, Wang K, Song L. The characterization of an agranulocyte-specific marker (CgCD9) in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 127:446-454. [PMID: 35792345 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2022.06.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The agranulocytes in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas are a group of haemocytes that are significantly different from semi-granulocytes and granulocytes on the morphology. Agranulocytes are the smallest haemocytes characterized by a spherical shape, the largest ratio of nucleus to cytoplasm, and no granules in the cytoplasm. The lack of unique cell surface markers impedes the isolation of agranulocytes from total haemocytes. Previous transcriptome sequencing analysis of three subpopulations of haemocytes revealed that a homologue of CD9 (designed as CgCD9) was highly expressed in agranulocytes of oyster C. gigas (data not shown). In the present study, CgCD9 was identified to share a similarity of 60% with other vertebrates CD9s, and it harbored a typical four transmembrane domain and a conserved Cys-Cys-Gly (CCG) motif. The mRNA transcript of CgCD9 was found to be highly expressed in agranulocytes, which was 6.63-fold (p < 0.05) and 3.68-fold (p < 0.05) of that in granulocytes and semi-granulocytes, respectively. A specific monoclonal antibody of CgCD9 (named 3D8) was successfully prepared by traditional hybridoma technology, and a single positive band at 25.2 kDa was detected in the haemocyte proteins by Western Blotting, indicating that this monoclonal antibody exhibited high specificity and sensitivity to CgCD9 protein. The ELISA positive value of 3D8 monoclonal antibody to recognize agranulocytes, semi-granulocytes and granulocytes was 17.35, 4.48 and 1.55, respectively, indicating that monoclonal antibody was specific to agranulocytes. Immunocytochemistry assay revealed that CgCD9 was specifically distributed on the membrane of agranulocytes. Using immunomagnetic beads coated with 3D8 monoclonal antibody, CgCD9+cells with a purity of 94.53 ± 5.60% were successfully isolated with a smaller diameter, a larger N:C ratio and no granules in cytoplasm, and could be primary culture in the modified L-15 medium in vitro. Collectively, these results suggested that CgCD9 was a specific cell surface marker for agranulocytes, which offered a tool for high-purity capture of agranulocytes from total haemocytes in C. gigas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miren Dong
- College of Ocean and Earth Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Weilin Wang
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Laboratory of Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Process, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266235, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Lingling Wang
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Laboratory of Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Process, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266235, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Youwen Ma
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Meijia Li
- College of Ocean and Earth Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Haipeng Liu
- College of Ocean and Earth Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Kejian Wang
- College of Ocean and Earth Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Linsheng Song
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Laboratory of Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Process, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266235, China; Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China; Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, China.
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Luo Y, Wang WX. Roles of hemocyte subpopulations in silver nanoparticle transformation and toxicity in the oysters Crassostrea hongkongensis. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 305:119281. [PMID: 35413408 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Hemocytes are the main immune cells in bivalve mollusks and one of the sensitive targets for nanoparticle toxicity. Bivalve hemocytes consist of multiple functional heterogeneous cell types, but their different roles in immune system against foreign particles remain largely unknown. In order to clarify the different immune responses of hemocyte subpopulations to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and Ag ions, in this study, the Hong Kong oyster (Crassostrea hongkongensis) hemocytes were employed and separated into three subpopulations based on their cell size and granularity, including agranulocytes (R1), semigranulocytes (R2), and granulocytes (R3). We first demonstrated that AgNPs could rapidly enter into the oyster hemocytes within 3 h by phagocytosis process and resulted in different immune responses in hemocyte subpopulations. The most affected cell subtype by AgNPs was the granulocytes, followed by semigranulocytes, whereas agranulocytes were not affected following exposure to AgNPs. Interestingly, AgNPs induced the granule formation in semigranulocytes and further increased the proportion of granulocytes, whereas their ionic counterparts had no such effects on hemocyte composition, indicating the different detoxification mechanisms for nanoparticulate and ionic form. Following AgNP exposure, the dissolved Ag ions were accumulated in lysosomes and caused lysosomal dysfunction, indicating that lysosomes were the main targets for AgNP toxicity and the dissolved Ag ions were the main contributor of AgNP toxicity. Furthermore, AgNP exposure induced reactive oxygen production and impeded the lysosome function and phagocytosis in granulocytes, with impaired immunity system in oysters. Our study identified the different immune responses of oyster hemocyte subpopulations to AgNPs based on the in vitro short-term exposure assays, which may be applied to rapidly evaluate the ecotoxicological risks of different nanoparticles in aquatic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Luo
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China
| | - Wen-Xiong Wang
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China.
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Aranda DA, Oxenford HA, Medina J, Delgado G, Díaz ME, Samano C, Escalante VC, Bardet M, Mouret E, Bouchon C. Widespread microplastic pollution across the Caribbean Sea confirmed using queen conch. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 178:113582. [PMID: 35398690 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The Caribbean Sea is reported to have one of the highest levels of plastic pollution of any marine ecosystem. Much less is known about the levels of microplastics as an emerging pollutant in the marine environment, especially in the water column and benthic substrates where they can be easily ingested by marine organisms. This study was carried out to quantify marine microplastics in the Wider Caribbean using the mollusk, queen conch (Aliger gigas). We analyzed feces collected from queen conch, a non-lethal method of sampling, to investigate microplastic pollution in eleven sites across the Wider Caribbean. Microplastics were extracted by degradation of organic matter from feces with peroxide (30%) over 48 h. Microplastics were then analyzed by stereomicroscope and scanning electron microscope. Microplastics were found to be present in the feces of all 175 queen conch sampled, and in statistically different abundances among sites, but with no obvious geographical pattern. The highest and lowest levels were found in Central America; the highest being in Belize (270 ± 55 microplastics/queen conch) and Alacranes, Mexico (203 ± 29 microplastics/queen conch), whilst the lowest levels were found in Puerto Morelos, Mexico. Fibers, mostly between 1000 and 1500 μm in size, were the most frequent microplastic particle types at every site and represented between 60 and 98% of all microplastic particles found. Our results suggest that the use of queen conch feces is a suitable method for detecting benthic microplastic pollution, and have confirmed that microplastic pollution of marine benthos is widespread across the Wider Caribbean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalila Aldana Aranda
- CINVESTAV IPN Unidad Mérida. km. 6 Antigua Carretera a Progreso Cordemex, CP 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico.
| | - Hazel A Oxenford
- Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies, University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados
| | - Jairo Medina
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Caribe, Vía San Luis Free Town No 52-44, San Andrés, Colombia
| | - Gabriel Delgado
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, 2796 Overseas Highway. Ste. 119, Marathon, FL 33050, USA
| | - Martha Enríquez Díaz
- CINVESTAV IPN Unidad Mérida. km. 6 Antigua Carretera a Progreso Cordemex, CP 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Citlali Samano
- CINVESTAV IPN Unidad Mérida. km. 6 Antigua Carretera a Progreso Cordemex, CP 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Víctor Castillo Escalante
- CINVESTAV IPN Unidad Mérida. km. 6 Antigua Carretera a Progreso Cordemex, CP 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Marion Bardet
- CINVESTAV IPN Unidad Mérida. km. 6 Antigua Carretera a Progreso Cordemex, CP 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico; Université des Antilles, UMR BOREA, Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", BP 592, 97159 Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe
| | - Eve Mouret
- CINVESTAV IPN Unidad Mérida. km. 6 Antigua Carretera a Progreso Cordemex, CP 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico; Université des Antilles, UMR BOREA, Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", BP 592, 97159 Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe
| | - Claude Bouchon
- Université des Antilles, UMR BOREA, Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL", BP 592, 97159 Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe
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18
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de la Ballina NR, Maresca F, Cao A, Villalba A. Bivalve Haemocyte Subpopulations: A Review. Front Immunol 2022; 13:826255. [PMID: 35464425 PMCID: PMC9024128 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.826255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Bivalve molluscs stand out for their ecological success and their key role in the functioning of aquatic ecosystems, while also constituting a very valuable commercial resource. Both ecological success and production of bivalves depend on their effective immune defence function, in which haemocytes play a central role acting as both the undertaker of the cellular immunity and supplier of the humoral immunity. Bivalves have different types of haemocytes, which perform different functions. Hence, identification of cell subpopulations and their functional characterisation in immune responses is essential to fully understand the immune system in bivalves. Nowadays, there is not a unified nomenclature that applies to all bivalves. Characterisation of bivalve haemocyte subpopulations is often combined with 1) other multiple parameter assays to determine differences between cell types in immune-related physiological activities, such as phagocytosis, oxidative stress and apoptosis; and 2) immune response to different stressors such as pathogens, temperature, acidification and pollution. This review summarises the major and most recent findings in classification and functional characterisation of the main haemocyte types of bivalve molluscs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria R. de la Ballina
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Francesco Maresca
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório de Ciências do Mar, Universidade de Évora, Sines, Portugal
| | - Asunción Cao
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Antonio Villalba
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Plentziako Itsas Estazioa (PIE), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Plentzia, Spain
- *Correspondence: Antonio Villalba,
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Kladchenko ES, Andreyeva AY, Kukhareva TA. Effect of Ranged Short-Term Hypoxia on Functional and Morphological Parameters of Hemocytes in the Pacific Oyster Сrassostrea gigas (Thunberg, 1793). J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093022010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Bringer A, Cachot J, Dubillot E, Prunier G, Huet V, Clérandeau C, Evin L, Thomas H. Intergenerational effects of environmentally-aged microplastics on the Crassostrea gigas. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 294:118600. [PMID: 34863892 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study focused on the impacts of aged aquaculture microplastics (MPs) on oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Adult oysters were exposed for two months to a cocktail of MPs representative of the contamination of the Pertuis Charentais area (Bay of Biscay, France) and issuing from oyster framing material. The MPs mixture included 28% of polyethylene, 40% of polypropylene and 32% of PVC (polyvinyl chloride). During the exposure, tissues were sampled for various analyzes (MP quantification, toxicity biomarkers). Although no effect on the growth of adult oysters was noted, the mortality rate of bivalves exposed to MPs (0.1 and 10 mg. L-1 MP) increased significantly (respectively 13.3 and 23.3% of mortalities cumulative). On the one hand, the responses of biomarkers revealed impacts on oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and environmental stress. At 56 days of exposure, significant increases were noted for Glutathione S-Transferase (GST, 10 mg. L-1 MP), Malondialdehyde (MDA, 10 mg. L-1 MP) and Laccase (LAC, 0.1 and 10 mg. L-1 MP). No variations were observed for Superoxyde Dismutase (SOD). Besides, ingestion of MPs in oyster tissues and the presence in biodeposits was highlighted. In addition, in vitro fertilisations were performed to characterize MPs effects on the offspring. Swimming behavior, development and growth of D-larvae were analysed at 24-, 48- and 72-h after fertilisation. D-larvae, from exposed parents, demonstrated reduced locomotor activity. Developmental abnormalities and arrest as well as growth retardation were also noted. This study highlighted direct and intergenerational effects of MPs from aged plastic materials on Pacific oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arno Bringer
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042, La Rochelle Cedex 01, France.
| | - Jérôme Cachot
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, EPOC, EPHE, UMR 5805, F-33600, Pessac, France
| | - Emmanuel Dubillot
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042, La Rochelle Cedex 01, France
| | - Grégoire Prunier
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042, La Rochelle Cedex 01, France
| | - Valérie Huet
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042, La Rochelle Cedex 01, France
| | | | - Louise Evin
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042, La Rochelle Cedex 01, France
| | - Hélène Thomas
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266, CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042, La Rochelle Cedex 01, France
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21
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Luo Y, Wang WX. Immune responses of oyster hemocyte subpopulations to in vitro and in vivo zinc exposure. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2022; 242:106022. [PMID: 34798302 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2021.106022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Oysters are an excellent biomonitor of coastal pollution and the hyper-accumulator of toxic metals such as copper and zinc (Zn). One unique feature of molluscs is their hemocytes which are mainly involved in immune defenses. Different subpopulations of hemocytes have been identified, but their functions in metal transport and detoxification are not clear. In this study, we examined the immune responses of different subpopulations of oyster Crassostrea hongkongensis hemocytes under different periods of Zn exposure by using flow cytometer and confocal microscopy. In vitro exposure to Zn resulted in acute immune responses by increasing the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and phagocytosis and decreased number of granulocytes and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) within 3 h. Granulocyte mortality and lysosomal pH increased whereas glutathione (GSH) decreased within 1 h of in vitro exposure, indicating the immune stimulation of granulocytes. Within the first 7 days of in vivo exposure, immunocompetence of granulocytes was inhibited with increasing granulocyte mortality but decreasing ROS production and phagocytosis. However, with a further extension of Zn exposure to 14 days, both phagocytosis and lysosomal content increased with an increasing number of granulocytes, indicating the increase of hemocyte-mediated immunity. Our study demonstrated that granulocytes played important roles in oyster immune defenses while other subpopulations may also participate in immune functions. The degranulation and granulation due to transition between semigranulocytes and granulocytes after Zn exposure were important in metal detoxification. The study contributed to our understanding of the immune phenomena and the adaptive capability of oysters in metal contaminated environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Luo
- School of Energy and Environment and Hong Kong Branch of the Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Wen-Xiong Wang
- School of Energy and Environment and Hong Kong Branch of the Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China.
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Fonseca VB, Cruz BP, Silveira da Silva S, Soares MP, Cañedo AD, Vargas MA, Sandrini JZ. Morphological characterization of hemocytes of the brown mussel Perna perna: An update. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 120:139-141. [PMID: 34822995 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2021.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Considering the importance of hemocyte characterization for immunological studies, this work aimed to characterize the hemocyte types of Perna perna mussels combining transmission electron microscopy and flow cytometry with the classical optical microscopy. The results indicated four type of hemocytes: hyalinocytes, semigranulocytes, granulocytes and blast-like cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Barneche Fonseca
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, 96203-900, Brazil.
| | - Bruno Pinto Cruz
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, 96203-900, Brazil
| | - Simone Silveira da Silva
- Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPEL), Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Mauro Pereira Soares
- Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPEL), Pelotas, RS, 96010-900, Brazil
| | | | - Marcelo Alves Vargas
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, 96203-900, Brazil
| | - Juliana Zomer Sandrini
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, 96203-900, Brazil
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23
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Classification and morphology of circulating haemocytes in the razor clam Sinonovacula constricta. AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aaf.2020.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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de la Ballina NR, Villalba A, Cao A. Shotgun analysis to identify differences in protein expression between granulocytes and hyalinocytes of the European flat oyster Ostrea edulis. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 119:678-691. [PMID: 34748932 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2021.10.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Recovery of wild populations of the European flat oyster Ostrea edulis is important for ecosystem health and conservation of this species, because native oyster populations have dramatically declined or disappeared in most European waters. Diseases have contributed to oyster decline and are important constrains for oyster recovery. Understanding oyster immune system should contribute to design effective strategies to fight oyster diseases. Haemocytes play a pivotal role in mollusc immune responses protecting from infection. Two main types of haemocytes, granulocytes and hyalinocytes, are distinguished in O. edulis. A study aiming to explore differential functions between both haemocyte types and, thus, to enrich the knowledge of Ostrea edulis immune system, was performed by comparing the proteome of the two haemolymph cell types, using a shotgun approach through liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS). Cells from oyster haemolymph were differentially separated by Percoll density gradient centrifugation. Shotgun LC-MS/MS performance allowed the identification of 145 proteins in hyalinocytes and 138 in the proteome of granulocytes. After a comparative analysis, 55 proteins with main roles in defence were identified, from which 28 were representative of granulocytes and 27 of hyalinocytes, plus 11 proteins shared by both cell types. Different proteins involved in signal transduction, apoptosis, oxidative response, processes related with the cytoskeleton and structure, recognition and wound healing were identified as representatives of each haemocyte type. Important signalling pathways in the immune response such as MAPK, Ras and NF-κβ seemed to be more relevant for granulocytes, while the Wnt signalling pathway, particularly relevant for wound healing, more relevant in hyalinocytes. The differences in proteins involved in recognition and in cytoskeleton and structure suggest differential specialisation in processes of phagocytosis and internalisation of pathogens between haemocyte types. Apoptosis seemed more active in granulocytes. The differences in proteins involved in oxidative response also suggest different redox processes in each cell type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria R de la Ballina
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Antonio Villalba
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain; Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain; Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology (PIE), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), 48620, Plentzia, Spain.
| | - Asunción Cao
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
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25
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Chakraborty S, Ray M, Ray S. Bivalve haemocyte adhesion, aggregation and phagocytosis: A tool to reckon arsenic induced threats to freshwater ecosystem. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 114:229-237. [PMID: 33979692 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2021.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The freshwater aquifers of the Indo-Gangetic plains support rich biodiversity which is under the threat of arsenic contamination. The filter feeding bivalve mollusc Lamellidens marginalis is a sessile and sentinel resident of these freshwater habitats. In the present study, the classical cell behaviours of adhesion and aggregation were monitored in the circulating haemocytes of the freshwater bivalve under the exposure of sodium arsenite (NaAsO2) at sublethal concentrations in controlled laboratory conditions for a maximum time-span of sixteen days. The toxic metalloid significantly inhibited non-self adhesion, inter-haemocyte interactions and haemocyte aggregation in a dose and time dependent manner. The natural occurrence of the filopods on the haemocytes was significantly diminished in the bivalves exposed to the inorganic arsenite. Moreover, a significant fall in the kinetics of phagocytosis index and haemocyte adhesion was observed under the in vitro exposure to NaAsO2. Compromised non-self adhesion, cell-cell aggregation and phagocytosis of non-self particles by the bivalve haemocytes probably indicate susceptible immunological status of the bivalve. Such vulnerable immunity of the bivalve probably signifies the nature of imminent threat to the freshwater ecosystem as a whole under inorganic arsenite exposure. The findings would be helpful to design bivalve haemocyte based inexpensive biomonitoring tool to assess the health of freshwater ecosystem under potential arsenic threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudipta Chakraborty
- Department of Zoology, Government General Degree College at Keshiary, Paschim Medinipur, PIN 721135, West Bengal, India
| | - Mitali Ray
- Department of Zoology, Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, University of Calcutta, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, PIN 700019, West Bengal, India
| | - Sajal Ray
- Department of Zoology, Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, University of Calcutta, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, PIN 700019, West Bengal, India.
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Ballarin L, Karahan A, Salvetti A, Rossi L, Manni L, Rinkevich B, Rosner A, Voskoboynik A, Rosental B, Canesi L, Anselmi C, Pinsino A, Tohumcu BE, Jemec Kokalj A, Dolar A, Novak S, Sugni M, Corsi I, Drobne D. Stem Cells and Innate Immunity in Aquatic Invertebrates: Bridging Two Seemingly Disparate Disciplines for New Discoveries in Biology. Front Immunol 2021; 12:688106. [PMID: 34276677 PMCID: PMC8278520 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.688106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The scopes related to the interplay between stem cells and the immune system are broad and range from the basic understanding of organism's physiology and ecology to translational studies, further contributing to (eco)toxicology, biotechnology, and medicine as well as regulatory and ethical aspects. Stem cells originate immune cells through hematopoiesis, and the interplay between the two cell types is required in processes like regeneration. In addition, stem and immune cell anomalies directly affect the organism's functions, its ability to cope with environmental changes and, indirectly, its role in ecosystem services. However, stem cells and immune cells continue to be considered parts of two branches of biological research with few interconnections between them. This review aims to bridge these two seemingly disparate disciplines towards much more integrative and transformative approaches with examples deriving mainly from aquatic invertebrates. We discuss the current understanding of cross-disciplinary collaborative and emerging issues, raising novel hypotheses and comments. We also discuss the problems and perspectives of the two disciplines and how to integrate their conceptual frameworks to address basic equations in biology in a new, innovative way.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arzu Karahan
- Middle East Technical University, Institute of Marine Sciences, Erdemli, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Alessandra Salvetti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Unit of Experimental Biology and Genetics, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Leonardo Rossi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Unit of Experimental Biology and Genetics, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Lucia Manni
- Department of Biology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Baruch Rinkevich
- Department of Biology, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, National Institute of Oceanography, Haifa, Israel
| | - Amalia Rosner
- Department of Biology, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, National Institute of Oceanography, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, United States
- Department of Biology, Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Benyamin Rosental
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cells, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Laura Canesi
- Department of Earth Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Chiara Anselmi
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, United States
| | - Annalisa Pinsino
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council, Palermo, Italy
| | - Begüm Ece Tohumcu
- Middle East Technical University, Institute of Marine Sciences, Erdemli, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Anita Jemec Kokalj
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andraž Dolar
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sara Novak
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Michela Sugni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Corsi
- Department of Physical, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Damjana Drobne
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Teng J, Zhao J, Zhu X, Shan E, Zhang C, Zhang W, Wang Q. Toxic effects of exposure to microplastics with environmentally relevant shapes and concentrations: Accumulation, energy metabolism and tissue damage in oyster Crassostrea gigas. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 269:116169. [PMID: 33302083 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are widely found in coastal areas and oceans worldwide. The MPs are environmentally concerning due to their bioavailability and potential impacts on a wide range of marine biota, so assessing their impact on the biota has become an urgent research priority. In the present study, we exposed Crassostrea gigas oysters to irregular MPs of two polymer types (polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)) at concentrations of 10 and 1000 μg L-1 for 21 days. Accumulation of MPs, changes in metabolic enzyme activity, and histological damage were evaluated, and metabolomics analysis was conducted. Results demonstrated that PE and PET MPs were detected in the gills and digestive gland following exposure to both tested concentrations, confirming ingestion of MPs by the organisms. Moreover, both PE and PET MPs inhibited lipid metabolism, while energy metabolism enzyme activities were activated in the oysters. Histopathological damage of exposed oysters was also observed in this study. Integrated biomarker response (IBR) results showed that MPs toxicity increased with increasing MPs concentration, and the toxic effects of PET MPs on oysters was greater than PE MPs. In addition, metabolomics analysis suggested that MPs exposure induced alterations in metabolic profiles in oysters, with changes in energy metabolism and inflammatory responses. This study reports new insights into the consequences of MPs exposure in marine bivalves at environmentally relevant concentrations, providing valuable information for ecological risk assessment of MPs in a realistic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Teng
- Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xishanbeitou Village, Dayao Town, Muping District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19 Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Jianmin Zhao
- Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xishanbeitou Village, Dayao Town, Muping District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China
| | - Xiaopeng Zhu
- Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xishanbeitou Village, Dayao Town, Muping District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19 Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Encui Shan
- Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xishanbeitou Village, Dayao Town, Muping District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19 Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Chen Zhang
- Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xishanbeitou Village, Dayao Town, Muping District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China
| | - Wenjing Zhang
- Muping Coastal Environment Research Station, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xishanbeitou Village, Dayao Town, Muping District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China
| | - Qing Wang
- Research and Development Center for Efficient Utilization of Coastal Bioresources, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China; Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 17 Chunhui Road, Laishan District, Yantai, Shandong Province, 264003, PR China.
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28
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Ewere EE, Reichelt-Brushett A, Benkendorff K. The neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid, but not salinity, impacts the immune system of Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea glomerata. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 742:140538. [PMID: 32634691 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The broad utilisation of neonicotinoids, particularly imidacloprid (IMI), in agriculture has led to unplanned contamination of aquatic systems around the world. The sublethal effects of individual pesticides on the immune system of oysters, as well as their combined effects with other environmental stressors that fluctuate in estuarine environments, such as salinity, are yet to be investigated in ecotoxicology. We investigated the acute (4 d) toxicity of IMI in two salinity regimes on the immune parameters of Sydney rock oysters (SRO), including total hemocyte counts (THC), differential hemocyte counts (DHC), phagocytosis and hemocyte aggregation (HA), hemolymph protein expression and enzyme (catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)) activities. Environmentally relevant concentrations of IMI were found to cause an increase in THC, induce GST activity, reduce HA, and inhibit AChE activity. However, DHC, CAT activity and phagocytosis were not significantly impacted at any test concentration at either salinity. IMI concentrations ≥0.01 mg/L significantly altered the expression of 28 proteins in the hemolymph of SRO, including an increase in the relative expression of extracellular superoxide dismutase, severin, ATP synthase subunit beta, as well as stress response proteins (heat shock proteins, serine/threonine-protein kinase DCLK3 and peroxiredoxin-1), and a decrease/absence of collagen alpha-4 (VI) and alpha-6 (VI) chain, metalloendopeptidase, L-ascorbate oxidase, transporter, CEP209_CC5 domain-containing protein and actin. This study indicates that the immune system of SRO can be impacted at environmentally relevant concentrations of IMI, but reduced salinity does not appear to influence the toxicity of this insecticide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Endurance E Ewere
- Marine Ecology Research Centre, School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia; Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
| | - Amanda Reichelt-Brushett
- Marine Ecology Research Centre, School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
| | - Kirsten Benkendorff
- Marine Ecology Research Centre, School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia; National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, NSW 2450, Australia.
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29
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Kim JH, Lee HM, Cho YG, Shin JS, You JW, Choi KS, Hong HK. Flow cytometric characterization of the hemocytes of blood cockles Anadara broughtonii (Schrenck, 1867), Anadara kagoshimensis (Lischke, 1869), and Tegillarca granosa (Linnaeus, 1758) as a biomarker for coastal environmental monitoring. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 160:111654. [PMID: 33181933 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Marine bivalves are often used as a sentinel species in coastal environmental monitoring since changes in the environmental quality are often well preserved in their cells and tissues. Anadara and Tegillarca species of Arcidae, the blood cockles, are considered to be good sentinel species in monitoring coastal pollution and ecosystem health because they are distributed widely in the subsurface of intertidal mudflats. Internal cellular defense of the blood cockles to physical and biological stresses is mediated by the circulating hemocytes, while their hemocyte types and functions are poorly studied. In this study, we first characterized morphology and immune-related activities of hemocytes of three common blood cockles Anadara broughtonii, A. kagoshimensis, and Tegillarca granosa using flow cytometry. Based on cell morphology and immunological functions, we described five types of hemocytes identically in the three blood cockles: erythrocytes type-I (erythrocytes-I), erythrocytes type-II (erythrocytes-II), granulocytes, hyalinocytes, and blast-like cells. Erythrocytes were round cells containing hemoglobin with numerous granules in the cytoplasm and these cells consist of two central populations. Erythrocytes-I were the most abundant cells accounting for 80-89% of the total circulating hemocytes and exhibited a certain level of lysosome and oxidative capacity. Erythrocytes-II were the largest cells and displayed high lysosome content and the most active oxidative capacity. Both erythrocytes-I and erythrocytes-II did not show phagocytosis capacity. Granulocytes were intermediated-sized hemocytes characterized by granules in the cytoplasm and long pseudopodia on the cell surface, and these cells were mainly engaged in the cellular defense exhibiting the largest lysosome content, the most active phagocytosis, and high oxidative capacity. Contrary to granulocytes, hyalinocytes were comparatively small and round cells and exhibited no granules in the cytoplasm. Hyalinocytes displayed a certain level of lysosome and phagocytosis and oxidative capacities. Blast-like cells characterized by the smallest size and small quantity of cytoplasm and exhibited an absence of phagocytosis and extremely low oxidative capacity, suggesting that this population is not directly involved in the cell-mediated immune activities. In conclusion, flow cytometry indicated that three blood cockles had five types of hemocytes, and the erythrocytes and granulocytes were mainly involved in the immunological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong-Hwa Kim
- Department of Marine Life Science (BK21 PLUS) and Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Mi Lee
- Department of Marine Life Science (BK21 PLUS) and Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Ghan Cho
- Department of Marine Life Science (BK21 PLUS) and Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Seop Shin
- Department of Marine Life Science (BK21 PLUS) and Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Won You
- Korea Institute of Coastal Ecology, Inc., Bucheon 14449, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Sik Choi
- Department of Marine Life Science (BK21 PLUS) and Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Ki Hong
- Department of Marine Life Science (BK21 PLUS) and Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea.
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30
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Rolton A, Ragg NLC. Green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) hemocytes: A flow cytometric study of sampling effects, sub-populations and immune-related functions. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 103:181-189. [PMID: 32416249 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus) are a commercially and culturally important bivalve species in New Zealand (NZ). As the highest value export aquaculture product in NZ, understanding and safeguarding the health of this species is imperative. The identification and characterization of hemocytes can provide useful information regarding the health of this species. Using flow cytometry (FCM), the present study assessed for the first time the use of different antiaggregant solutions and storage times on the immune-related parameters of hemocytes from cultured adult P. canaliculus. In addition, characterization of the immune-related functions of hemocyte sub-populations within the hemolymph were assessed. The two antiaggregant solutions tested (Modified Alserver's, MAS, A and B) maintained similar numbers of hemocytes in circulation over a 60 min period but, reduced the viability (MAS A) and increased the ROS production (MAS B) of the hemocytes compared to hemocytes diluted in cold filtered seawater (FSW). Hemocytes diluted in FSW and kept on ice showed significant aggregation after 2 h and a reduction in viability from 4 h. Three different hemocyte sub-populations were identified, discernible by their relative size and internal complexity: blast-like cells, hyalinocytes and granulocytes, which accounted for approximately 4, 67 and 29% of the total hemolymph population respectively. Granulocytes showed significantly higher reactive oxygen species production, phagocytic capabilities and neutral lipid content compared to hyalinocytes and blast-like cells. Results indicate that maintaining extracted hemolymph in cold FSW, completing analysis of fresh samples within 2 h of extraction and FCM assay incubation times of no longer than 30 min are best to obtain accurate results. Formalin fixation can also be used for future determination of hemocyte sub-populations and internal structures. Results from this study will allow effective future study of the effects of various stressors on P. canaliculus health and lead to improved management and production strategies in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Rolton
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Norman L C Ragg
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
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31
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Fonseca VB, Guerreiro ADS, Vargas MA, Sandrini JZ. Effects of DCOIT (4,5-dichloro-2-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one) to the haemocytes of mussels Perna perna. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 232:108737. [PMID: 32142921 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Bivalve molluscs rely only on an innate immune system to execute cellular and humoral processes. Haemocytes, the haemolymph circulating cells, play a major role in this type of immunity, principally regarding cellular defences. Considering that environmental pollutants can affect the immune system of invertebrates, this work evaluated the effects of the antifouling biocide 4,5-dicloro-2-n-octil-4-isotiazolin-3-ona (DCOIT) on the haemocytes of mussels Perna perna. Individuals were exposed to 0 (control), 0.1 μg L-1 and 10 μg L-1 of DCOIT for up to 96 h. The analysed parameters included: total (THC) and differential (DHC) haemocyte count, cellular viability, adhesion capacity, phagocytic activity, levels of reactive oxygen species and DNA damage. Moreover, the stress on stress (SOS) response of mussels was analysed as a general stress index. The results show that DCOIT increased the haemocyte adhesion capacity and caused a decrease in THC and in the haemocyte viability after 24 h of exposure. After 96 h of exposure, DCOIT only affected the haemocyte adhesion capacity, which was decreased by biocide exposure. Moreover, exposure to DCOIT for 96 h did not affect the capacity for air survival of mussels. These results indicate that DCOIT interferes in important parameters associated with the innate immunity of P. perna, mainly after 24 h of exposure. It is suggested that the animals were able to develop some compensatory response strategy, making them more resistant to the biocide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Barneche Fonseca
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Av Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Amanda da Silveira Guerreiro
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Av Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Alves Vargas
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Av Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Av Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Juliana Zomer Sandrini
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Av Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Av Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, Brazil.
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de la Ballina NR, Villalba A, Cao A. Differences in proteomic profile between two haemocyte types, granulocytes and hyalinocytes, of the flat oyster Ostrea edulis. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 100:456-466. [PMID: 32205190 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Haemocytes play a dominant role in shellfish immunity, being considered the main defence effector cells in molluscs. These cells are known to be responsible for many functions, including chemotaxis, cellular recognition, attachment, aggregation, shell repair and nutrient transport and digestion. There are two basic cell types of bivalve haemocytes morphologically distinguishable, hyalinocytes and granulocytes; however, functional differences and specific abilities are poorly understood: granulocytes are believed to be more efficient in killing microorganisms, while hyalinocytes are thought to be more specialised in clotting and wound healing. A proteomic approach was implemented to find qualitative differences in the protein profile between granulocytes and hyalinocytes of the European flat oyster, Ostrea edulis, as a way to evaluate functional differences. Oyster haemolymph cells were differentially separated by Percoll® density gradient centrifugation. Granulocyte and hyalinocyte proteins were separated by 2D-PAGE and their protein profiles were analysed and compared with PD Quest software; the protein spots exclusive for each haemocyte type were excised from gels and analysed by MALDI-TOF/TOF with a combination of mass spectrometry (MS) and MS/MS for sequencing and protein identification. A total of 34 proteins were identified, 20 unique to granulocytes and 14 to hyalinocytes. The results suggested differences between the haemocyte types in signal transduction, apoptosis, oxidation reduction processes, cytoskeleton, phagocytosis and pathogen recognition. These results contribute to identify differential roles of each haemocyte type and to better understand the oyster immunity mechanisms, which should help to fight oyster diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria R de la Ballina
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Antonio Villalba
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain; Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain; Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology (PIE), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), 48620, Plentzia, Spain.
| | - Asunción Cao
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
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Cheng D, Zhang H, Liu H, Zhang X, Tan K, Li S, Ma H, Zheng H. Identification and molecular characterization of peroxiredoxin 6 from noble scallop Chlamys nobilis revealing its potent immune response and antioxidant property. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 100:368-377. [PMID: 32194249 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The 1-cyseine peroxiredoxin (Prx6) is an importantly antioxidant enzyme that protects cells from oxidative damage caused by excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, we described the molecular characteristics of the noble scallop Chlamys nobilis peroxiredoxin 6 (designed as CnPrx6), immune responses and DNA protection activity of the recombinant protein. The complete ORF (696 bp) of CnPrx6 encoded a polypeptide (25.5 kDa) of 231 amino acids, harboring a conserved peroxidase catalytic center (41PVCTTE46) and the catalytic triads putatively involved in peroxidase and phospholipase A2 activities. The deduced amino acid sequence of CnPrx6 shared a relatively high amino acid sequence similarity (more than 50%). The qRT-PCR revealed that the CnPrx6 mRNA was constitutively expressed in all examined tissues, with the highest expression observed in adductor. Upon immunological challenge with Vibrio parahaemolyticus, lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C), the expression level of CnPrx6 mRNA was significantly up-regulated (P < 0.05). Furthermore, there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the expression level of CnPrx6 between golden and brown scallops. The purified recombinant CnPrx6 protein protected the supercoiled plasmid DNA from metal-catalyzed ROS damage. Taken together, these results indicated that the CnPrx6 may play an important role in modulating immune responses and minimizing DNA damage in noble scallop Chlamys nobilis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dewei Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Guangdong Province, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Mariculture Research Center for Subtropical Shellfish & Algae of Guangdong Province, Shantou, 515063, China; STU-UMT Joint Shellfish Research Laboratory, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Hongkuan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Guangdong Province, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Mariculture Research Center for Subtropical Shellfish & Algae of Guangdong Province, Shantou, 515063, China; STU-UMT Joint Shellfish Research Laboratory, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Hongxing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Guangdong Province, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Mariculture Research Center for Subtropical Shellfish & Algae of Guangdong Province, Shantou, 515063, China; STU-UMT Joint Shellfish Research Laboratory, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Xinxu Zhang
- Institute for Advanced Study, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Karsoon Tan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Guangdong Province, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Mariculture Research Center for Subtropical Shellfish & Algae of Guangdong Province, Shantou, 515063, China; STU-UMT Joint Shellfish Research Laboratory, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Shengkang Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Guangdong Province, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Mariculture Research Center for Subtropical Shellfish & Algae of Guangdong Province, Shantou, 515063, China; STU-UMT Joint Shellfish Research Laboratory, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Hongyu Ma
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Guangdong Province, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Mariculture Research Center for Subtropical Shellfish & Algae of Guangdong Province, Shantou, 515063, China; STU-UMT Joint Shellfish Research Laboratory, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Huaiping Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Guangdong Province, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Mariculture Research Center for Subtropical Shellfish & Algae of Guangdong Province, Shantou, 515063, China; STU-UMT Joint Shellfish Research Laboratory, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China.
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Hong HK, Choi KS. Temporal changes in hemocyte functions of the oyster Saccostrea kegaki (Torigoe & Inaba, 1981) on Jeju Island off the south coast of Korea are closely associated with annual gametogenesis. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 152:110780. [PMID: 32479269 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Hemocyte parameters have been used as a proxy to characterize the health condition of marine bivalves, as the effects of external and internal stresses are reflected well in these parameters. Marine bivalve hemocyte functions are often depressed during the post-spawning period due to physiological stress and energy depletion. In this study, we analyzed temporal changes in hemocyte parameters of the oyster Saccostrea kegaki on Jeju Island, off the south coast of Korea, using flow cytometry. Total hemocyte count (THC), hemocyte types, hemocyte mortality, and phagocytosis capacity were analyzed. S. kegaki spawned during June and August, when the sea surface temperature increased from 18 to 23 °C. Most of the oysters were in the spent and resting phases from September to January. THC dropped dramatically from September to October, when most oysters completed spawning. Histology revealed that the residual eggs or sperm were actively resorbed through phagocytosis by hemocytes during the spent stage. Hemocyte mortality also showed its annual peak in October, possibly due to increased resorbing activities. The phagocytosis capacities of the granulocytes decreased dramatically from September to February. The level of energy reserves (glycogen) in post-spawning tissues was significantly lower than that prior to spawning. The low energy level reserve during the post-spawning period likely reduced the THC and immune capacities, as oysters may have been unable to acquire sufficient food from the ambient environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ki Hong
- School of Marine Biomedical Science (BK21 PLUS), Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Sik Choi
- School of Marine Biomedical Science (BK21 PLUS), Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63333, Republic of Korea.
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Rolton A, Delisle L, Berry J, Venter L, Webb SC, Adams S, Hilton Z. Flow cytometric characterization of hemocytes of the flat oyster, Ostrea chilensis. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 97:411-420. [PMID: 31877358 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.12.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The flat oyster, Ostrea chilensis, native to New Zealand (NZ) and Chile is considered an important ecological, cultural and fisheries resource. Currently, commercial landings of this species in NZ are restricted due to low population numbers caused by ongoing mortalities resulting from the presence of the haplosporidian parasite, Bonamia exitiosa. More recently, the arrival of B. ostreae in NZ led to major mortalities in farmed stocks. To understand how diseases caused by Bonamia spp. affect this oyster species, a more complete understanding of its biology, physiology and immune system is needed. The present study characterized, for the first time, hemocytes of adult O. chilensis, from the Foveaux Strait, NZ, using flow cytometry (FCM) and histology. Based on the internal complexity of the hemocytes, two main circulating hemocyte populations were identified: granulocytes and hyalinocytes (accounting for ~30% and ~70% of the total circulating hemocyte population, respectively). These were further divided into two sub-populations of each cell type using FCM. A third sub-population of granulocytes was identified using histology. Using FCM, functional and metabolic characteristics were investigated for the two main hemocyte types. Granulocytes showed higher phagocytic capabilities, lysosomal content, neutral lipid content and reactive oxygen species production compared to hyalinocytes, indicating their important role in cellular immune defence in this species. Methods of hemocyte sampling and storage were also investigated and flow cytometric protocols were detailed and verified to allow effective future investigations into the health status of this important species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Rolton
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Lizenn Delisle
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Jolene Berry
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Leonie Venter
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, School of Science, Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | | | - Serean Adams
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Zoë Hilton
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
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36
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Scanes E, Wood H, Ross P. Microplastics detected in haemolymph of the Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea glomerata. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 149:110537. [PMID: 31466014 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Plastic waste is ubiquitous in marine environments. Despite the sheer volume of plastic waste, it remains relatively unknown how marine invertebrates will interact with microplastics (plastic <1 mm). Microplastics (<2 μm) were ingested by the economically and ecologically significant Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea glomerata and translocated to the haemolymph, perhaps via phagocytosis. The presence of microplastics in the haemolymph indicates that filter feeding S. glomerata can ingest and accumulate microplastics which are prevalent in the environment. This research shows microplastics can enter marine molluscs and highlights the need to monitor microplastics in the marine environment and aquaculture to safeguard the seafood industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot Scanes
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2750, Australia
| | - Heather Wood
- School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2750, Australia
| | - Pauline Ross
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2750, Australia..
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Van Nguyen T, Alfaro AC. Applications of flow cytometry in molluscan immunology: Current status and trends. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 94:239-248. [PMID: 31491532 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Flow cytometry (FCM) is routinely used in fundamental and applied research, clinical practice, and clinical trials. In the last three decades, this technique has also become a routine tool used in immunological studies of molluscs to analyse physical and chemical characteristics of haemocytes. Here, we briefly review the current implementation of FCM in the field of molluscan immunology. These applications cover a diverse range of practices from straightforward total cell counts and cell viability to characterize cell subpopulations, and further extend to analyses of DNA content, phagocytosis, oxidative stress and apoptosis. The challenges and prospects of FCM applications in immunological studies of molluscs are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thao Van Nguyen
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, School of Science, Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
| | - Andrea C Alfaro
- Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, School of Science, Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand.
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Andreyeva AY, Efremova ES, Kukhareva TA. Morphological and functional characterization of hemocytes in cultivated mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and effect of hypoxia on hemocyte parameters. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 89:361-367. [PMID: 30974218 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The circulating hemocytes of cultivated marine mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were investigated using light microscopy and flow cytometry. In mussels two cell types, granulocytes and agranulocytes, were identified based on the existence of two subpopulations of cells differing by size and granularity level on light-scattered plots. Light microscopic observation confirmed the presence of cells with cytoplasmic granules and cells without granulation in hemolymph of mussels. The main type of cells in hemolymph were agranular cells amounting 78.4 ± 8.9% in mussels. Flow cytometry showed that the agranular hemocytes of the mollusks produce significantly less reactive oxygen species compared to granulocytes. Mussel were exposed for 24 h of hypoxia and immune functions including hemocyte mortality, proliferation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were analysed using flow cytometric methods. Granulocyte number was higher at low oxygen concentration than that at normoxia; agranulocytes number decreased, in contrast. The ROS production after hypoxic treatment was decreased compared to normoxia level. No significant changes in hemocyte mortality and proliferation were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Y Andreyeva
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Kovalevsky Institute of Marine Biological Research Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Ave 14, 119991, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - E S Efremova
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Kovalevsky Institute of Marine Biological Research Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Ave 14, 119991, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - T A Kukhareva
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Kovalevsky Institute of Marine Biological Research Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Ave 14, 119991, Moscow, Russian Federation
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Parrino V, Costa G, Cannavà C, Fazio E, Bonsignore M, Concetta S, Piccione G, Fazio F. Flow cytometry and micro-Raman spectroscopy: Identification of hemocyte populations in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis (Bivalvia: Mytilidae) from Faro Lake and Tyrrhenian Sea (Sicily, Italy). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 87:1-8. [PMID: 30605767 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Immunological and structural characteristics of hemocyte populations in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis (Bivalvia: Mytilidae), going from two different Sicilian habitats (Faro Lake and Tyrrhenian sea), was investigated by means of two different techniques (flow cytometric and micro-Raman spectroscopy analyses). For this purpose, three hundred and sixty mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis were analyzed during November 2017. They were divided into two equal groups (triplicate sample) on the basis of the site of collection (n = 60 caught in Faro Lake - group A, and n = 60 caught in Tyrrhenian Sea - group B). Some several differences between the species of Faro Lake and Tyrrhenian Sea are observed and ascribed to the disruption of immune parameters induced by the variations of some qualitative water parameters (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, ammonium 10, free chlorine, total chlorine, total phosphate, orthofhosphate) recorded in the two habitats. This study is relevant for monitoring the conditions of the sea and Faro Lake, which is strongly influenced by the currents of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Faro lake is well known for the cultivation of mussels and this is part of a coastal habitat of particular interest, consisted of a peculiar biocenotic complex. Further, for the first time, significant different arrangement in the mussels cell structural organization was evidenced by simply following their highly reproducible Raman biomolecular signatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Parrino
- University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166, Messina, Italy.
| | - Gregorio Costa
- University of Messina, Department of Human Pathology in Adult and Developmental Age, 98125, Messina, Italy
| | - Carmela Cannavà
- University of Messina, Department of Human Pathology in Adult and Developmental Age, 98125, Messina, Italy
| | - Enza Fazio
- University of Messina, Department of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, Physics Sciences and Earth Sciences, Messina, 98166, Italy
| | - Martina Bonsignore
- University of Messina, Department of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, Physics Sciences and Earth Sciences, Messina, 98166, Italy
| | - Saoca Concetta
- University of Messina, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, 98168, Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Piccione
- University of Messina, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, 98168, Messina, Italy
| | - Francesco Fazio
- University of Messina, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Polo Universitario dell'Annunziata, 98168, Messina, Italy
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Höher N, Turja R, Brenner M, Nyholm JR, Östin A, Leffler P, Butrimavičienė L, Baršienė J, Halme M, Karjalainen M, Niemikoski H, Vanninen P, Broeg K, Lehtonen KK, Berglind R. Toxic effects of chemical warfare agent mixtures on the mussel Mytilus trossulus in the Baltic Sea: A laboratory exposure study. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 145:112-122. [PMID: 30850117 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Baltic blue mussels (Mytilus trossulus) were implemented to assess potential toxicity, health impairments and bioaccumulation of dumped chemical warfare agents on marine benthic organisms. Mussels were collected from a pristine cultivation side and exposed under laboratory conditions to different mixtures of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) related phenyl arsenic compounds, Clark I and Adamsite as well as chloroacetophenone. Using a multi-biomarker approach, mussels were assessed thereafter for effects at different organisational levels ranging from geno-to cytotoxic effects, differences in enzyme kinetics and immunological responses. In an integrated approach, chemical analysis of water and tissue of the test organisms was performed in parallel. The results show clearly that exposed mussels bioaccumulate the oxidized forms of chemical warfare agents Clark I, Adamsite (DAox and DMox) and, to a certain extent, also chloroacetophenone into their tissues. Adverse effects in the test organisms at subcellular and functional level, including cytotoxic, immunotoxic and oxidative stress effects were visible. These acute effects occurred even at the lowest test concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Höher
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Raisa Turja
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | | | - Anders Östin
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Per Leffler
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Laura Butrimavičienė
- Institute of Ecology of Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Janina Baršienė
- Institute of Ecology of Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Mia Halme
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maaret Karjalainen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katja Broeg
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rune Berglind
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
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Liu J, Zhao Y. Morphological and functional characterization of clam Ruditapes philippinarum haemocytes. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 82:136-146. [PMID: 30099140 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Clam Ruditapes philippinarum is one of the most important commercial aquaculture species in China. The haemocytes play vital roles in internal defense of the calm. In this investigation, classification and immune functions of R. philippinarum haemocytes were identified. The haemocyte density was (8.28 ± 1.42) × 106/mL and two major haemocyte types basophilic hyalinocytes and eosinophilic granulocytes were recognized based on the presence or absence of granules and staining affinities of their cytoplasm. Granulocytes were the most common cell type (73.08 ± 3.23%). The hyalinocytes and granulocytes could be divided into eight subtypes respectively according to N/C ratio as well as the nucleus shape and number by light microscope. Fourteen types of granules were identified and the multivesicular body and R-body were first found in bivalve, moreover, transmission electron microscope observation was consistent with the results from light microscope. Also eight different external forms of haemocytes could be identified by scanning electron microscope. Both granulocytes and hyalinocytes showed the abilities of phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production which were higher in granulocytes than that in hyalinocytes. The phagocytic rate of the total haemocytes and the granulocytes was about 45.06% and 40.74% respectively. The ROS production of the total haemocytes and granulocytes was 58.7% and 51.19% respectively. Although the hyalinocytes showed less ability in phagocytosis and ROS production, they played important roles in agglutination. This investigation provided a fundamental knowledge for future study of the immune function of haemocytes in clam R. philippinarum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liu
- Central Laboratory, Qingdao Agriculture University, Qingdao, 266109, PR China.
| | - Yong Zhao
- College of Life Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, PR China
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Li J, Zhang Y, Mao F, Lin Y, Xiao S, Xiang Z, Ma H, Zhang Y, Yu Z. The first morphologic and functional characterization of hemocytes in Hong Kong oyster, Crassostrea hongkongensis. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 81:423-429. [PMID: 29864587 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.05.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 05/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Hemocytes are the first line of defence of the innate immune system of molluscs. For the first time hemocytes of Crassostrea hongkongensis were morphologically and functionally characterized, identifying circulating cell types and studying their involvement in immune responses. In the present study, two main populations, hyalinocytes and granulocytes, were characterized based on the presence or absence of cytoplasmic granules, using light and electron microscopy (TEM), and flow cytometry analyses. Granulocytes are 7-13 μm in diameter and present evident cytoplasmic granules, and hyalinocytes, 6-15 μm in diameter, with a few or no granules. The mean number of circulating hemocytes in the hemolymph was 2.52 × 106 cells/mL. Flow cytometry indicated that both granulocytes and hyalinocytes showed cell phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. However, phagocytosis and spontaneous production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in granulocytes are much more active compared with hyalinocytes, which demonstrated that the granulocytes are the main hemocytes involved in the immune response of Hong Kong oyster. Moreover, the cell-free hemolymph showed antibacterial activity against Vibrio alginolyticus. Our results provide the basic information of hemocytes population of Hong Kong oyster for further investigations associated with innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China
| | - Yuehuan Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China
| | - Fan Mao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China
| | - Yue Lin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China
| | - Shu Xiao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China
| | - Zhiming Xiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China
| | - Haitao Ma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China
| | - Yang Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China.
| | - Ziniu Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China; South China Sea Bio-Resource Exploitation and Utilization Collaborative Innovation Center, PR China.
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Castro JM, Bianchi VA, Pascual MM, Almeida C, Venturino A, Luquet CM. Immune and biochemical responses in hemolymph and gills of the Patagonian freshwater mussel Diplodon chilensis, against two microbiological challenges: Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli. J Invertebr Pathol 2018; 157:36-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Wang L, Song X, Song L. The oyster immunity. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 80:99-118. [PMID: 28587860 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2017.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Oysters, the common name for a number of different bivalve molluscs, are the worldwide aquaculture species and also play vital roles in the function of ecosystem. As invertebrate, oysters have evolved an integrated, highly complex innate immune system to recognize and eliminate various invaders via an array of orchestrated immune reactions, such as immune recognition, signal transduction, synthesis of antimicrobial peptides, as well as encapsulation and phagocytosis of the circulating haemocytes. The hematopoietic tissue, hematopoiesis, and the circulating haemocytes have been preliminary characterized, and the detailed annotation of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas genome has revealed massive expansion and functional divergence of innate immune genes in this animal. Moreover, immune priming and maternal immune transfer are reported in oysters, suggesting the adaptability of invertebrate immunity. Apoptosis and autophagy are proved to be important immune mechanisms in oysters. This review will summarize the research progresses of immune system and the immunomodulation mechanisms of the primitive catecholaminergic, cholinergic, neuropeptides, GABAergic and nitric oxidase system, which possibly make oysters ideal model for studying the origin and evolution of immune system and the neuroendocrine-immune regulatory network in lower invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingling Wang
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, DalianOcean University, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Xiaorui Song
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, DalianOcean University, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Linsheng Song
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, DalianOcean University, Dalian 116023, China.
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Lau YT, Sussman L, Pales Espinosa E, Katalay S, Allam B. Characterization of hemocytes from different body fluids of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 71:372-379. [PMID: 29042324 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2017.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Bivalve hemocytes are involved in a variety of physiological and immunological functions. Circulating hemocytes in the hemolymph represent the main component of the internal self-defense system while hemocytes present in the extrapallial space (between the mantle and the shell) are actively involved in biomineralization and shell formation. This study focused on the characterization of hemocytes from different body fluids of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Hemocytes present in the hemolymph were compared to those contained in the extrapallial fluid. Hemocytes associated with the mucus layer covering pallial organs (mantle, gills, body wall) were also investigated because of their potential role as sentinel cells. Hemocytes were characterized using flow cytometry in conjunction with fluorescent epitope markers (clusters of differentiation, lectins) as well as functional assays (i.e. phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species -ROS). Compared with the hemolymph, there was a significantly greater percentage of granulocytes and agranulocytes among extrapallial and pallial hemocytes, respectively. Accounting for the different percentages of hemocyte sub-populations, significant differences in surface carbohydrate and clusters of differentiation signatures were also revealed between the different fluids. Most informative epitope markers included concanavalin A, peanut agglutinin, soybean agglutinin, CD11b and CD14. Functional assays revealed significant differences in phagocytic activity and ROS production between hemocytes from the extrapallial fluid and hemolymph; however, less robust differences were observed between hemolymph cells and hemocytes associated with the pallial mucus. Findings from this study suggest that there are markedly different hemocyte populations in the three body fluids. The role of peripheral cells, particularly those associated with the pallial mucus, requires further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuk-Ting Lau
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, United States
| | - Lauren Sussman
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, United States
| | - Emmanuelle Pales Espinosa
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, United States
| | - Selma Katalay
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, United States
| | - Bassem Allam
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, United States.
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Vieira GC, da Silva PM, Barracco MA, Hering AF, Albuquerque MCPD, Coelho JDR, Schmidt ÉC, Bouzon ZL, Rosa RD, Perazzolo LM. Morphological and functional characterization of the hemocytes from the pearl oyster Pteria hirundo and their immune responses against Vibrio infections. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 70:750-758. [PMID: 28923525 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2017.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 09/10/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Hemocyte populations of the pearl oyster Pteria hirundo were characterized at morphological, ultrastructural and functional levels. Three main hemocyte populations were identified: hyalinocytes, granulocytes and blast-like cells. Hyalinocytes were the most abundant population (88.2%) characterized by the presence of few or no granules in the cytoplasm and composed by two subpopulations, large and small hyalinocytes. Comparatively, granulocytes represented 2.2% of the hemocyte population and were characterized by the presence of numerous large electron-lucid granules in the cytoplasm. Finally, the blast-like cells (9.5%) were the smallest hemocytes, showing spherical shape and a high nucleus/cytoplasm ratio. Hemocytes exhibited a significant phagocytic capacity for inert particles (38.5%) and showed to be able to produce microbicidal molecules, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) (ex vivo assays). The immune role of hemocytes was further investigated in the P. hirundo defense against the Gram-negative Vibrio alginolyticus. A significant decrease in the total number of hemocytes was observed at 24 h following injection of V. alginolyticus or sterile seawater (injury control) when compared to naïve (unchallenged) animals, indicating the migration of circulating hemocytes to the sites of infection and tissue damage. Bacterial agglutination was only observed against Gram-negative bacteria (Vibrio) but not against to marine Gram-positive-bacteria. Besides, an increase in the agglutination titer was observed against V. alginolyticus only in animals previously infected with this same bacterial strain. These results suggest that agglutinins or lectin-like molecules may have been produced in response to this particular microorganism promoting a specific recognition. The ultrastructural and functional characterization of P. hirundo hemocytes constitutes a new important piece of the molluscan immunity puzzle that can also contribute for the improvement of bivalve production sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graziela Cleuza Vieira
- Laboratory of Immunology Applied to Aquaculture, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Mirella da Silva
- Laboratory of Immunology and Pathology of Invertebrates, Department of Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraíba, 58051-900 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Margherita Anna Barracco
- Laboratory of Immunology Applied to Aquaculture, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Augusto Ferrari Hering
- Laboratory of Immunology Applied to Aquaculture, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | | | - Jaqueline da Rosa Coelho
- Laboratory of Immunology Applied to Aquaculture, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Éder Carlos Schmidt
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Zenilda Laurita Bouzon
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Rafael Diego Rosa
- Laboratory of Immunology Applied to Aquaculture, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Luciane Maria Perazzolo
- Laboratory of Immunology Applied to Aquaculture, Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
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Ji A, Li X, Fang S, Qin Z, Bai C, Wang C, Zhang Z. Primary culture of Zhikong scallop Chlamys farreri hemocytes as an in vitro model for studying host-pathogen interactions. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2017; 125:217-226. [PMID: 28792420 DOI: 10.3354/dao03145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Primary cultured cells can be a useful tool in studies on physiology, virology, and toxicology. Hemocytes play an important role in animal rapid response to pathogen invasion. In this study, an appropriate medium for primary culture of hemocytes of the bivalve Chlamys farreri was developed by adding 5% fetal bovine serum and 1% C. farreri serum to Leibovitz L-15 medium. These primary cultured hemocytes were maintained for more than 40 d in vitro and were classified into 3 types: (1) granulocytes containing numerous granules in the cytoplasm, (2) hyalinocytes with no or few granules, (3) a small percentage of macrophage-like cells. Furthermore, the primary cultured hemocytes were observed to be sensitive to bacterial and viral challenges. These hemocytes could phagocytose the bacterium Vibrio anguillarum, and presented cytopathic effects on the extracellular products (ECPs) of V. anguillarum; the mRNA level of QM, which plays an important role in immune response, also significantly increased 12 h after infection. When these hemocytes were challenged with ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1), virus particles and empty capsids in the cells infected for 48 h were observed by transmission electron microscopy, and the QM mRNA level increased significantly at 12 h and 24 h following OsHV-1 challenge. This primary culture system is available for C. farreri hemocytes which can be used in the future to study host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aichang Ji
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266003, PR China
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Li M, Wang L, Qiu L, Wang W, Xin L, Xu J, Wang H, Song L. A glutamic acid decarboxylase (CgGAD) highly expressed in hemocytes of Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 63:56-65. [PMID: 27208883 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), a rate-limiting enzyme to catalyze the reaction converting the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate to inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), not only functions in nervous system, but also plays important roles in immunomodulation in vertebrates. However, GAD has rarely been reported in invertebrates, and never in molluscs. In the present study, one GAD homologue (designed as CgGAD) was identified from Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. The full length cDNA of CgGAD was 1689 bp encoding a polypeptide of 562 amino acids containing a conserved pyridoxal-dependent decarboxylase domain. CgGAD mRNA and protein could be detected in ganglion and hemocytes of oysters, and their abundance in hemocytes was unexpectedly much higher than those in ganglion. More importantly, CgGAD was mostly located in those granulocytes without phagocytic capacity in oysters, and could dynamically respond to LPS stimulation. Further, after being transfected into HEK293 cells, CgGAD could promote the production of GABA. Collectively, these findings suggested that CgGAD, as a GABA synthase and molecular marker of GABAergic system, was mainly distributed in hemocytes and ganglion and involved in neuroendocrine-immune regulation network in oysters, which also provided a novel insight to the co-evolution between nervous system and immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meijia Li
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lingling Wang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Limei Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Weilin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lusheng Xin
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jiachao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Linsheng Song
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian 116023, China
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Evariste L, Auffret M, Audonnet S, Geffard A, David E, Brousseau P, Fournier M, Betoulle S. Functional features of hemocyte subpopulations of the invasive mollusk species Dreissena polymorpha. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 56:144-154. [PMID: 27374433 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2016.06.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Dreissena polymorpha is a mussel species that invaded many lotic and lentic inland waters in Western Europe and North America. Its positive or negative interactions with biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems are numerous, making this bivalve the subject of numerous studies in ecology, ecophysiology and ecotoxicology. In these contexts, the functional characterization of the zebra mussel hemocytes is of particular interest, as hemocytes are central cells involved in vital functions (immunity, growth, reproduction) of molluscan physiology. Dreissena polymorpha circulating hemocytes populations were characterized by a combination of structural and functional analysis. Assessments were performed during two contrasted physiological periods for mussels (gametogenesis and spawning). Three hemocyte types were identified as hyalinocytes and blast-like cells for agranular hemocytes and one granulocyte population. Flow cytometry analysis of hemocytes functionalities indicated that blast-like cells had low oxidative and mitochondrial activities and low lysosomal content. Hyalinocytes and granulocytes are fully equipped to perform innate immune response. Hyalinocytes exhibit higher oxidative activity than granulocytes. Such observation is not common since numerous studies show that granulocytes are usually cells that have the highest cellular activities. This result demonstrates the significant functional variability of hemocyte subpopulations. Moreover, our findings reveal that spawning period of Dreissena polymorpha was associated with an increase of hyalinocyte percentage in relation to low levels of biological activities in hemocytes. This reduction in hemocyte activity would reflect the important physiological changes associated with the spawning period of this invasive species known for its high reproductive potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauris Evariste
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR_I 02 INERIS-URCA-ULH SEBIO Unité Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France; INRS, Institut Armand-Frappier, 531 Boulevard des Prairies, Laval, Québec, H7V 1B7, Canada.
| | - Michel Auffret
- Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, LEMAR UMR CNRS 6539, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Sandra Audonnet
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, URCACyt - Plateau technique de cytométrie en flux, Pôle Santé, 51096 Reims, France
| | - Alain Geffard
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR_I 02 INERIS-URCA-ULH SEBIO Unité Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Elise David
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR_I 02 INERIS-URCA-ULH SEBIO Unité Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Pauline Brousseau
- INRS, Institut Armand-Frappier, 531 Boulevard des Prairies, Laval, Québec, H7V 1B7, Canada
| | - Michel Fournier
- INRS, Institut Armand-Frappier, 531 Boulevard des Prairies, Laval, Québec, H7V 1B7, Canada
| | - Stéphane Betoulle
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR_I 02 INERIS-URCA-ULH SEBIO Unité Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
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Preziosi BM, Bowden TJ. Morphological characterization via light and electron microscopy of Atlantic jackknife clam (Ensis directus) hemocytes. Micron 2016; 84:96-106. [PMID: 27015289 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Revised: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The Atlantic jackknife clam, Ensis directus, is currently being researched as a potential species for aquaculture operations in Maine. The goal of this study was to describe the hemocytes of this species for the first time and provide a morphological classification scheme. We viewed hemocytes under light microscopy (using Hemacolor, neutral red, and Pappenheim's stains) as well as transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The 2 main types of hemocytes found were granulocytes and hyalinocytes (agranular cells). The granulocytes were subdivided into large and small granulocytes while the hyalinocytes were subdivided into large and small hyalinocytes. The large hemocytes had both a larger diameter and smaller nucleus to cell diameter ratio than their smaller counterparts. A rare cell type, the vesicular cell, was also observed and it possessed many vesicles but few or no granules. Using TEM, granulocytes were found to contain both electron-lucent and electron-dense granules of various sizes. These numerous granules were the only structures that took up the neutral red stain. Hyalinocytes had few of these granules relative to granulocytes. Large hyalinocytes had both various organelles and large vesicles in their abundant cytoplasm while small hyalinocytes had little room for organelles in their scant cytoplasm. Total hemocyte counts averaged 1.96×10(6) cells mL(-1) while differential hemocyte counts averaged 11% for small hyalinocytes, 12% for large hyalinocytes, 59% for small granulocytes, and 18% for large granulocytes. The results of this study provide a starting point for future studies on E. directus immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian M Preziosi
- School of Food and Agriculture, Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Hitchner Hall, Orono, ME 04469, USA.
| | - Timothy J Bowden
- School of Food and Agriculture, Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Hitchner Hall, Orono, ME 04469, USA
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