1
|
Zhang Q, Deng Z, Yang Y. Metastasis-Related Signature for Clinically Predicting Prognosis and Tumor Immune Microenvironment of Osteosarcoma Patients. Mol Biotechnol 2023; 65:1836-1845. [PMID: 36807122 PMCID: PMC10518285 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-023-00681-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Osteosarcoma is the most prevalent clinical malignant bone tumor in adolescents. The prognosis of metastatic osteosarcoma is still very poor. The aim of our study was to investigate the clinical diagnosis and prognostic significance of metastasis related genes (MRGs) in patients with osteosarcoma. Clinical information and RNA sequencing data with osteosarcoma patients were obtained and set as the training set from UCSC databases. GSE21257 were downloaded and chosen as the verification cohort. An eight gene metastasis related risk signature including MYC, TAC4, ABCA4, GADD45GIP1, TNFRSF21, HERC5, MAGEA11, and PDE1B was built to predict the overall survival of osteosarcoma patients. Based on risk assessments, patients were classified into high- and low-risk groups. The high-risk patients had higher risk score and shorter survival time. ROC curves revealed that this risk signature can accurately predict survival times of osteosarcoma patients at the 1-, 2-, 3-, 4- and 5- year. GSEA revealed that MYC targets, E2F targets, mTORC1 signaling, Wnt /β-catenin signaling and cell cycle were upregulated, and cell adhesion molecules, and primary immunodeficiency were decreased in high-risk group. MRGs were highly linked with the tumor immune microenvironment and ICB response. These results identified that MRGs as a novel prognostic and diagnostic biomarker in osteosarcoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qing Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic Oncology Surgery, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Peking University, No 31, Xinjiekou Dongjie, Beijing, China.
| | - Zhiping Deng
- Department of Orthopaedic Oncology Surgery, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Peking University, No 31, Xinjiekou Dongjie, Beijing, China
| | - Yongkun Yang
- Department of Orthopaedic Oncology Surgery, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Peking University, No 31, Xinjiekou Dongjie, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Xia G, Wu S, Luo K, Cui X. By using machine learning and in vitro testing, SERPINH1 functions as a novel tumorigenic and immunogenic gene and predicts immunotherapy response in osteosarcoma. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1180191. [PMID: 37091161 PMCID: PMC10113657 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1180191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionThe most prevalent bone tumor with a relatively high level of aggressiveness and malignancy is osteosarcoma. The characteristics of the serpin family in osteosarcoma have not been defined.MethodsIn this study, the predictive significance of the serpin superfamily was investigated in the osteosarcoma and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA).ResultsIt was discovered that SERPINH1 is a significant biological marker in osteosarcoma. According to the CCK-8, EdU, and Transwell assays as well as the IHC assay, SERPINH1 may promote osteosarcoma proliferation and migration. It is also more expressed in tumor samples than in healthy samples. SERPINH1 might forecast the effects of immunotherapy. Additionally, immune cells are interacted with through checkpoint, cytokine, and growth factor pathways in osteosarcomas with high SERPINH1 levels. The biological function, immunological characteristics, and treatment response (immunotherapy and chemotherapy responses) of patients with osteosarcoma were successfully predicted using a model related to SERPINH1. SERPINH1 and the SERPINH1-related score predict ferroptosis/pyroptosis/apoptosis/necroptosis in osteosarcoma.DiscussionThe SERPINH1-related score was an effective method for identifying osteosarcoma patients who would respond to immunotherapy and chemotherapy, as well as for predicting the survival outcomes of such patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guang Xia
- Department of Orthopaedics, Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Song Wu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ke Luo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hunan Cancer Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaoyu Cui
- Department of Anesthesiology, Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyu Cui,
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Circulating MMP-12 as Potential Biomarker in Evaluating Disease Severity and Efficacy of Sublingual Immunotherapy in Allergic Rhinitis. Mediators Inflamm 2022; 2022:3378035. [PMID: 35733520 PMCID: PMC9207019 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3378035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a highly heterogeneous disease, and allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) is an effective treatment. This study aims to evaluate the circulating mas-related G protein-coupled receptor-X2 (MRGPRX2) and matrix metalloproteinase-12 (MMP-12) levels in evaluating disease severity and predicting efficacy of SLIT in AR patients. Methods We enrolled 110 moderate-severe persist AR patients (AR group) and 40 healthy controls (HC group). Circulating levels of MRGPRX2 and MMP-12 were measured, and their associations with disease severity were evaluated. All AR patients were assigned to receive sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT), and the efficacy was evaluated, and serum samples were collected at 1 year and 3 years after treatment. The correlations between serum MRGPRX2 and MMP-12 and clinical efficacy were assessed. Results The serum concentrations of MRGPRX2 and MMP-12 were significantly higher in the AR group than the HC group, and the elevated MMP-12 levels were correlated with VAS and TNSS, and serum MRGPRX2 levels were correlated with VAS. Finally, 100 and 80 patients completed 1-year and 3-year follow-up and were classified into effective and ineffective groups. Serum MRGPRX2 and MMP-12 levels were lower in the effective group than the ineffective group. Although serum MRGPRX2 and MMP-12 levels did not significantly change after 1 year SLIT, serum MMP-12 levels were decreased 3 years post-SLIT than baseline and 1 year post-SLIT levels. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) showed that serum MMP-12 was a potential biomarker for predicting the efficacy of SLIT. Conclusion Serum MRGPRX2 and MMP-12 appeared to be promising biological indicators in reflecting disease severity in AR patients. Moreover, circulating MMP-12 might serve as a reliable predictor for clinical responsiveness of SLIT.
Collapse
|
4
|
The Neurokinin-1 Receptor Is Essential for the Viability of Human Glioma Cells: A Possible Target for Treating Glioblastoma. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:6291504. [PMID: 35434136 PMCID: PMC9006081 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6291504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Glioblastoma or glioma is the most common malignant brain tumor. Patients have a prognosis of approximately 15 months, despite the current aggressive treatment. Neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R) occurs naturally in human glioma, and it is necessary for the tumor development. Objective The purpose of the study was to increase the knowledge about the involvement of the substance P (SP)/NK-1R system in human glioma. Methods Cellular localization of NK-1R and SP was studied in GAMG and U-87 MG glioma cell lines by immunofluorescence. The contribution of both SP and NK-1R to the viability of these cells was also assessed after applying the tachykinin 1 receptor (TAC1R) or the tachykinin 1 (TAC1) small interfering RNA gene silencing method, respectively. Results Both SP and the NK-1R (full-length and truncated isoforms) were localized in the nucleus and cytoplasm of GAMG and U-87 MG glioma cells. The presence of full-length NK-1R isoform was mainly observed in the nucleus, while the level of truncated isoform was higher in the cytoplasm. Cell proliferation was decreased when glioma cells were transfected with TAC1R siRNA, but not with TAC1. U-87 MG cells were more sensitive to the effect of the TAC1R inhibition than GAMG cells. The decrease in the number of glioma cells after silencing of the TAC1R siRNA gene was due to apoptotic and necrotic mechanisms. In human primary fibroblast cultured cells, TAC1R silencing by siRNA did not produce any change in cell viability. Conclusions Our results show for the first time that the expression of the TAC1R gene (NK-1R) is essential for the viability of GAMG and U-87 MG glioma cells. On the contrary, the TAC1R gene is not essential for the viability of normal cells, confirming that NK-1R could be a promising and specific therapeutic target for the treatment of glioma.
Collapse
|
5
|
Skin co-delivery of contact sensitizers and neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists integrated in microneedle arrays suppresses allergic contact dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2022; 150:114-130. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2021.12.794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
6
|
Morelli AE, Sumpter TL, Rojas-Canales DM, Bandyopadhyay M, Chen Z, Tkacheva O, Shufesky WJ, Wallace CT, Watkins SC, Berger A, Paige CJ, Falo LD, Larregina AT. Neurokinin-1 Receptor Signaling Is Required for Efficient Ca 2+ Flux in T-Cell-Receptor-Activated T Cells. Cell Rep 2021; 30:3448-3465.e8. [PMID: 32160549 PMCID: PMC7169378 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 12/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficient Ca2+ flux induced during cognate T cell activation requires signaling the T cell receptor (TCR) and unidentified G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). T cells express the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R), a GPCR that mediates Ca2+ flux in excitable and non-excitable cells. However, the role of the NK1R in TCR signaling remains unknown. We show that the NK1R and its agonists, the neuropeptides substance P and hemokinin-1, co-localize within the immune synapse during cognate activation of T cells. Simultaneous TCR and NK1R stimulation is necessary for efficient Ca2+ flux and Ca2+-dependent signaling that sustains the survival of activated T cells and helper 1 (Th1) and Th17 bias. In a model of contact dermatitis, mice with T cells deficient in NK1R or its agonists exhibit impaired cellular immunity, due to high mortality of activated T cells. We demonstrate an effect of the NK1R in T cells that is relevant for immunotherapies based on pro-inflammatory neuropeptides and its receptors. The neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) induces Ca2+ flux in excitable cells. Here, Morelli et al. show that NK1R signaling in T cells promotes optimal Ca2+ flux triggered by TCR stimulation, which is necessary to sustain T cell survival and the efficient Th1- and Th17-based immunity that is relevant for immunotherapies based on pro-inflammatory neuropeptides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrian E Morelli
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tina L Sumpter
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Mohna Bandyopadhyay
- Department of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Zhizhao Chen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Medical Technology on Transplantation, Transplant Center, Institute of Hepatobiliary Diseases, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Olga Tkacheva
- Department of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - William J Shufesky
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Callen T Wallace
- Department of Cell Biology and Center for Biological Imaging, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The McGowan Center for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Simon C Watkins
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Center for Biological Imaging, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The McGowan Center for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Alexandra Berger
- Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Louis D Falo
- Department of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The McGowan Center for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The University of Pittsburgh Clinical and Translational Science Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Adriana T Larregina
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The McGowan Center for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Thapaliya M, Chompunud Na Ayudhya C, Amponnawarat A, Roy S, Ali H. Mast Cell-Specific MRGPRX2: a Key Modulator of Neuro-Immune Interaction in Allergic Diseases. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2021; 21:3. [PMID: 33398613 DOI: 10.1007/s11882-020-00979-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Atopic dermatitis (AD) and allergic asthma are complex disorders with significant public health burden. This review provides an overview of the recent developments on Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor-X2 (MRGPRX2; mouse counterpart MrgprB2) as a potential candidate to target neuro-immune interaction in AD and allergic asthma. RECENT FINDINGS Domestic allergens directly activate sensory neurons to release substance P (SP), which induces mast cell degranulation via MrgprB2 and drives type 2 skin inflammation in AD. MRGPRX2 expression is upregulated in human lung mast cells and serum of asthmatic patients. Both SP and hemokinin-1 (HK-1 generated from macrophages, bronchial cells, and mast cells) cause degranulation of human mast cells via MRGPRX2. MrgprB2 contributes to mast cell-nerve interaction in the pathogenesis of AD. Furthermore, asthma severity is associated with increased MRGPRX2 expression in mast cells. Thus, MRGPRX2 could serve as a novel target for modulating AD and asthma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Thapaliya
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, School of Dental Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Chalatip Chompunud Na Ayudhya
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, School of Dental Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Aetas Amponnawarat
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, School of Dental Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Saptarshi Roy
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, School of Dental Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Hydar Ali
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, School of Dental Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Effect of Acrylamide Supplementation on the Population of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)-Like Immunoreactive Neurons in the Porcine Small Intestine. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21249691. [PMID: 33353157 PMCID: PMC7765847 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Acrylamide is one of the harmful substances present in food. The present study aimed to establish the effect of acrylamide supplementation in tolerable daily intake (TDI) dose (0.5 µg/kg b.w./day) and a dose ten times higher than TDI (5 µg/kg b.w./day) on the population of vasoactive intestinal peptide-like immunoreactive (VIP-LI) neurons in the porcine small intestine and the degree of the co-localization of VIP with other neuroactive substances (neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), substance P (SP), and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide (CART)). In our work, 15 Danish landrace gilts (5 in each experimental group) received capsules (empty or with low or high doses of acrylamide) for a period of 28 days with their morning feeding. Using double immunofluorescence staining, we established that acrylamide supplementation increased the number of neurons showing immunoreactivity towards VIP in all types of enteric nervous system (ENS) plexuses and fragments of the small intestine studied. Moreover, both doses of acrylamide led to changes in the degree of co-localization of VIP with nNOS, SP, and CART in intramural neurons. The observed changes may be the adaptation of neurons to local inflammation, oxidative stress, or the direct toxic effects of acrylamide on intestinal neurons, also referred to as neuronal plasticity.
Collapse
|
9
|
Dai L, Perera DS, Burcher E, Liu L. Hemokinin-1 and substance P stimulate production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in human colonic mucosa via both NK 1 and NK 2 tachykinin receptors. Neuropeptides 2020; 82:102061. [PMID: 32600668 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2020.102061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing focus on the involvement of tachykinins in immune and inflammatory responses. Hemokinin-1 (HK-1) is a recently identified tachykinin that originates primarily from immune cells, and has structural similarities to substance P (SP), found mainly in neurons. However, there are species differences in HK-1, and the role of HK-1 in humans, particularly the intestine, has received minimal attention. The aim of this study was to investigate the inflammatory role of human HK-1 in the human colon. The effects of HK-1 and SP were compared on the production of multiple inflammatory cytokines and chemokines from human colonic mucosal explants. Data generated by Procarta multiplex assay and QuantiGene assay demonstrated that 4 h incubation with HK-1 (0.1 μM) significantly stimulated transcript expression and release of MCP-1, MIP-1α and β, RANTES, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 from the mucosa. SP (0.1 μM) had comparable actions, but had no effect on MCP-1 or RANTES. These effects were inhibited separately by tachykinin NK1 and NK2 receptor antagonists SR140333 and SR48968 (both 0.1 μM), suggesting that these responses were mediated by both NK1 and NK2 receptors. In conclusion, these data support a novel inflammatory role for HK-1 in human colon, signaling via NK1 and NK2 receptors (and possibly other tachykinin-preferring receptors) to regulate the release of a broad spectrum of proinflammatory mediators. The study suggests that along with SP, HK-1 is also a proinflammatory mediator, likely involved in colonic inflammation, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liying Dai
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - D Shevy Perera
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Burcher
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Lu Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
The Neurokinin-1 Receptor Antagonist Aprepitant, a New Drug for the Treatment of Hematological Malignancies: Focus on Acute Myeloid Leukemia. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9061659. [PMID: 32492831 PMCID: PMC7355887 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9061659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous hematological malignancy. To treat the disease successfully, new therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. One of these strategies can be the use of neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R) antagonists (e.g., aprepitant), because the substance P (SP)/NK-1R system is involved in cancer progression, including AML. AML patients show an up-regulation of the NK-1R mRNA expression; human AML cell lines show immunoreactivity for both SP and the NK-1R (it is overexpressed: the truncated isoform is more expressed than the full-length form) and, via this receptor, SP and NK-1R antagonists (aprepitant, in a concentration-dependent manner) respectively exert a proliferative action or an antileukemic effect (apoptotic mechanisms are triggered by promoting oxidative stress via mitochondrial Ca++ overload). Aprepitant inhibits the formation of AML cell colonies and, in combination with chemotherapeutic drugs, is more effective in inducing cytotoxic effects and AML cell growth blockade. NK-1R antagonists also exert an antinociceptive effect in myeloid leukemia-induced bone pain. The antitumor effect of aprepitant is diminished when the NF-κB pathway is overactivated and the damage induced by aprepitant in cancer cells is higher than that exerted in non-cancer cells. Thus, the SP/NK-1R system is involved in AML, and aprepitant is a promising antitumor strategy against this hematological malignancy. In this review, the involvement of this system in solid and non-solid tumors (in particular in AML) is updated and the use of aprepitant as an anti-leukemic strategy for the treatment of AML is also mentioned (a dose of aprepitant (>20 mg/kg/day) for a period of time according to the response to treatment is suggested). Aprepitant is currently used in clinical practice as an anti-nausea medication.
Collapse
|
11
|
Muñoz M, Coveñas R. Glioma and Neurokinin-1 Receptor Antagonists: A New Therapeutic Approach. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2019; 19:92-100. [PMID: 29692265 DOI: 10.2174/1871520618666180420165401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2017] [Revised: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In adults, the most lethal and frequent primary brain tumor is glioblastoma. Despite multimodal aggressive therapies, the median survival time after diagnosis is around 15 months. In part, this is due to the blood-brain barrier that restricts common treatments (e.g., chemotherapy). Unfortunately, glioma recurs in 90% of patients. New therapeutic strategies against glioma are urgently required. Substance P (SP), through the neurokinin (NK)-1 receptor, controls cancer cell proliferation by activating c-myc, mitogenactivated protein kinases, activator protein 1 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2. Glioma cells overexpress NK-1 receptors when compared with normal cells. The NK-1 receptor/SP system regulates the proliferation/migration of glioma cells and stimulates angiogenesis, triggering inflammation which contributes to glioma progression. In glioma cells, SP favors glycogen breakdown, essential for glycolysis. By contrast, in glioma, NK-1 receptor antagonists block the proliferation of tumor cells and the breakdown of glycogen and also promote the death (apoptosis) of these cells. These antagonists also inhibit angiogenesis and exert antimetastatic and anti-inflammatory actions. OBJECTIVE This review updates the involvement of the NK-1 receptor/SP system in the development of glioma and the potential clinical application of NK-1 receptor antagonists as antiglioma agents. CONCLUSION The NK-1 receptor plays a crucial role in glioma and NK-1 receptor antagonists could be used as anti-glioma drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Muñoz
- Virgen del Rocío University Hospital, Research Laboratory on Neuropeptides (IBIS), Seville, Spain
| | - Rafael Coveñas
- Institute of Neurosciences of Castilla y León (INCYL), Laboratory of Neuroanatomy of the Peptidergic, Systems (Lab. 14), University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Background::Human tumor cells lines and tumor samples overexpress the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R). Substance P (SP), after binding to NK-1Rs, induces tumor cell proliferation, an antiapoptotic effect and promotes angiogenesis and the migration of cancer cells for invasion and metastasis.Methods: :In contrast, NK-1R antagonists block the previous pathophysiological actions mediated by SP. These antagonists promote the death of tumor cells by apoptosis. Peptide and non-peptide NK-1R antagonists have been reported.Results: :Peptide NK-1R antagonists show chemical modifications of the SP molecule (L-amino acids being replaced by D-amino acids), whereas non-peptide NK-1R antagonists include numerous compounds with different chemical compositions while showing similar stereochemical features (affinity for the NK- 1R). Currently, there are more than 300 NK-1R antagonists.Conclusion::In combination therapy with classic cytostatics, NK-1R antagonists have additive or synergic effects and minimize the side-effects of cytostatics. The effect of NK-1R antagonists as broad-spectrum anticancer drugs is reviewed and the use of these antagonists for the treatment of cancer is suggested.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Muñoz
- Research Laboratory on Neuropeptides, Virgen del Rocío University Hospital (IBIS), Sevilla, Spain
| | - Rafael Coveñas
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy of the Peptidergic Systems, Institute of Neurosciences of Castilla y León (INCYL) University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Borbély É, Helyes Z. Role of hemokinin-1 in health and disease. Neuropeptides 2017; 64:9-17. [PMID: 27993375 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Hemokinin-1 (HK-1), the newest tachykinin encoded by the Tac4 gene was discovered in 2000. Its name differs from that of the other members of this peptide family due to its first demonstration in B lymphocytes. Since tachykinins are classically found in the nervous system, the significant expression of HK-1 in blood cells is a unique feature of this peptide. Due to its widespread distribution in the whole body, HK-1 is involved in different physiological and pathophysiological functions involving pain inflammation modulation, immune regulation, respiratory and endocrine functions, as well as tumor genesis. Furthermore, despite the great structural and immunological similarities to substance P (SP), the functions of HK-1 are often different or the opposite. They both have the highest affinity to the tachykinin NK1 receptor, but HK-1 is likely to have a distinct binding site and signalling pathways. Moreover, several actions of HK-1 different from SP have been suggested to be mediated via a presently not identified own receptor/target molecule. Therefore, it is very important to explore its effects at different levels and compare its characteristics with SP to get a deeper insight in the different cellular mechanisms. Since HK-1 has recently been in the focus of intensive research, in the present review we summarize the few clinical data and experimental results regarding HK-1 expression and function in different model systems obtained throughout the 16years of its history. Synthesizing these findings help to understand the complexity of HK-1 actions and determine its biomarker values and/or drug development potentials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Éva Borbély
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Zsuzsanna Helyes
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Hungary; MTA-PTE NAP B Chronic Pain Research Group, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhang YX, Li XF, Yuan GQ, Hu H, Song XY, Li JY, Miao XK, Zhou TX, Yang WL, Zhang XW, Mou LY, Wang R. β-Arrestin 1 has an essential role in neurokinin-1 receptor-mediated glioblastoma cell proliferation and G 2/M phase transition. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:8933-8947. [PMID: 28341744 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.770420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor and has a poor prognosis. Tachykinin receptor neurokinin-1 (NK1R) is a promising target in glioblastoma therapy because of its overexpression in human glioblastoma. NK1R agonists promote glioblastoma cell growth, whereas NK1R antagonists efficiently inhibit cell growth both in vitro and in vivo However, the molecular mechanisms involved in these effects are incompletely understood. β-Arrestins (ARRBs) serve as scaffold proteins and adapters to mediate intracellular signal transduction. Here we show that the ARRB1-mediated signaling pathway is essential for NK1-mediated glioblastoma cell proliferation. ARRB1 knockdown significantly inhibited NK1-mediated glioblastoma cell proliferation and induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest. ARRB1 knockdown cells showed remarkable down-regulation of CDC25C/CDK1/cyclin B1 activity. We also demonstrated that ARRB1 mediated prolonged phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Akt in glioblastoma cells induced by NK1R activation. ERK1/2 and Akt phosphorylation are involved in regulating CDC25C/CDK1/cyclin B1 activity. The lack of long-term ERK1/2 and Akt activation in ARRB1 knockdown cells was at least partly responsible for the delayed cell cycle progression and proliferation. Moreover, we found that ARRB1-mediated ERK1/2 and Akt phosphorylation regulated the transcriptional activity of both NF-κB and AP-1, which were involved in cyclin B1 expression. ARRB1 deficiency increased the sensitivity of glioblastoma cells to the treatment of NK1R antagonists. Taken together, our results suggest that ARRB1 plays an essential role in NK1R-mediated cell proliferation and G2/M transition in glioblastoma cells. Interference with ARRB1-mediated signaling via NK1R may have potential significance for therapeutic strategies targeting glioblastoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Xin Zhang
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Xiao-Fang Li
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Guo-Qiang Yuan
- the Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Hui Hu
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Xiao-Yun Song
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Jing-Yi Li
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Xiao-Kang Miao
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Tian-Xiong Zhou
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Wen-Le Yang
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Xiao-Wei Zhang
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Ling-Yun Mou
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| | - Rui Wang
- From the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China and
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Maduka UP, Hamity MV, Walder RY, White SR, Li Y, Hammond DL. Changes in the disposition of substance P in the rostral ventromedial medulla after inflammatory injury in the rat. Neuroscience 2016; 317:1-11. [PMID: 26762802 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.12.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This study examined whether peripheral inflammatory injury increases the levels or changes the disposition of substance P (SubP) in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM), which serves as a central relay in bulbospinal pathways of pain modulation. Enzyme immunoassay and reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction were used to measure SubP protein and transcript, respectively, in tissue homogenates prepared from the RVM and the periaqueductal gray (PAG) and cuneiform nuclei of rats that had received an intraplantar injection of saline or complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time of Flight analysis confirmed that the RVM does not contain hemokinin-1 (HK-1), which can confound measurements of SubP because it is recognized equally well by commercial antibodies for SubP. Levels of SubP protein in the RVM were unchanged four hours, four days and two weeks after injection of CFA. Tac1 transcripts were similarly unchanged in the RVM four days or two weeks after CFA. In contrast, the density of SubP immunoreactive processes in the RVM increased 2-fold within four hours and 2.7-fold four days after CFA injection; it was unchanged at two weeks. SubP-immunoreactive processes in the RVM include axon terminals of neurons located in the PAG and cuneiform nucleus. SubP content in homogenates of the PAG and cuneiform nucleus was significantly increased four days after CFA, but not at four hours or two weeks. Tac1 transcripts in homogenates of these nuclei were unchanged four days and two weeks after CFA. These findings suggest that there is an increased mobilization of SubP within processes in the RVM shortly after injury accompanied by an increased synthesis of SubP in neurons that project to the RVM. These findings are consonant with the hypothesis that an increase in SubP release in the RVM contributes to the hyperalgesia that develops after peripheral inflammatory injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- U P Maduka
- Departments of Pharmacology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - M V Hamity
- Department of Anesthesia, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - R Y Walder
- Department of Anesthesia, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - S R White
- Department of Anesthesia, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - Y Li
- Proteomics Core Facility, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
| | - D L Hammond
- Departments of Pharmacology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States; Department of Anesthesia, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Ganjiwale A, Cowsik SM. Membrane-induced structure of novel human tachykinin hemokinin-1 (hHK1). Biopolymers 2015; 103:702-10. [DOI: 10.1002/bip.22734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Ganjiwale
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Electronic City-Phase I; Bangalore Karanataka India
| | - Sudha M. Cowsik
- School of Life Sciences; Jawaharlal Nehru Univeristy; New Delhi, India
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Pintér E, Pozsgai G, Hajna Z, Helyes Z, Szolcsányi J. Neuropeptide receptors as potential drug targets in the treatment of inflammatory conditions. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2015; 77:5-20. [PMID: 23432438 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.12097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-talk between the nervous, endocrine and immune systems exists via regulator molecules, such as neuropeptides, hormones and cytokines. A number of neuropeptides have been implicated in the genesis of inflammation, such as tachykinins and calcitonin gene-related peptide. Development of their receptor antagonists could be a promising approach to anti-inflammatory pharmacotherapy. Anti-inflammatory neuropeptides, such as vasoactive intestinal peptide, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide, α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, urocortin, adrenomedullin, somatostatin, cortistatin, ghrelin, galanin and opioid peptides, are also released and act on their own receptors on the neurons as well as on different inflammatory and immune cells. The aim of the present review is to summarize the most prominent data of preclinical animal studies concerning the main pharmacological effects of ligands acting on the neuropeptide receptors. Promising therapeutic impacts of these compounds as potential candidates for the development of novel types of anti-inflammatory drugs are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Pintér
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Szigeti u. 12., H-7624, Pécs, Hungary; János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság u. 20., H-7624, Pécs, Hungary
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Fukuda A, Goto T, Kuroishi KN, Gunjigake KK, Kataoka S, Kobayashi S, Yamaguchi K. Hemokinin-1 competitively inhibits substance P-induced stimulation of osteoclast formation and function. Neuropeptides 2013; 47:251-9. [PMID: 23660339 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2013.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Revised: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Hemokinin-1 (HK-1) is a novel member of the tachykinin family that is encoded by preprotachykinin 4 (TAC4) and shares the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1-R) with substance P (SP). Although HK-1 is thought to be an endogenous peripheral SP-like endocrine or paracrine molecule in locations where SP is not expressed, neither the distribution of HK-1 in the maxillofacial area nor the role HK-1 in bone tissue have been examined. In this study, we investigated the distribution of HK-1 in trigeminal ganglion (TG) and maxillary bone, and assessed the expression of HK-1 during osteoclast differentiation. In vivo, rat molars were loaded for 5 days using the Waldo method. In vitro, rat osteoclast-like cells were induced from bone marrow cells. HK-1 distribution and expression were examined by immunofluorescence staining and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In vivo, HK-1 was localized in rat TG neurons; however, the number of HK-1-positive neurons was less than that of SP-positive neurons. In the maxillary bone, nerve fibers, blood vessels, and osteocytes were immunopositive for HK-1. Furthermore, HK-1-positive immunoreactivity was found in osteoclasts on the pressure side. In vitro, PCR showed that TAC4 and NK1-R mRNA was expressed in osteoclasts as well as in bone marrow cells. Although SP (10⁻⁷ M) treatment led to an increased number of osteoclasts, HK-1 (10⁻⁷ M) treatment did not. The numbers of biotin-labeled HK-1 peptides bound osteoclasts significantly decreased upon incubation with unlabeled SP and biotin-labeled HK-1 compared with biotin-labeled HK-1 alone. These results suggest that HK-1 may not stimulate the differentiation and function of osteoclasts. SP-stimulated osteoclast formation is competitively regulated by peripheral HK-1 through NK1-Rs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aya Fukuda
- Division of Orofacial Functions and Orthodontics, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Borbély É, Hajna Z, Sándor K, Kereskai L, Tóth I, Pintér E, Nagy P, Szolcsányi J, Quinn J, Zimmer A, Stewart J, Paige C, Berger A, Helyes Z. Role of tachykinin 1 and 4 gene-derived neuropeptides and the neurokinin 1 receptor in adjuvant-induced chronic arthritis of the mouse. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61684. [PMID: 23626716 PMCID: PMC3634005 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Substance P, encoded by the Tac1 gene, is involved in neurogenic inflammation and hyperalgesia via neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptor activation. Its non-neuronal counterpart, hemokinin-1, which is derived from the Tac4 gene, is also a potent NK1 agonist. Although hemokinin-1 has been described as a tachykinin of distinct origin and function compared to SP, its role in inflammatory and pain processes has not yet been elucidated in such detail. In this study, we analysed the involvement of tachykinins derived from the Tac1 and Tac4 genes, as well as the NK1 receptor in chronic arthritis of the mouse. Methods Complete Freund’s Adjuvant was injected intraplantarly and into the tail of Tac1−/−, Tac4−/−, Tacr1−/− (NK1 receptor deficient) and Tac1−/−/Tac4−/− mice. Paw volume was measured by plethysmometry and mechanosensitivity using dynamic plantar aesthesiometry over a time period of 21 days. Semiquantitative histopathological scoring and ELISA measurement of IL-1β concentrations of the tibiotarsal joints were performed. Results Mechanical hyperalgesia was significantly reduced from day 11 in Tac4−/− and Tacr1−/− animals, while paw swelling was not altered in any strain. Inflammatory histopathological alterations (synovial swelling, leukocyte infiltration, cartilage destruction, bone damage) and IL-1β concentration in the joint homogenates were significantly smaller in Tac4−/− and Tac1−/−/Tac4−/− mice. Conclusions Hemokinin-1, but not substance P increases inflammation and hyperalgesia in the late phase of adjuvant-induced arthritis. While NK1 receptors mediate its antihyperalgesic actions, the involvement of another receptor in histopathological changes and IL-1β production is suggested.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arthritis, Experimental/chemically induced
- Arthritis, Experimental/genetics
- Arthritis, Experimental/metabolism
- Arthritis, Experimental/pathology
- Edema/chemically induced
- Edema/genetics
- Edema/metabolism
- Edema/pathology
- Freund's Adjuvant
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Hyperalgesia/chemically induced
- Hyperalgesia/genetics
- Hyperalgesia/metabolism
- Hyperalgesia/pathology
- Inflammation
- Interleukin-1beta/biosynthesis
- Joints/metabolism
- Joints/pathology
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Plethysmography
- Protein Precursors/deficiency
- Protein Precursors/genetics
- Receptors, Neurokinin-1/deficiency
- Receptors, Neurokinin-1/genetics
- Signal Transduction
- Substance P/deficiency
- Substance P/genetics
- Tachykinins/deficiency
- Tachykinins/genetics
- Tarsus, Animal/metabolism
- Tarsus, Animal/pathology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Éva Borbély
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Zsófia Hajna
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Katalin Sándor
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - László Kereskai
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - István Tóth
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Erika Pintér
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Péter Nagy
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - János Szolcsányi
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - John Quinn
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Translational Medicine Liverpool University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Zimmer
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - James Stewart
- School of Infection and Host Defense, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Paige
- Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Alexandra Berger
- Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Zsuzsanna Helyes
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Berger A, Frelin C, Shah DK, Benveniste P, Herrington R, Gerard NP, Zúñiga-Pflücker JC, Iscove NN, Paige CJ. Neurokinin-1 receptor signalling impacts bone marrow repopulation efficiency. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58787. [PMID: 23516556 PMCID: PMC3597582 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tachykinins are a large group of neuropeptides with both central and peripheral activity. Despite the increasing number of studies reporting a growth supportive effect of tachykinin peptides in various in vitro stem cell systems, it remains unclear whether these findings are applicable in vivo. To determine how neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R) deficient hematopoietic stem cells would behave in a normal in vivo environment, we tested their reconstitution efficiency using competitive bone marrow repopulation assays. We show here that bone marrow taken from NK-1R deficient mice (Tacr1(-/-)) showed lineage specific B and T cell engraftment deficits compared to wild-type competitor bone marrow cells, providing evidence for an involvement of NK-1R signalling in adult hematopoiesis. Tachykinin knockout mice lacking the peptides SP and/or HK-1 (Tac1 (-/-), Tac4 (-/-) and Tac1 (-/-)/Tac4 (-/-) mice) repopulated a lethally irradiated wild-type host with similar efficiency as competing wild-type bone marrow. The difference between peptide and receptor deficient mice indicates a paracrine and/or endocrine mechanism of action rather than autocrine signalling, as tachykinin peptides are supplied by the host environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Berger
- Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Mou L, Kang Y, Zhou Y, Zeng Q, Song H, Wang R. Neurokinin-1 receptor directly mediates glioma cell migration by up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and membrane type 1-matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP). J Biol Chem 2012; 288:306-18. [PMID: 23166329 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.389783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R) occurs naturally on human glioblastomas. Its activation mediates glioma cell proliferation. However, it is unknown whether NK1R is directly involved in tumor cell migration. In this study, we found human hemokinin-1 (hHK-1), via NK1R, dose-dependently promoted the migration of U-251 and U-87 cells. In addition, we showed that hHK-1 enhanced the activity of MMP-2 and the expression of MMP-2 and MT1-matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), which were responsible for cell migration, because neutralizing the MMPs with antibodies decreased cell migration. The involved mechanisms were then investigated. In U-251, hHK-1 induced significant calcium efflux; phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122 reduced the calcium mobilization, the up-regulation of MMP-2 and MT1-MMP, and the cell migration induced by hHK-1, which meant the migration effect of NK1R was mainly mediated through the G(q)-PLC pathway. We further demonstrated that hHK-1 boosted rapid phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and Akt; inhibition of ERK and Akt effectively reduced MMP-2 induction by hHK-1. Meanwhile, inhibition of ERK, JNK, and Akt reduced the MT1-MMP induction. hHK-1 stimulated significant phosphorylation of p65 and c-JUN in U-251. Reporter gene assays indicated hHK-1 enhanced both AP-1 and NF-κB activity; inhibition of ERK, JNK, and Akt dose-dependently suppressed the NF-κB activity; only the inhibition of ERK significantly suppressed the AP-1 activity. Treatment with specific inhibitors for AP-1 or NF-κB strongly blocked the MMP up-regulation by hHK-1. Taken together, our data suggested NK1R was a potential regulator of human glioma cell migration by the up-regulation of MMP-2 and MT1-MMP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lingyun Mou
- Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 222 Tian Shui South Road, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Song H, Yin W, Zeng Q, Jia H, Lin L, Liu X, Mu L, Wang R. Hemokinins modulate endothelium function and promote angiogenesis through neurokinin-1 receptor. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 44:1410-21. [PMID: 22554585 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2012.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 03/29/2012] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Substance P as a member of tachykinin family plays an important role in angiogenesis. Hemokinins (HKs) have been identified as new members of substance P-like peptides of tachykinin family. However, the effects of HKs on endothelial cells and angiogenesis have not been studied. For the first time, here we demonstrated that r/mHK-1, hHK-1 and hHK(4-11) dose-dependently stimulated the proliferation, migration, adhesion and tube formation of freshly isolated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), and further exhibited in vivo angiogenic effects in chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane model. The angiogenic effects of HKs were inhibited by the selective antagonist of neurokinin-1 rather than neurokinin-2 receptor. Mechanistically, HKs activated ERK1/2 phosphorylation, stimulated nitric oxide production, and upregulated the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in HUVECs. Taken together, our data suggest that HKs emerge as pivotal endogenous regulators of angiogenesis and represent potential targets for the intervention of angiogenesis in different pathological conditions given their specific peripheral distribution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongjin Song
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, PR China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Liu L, Markus I, Saghire HE, Perera DS, King DW, Burcher E. Distinct differences in tachykinin gene expression in ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease and diverticular disease: a role for hemokinin-1? Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011; 23:475-83, e179-80. [PMID: 21342363 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2011.01685.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the intestine, the tachykinins substance P (SP) and neurokinin A (NKA) are found in neurons and have key roles in motility, secretion, and immune functions. A new tachykinin, hemokinin (HK-1), has been identified in non-neuronal cells in recent years and its role in intestinal inflammation is unclear. We aimed to examine the expression of genes encoding tachykinin peptides and receptors in colon from patients with ulcerative colitis (UC), Crohn's disease (CD), and acute diverticular disease (DD). METHODS Human colon segments were dissected into mucosa and muscle, and evaluated for tachykinin and tachykinin receptor gene expression by real-time PCR. KEY RESULTS In UC mucosa, the TAC4 gene (encoding HK-1) was 10-fold more abundant than in control mucosa (P < 0.01). Similarly, TAC1 (encoding SP and NKA) and TACR1 (encoding NK1 receptor) displayed 6-fold and 12-fold upregulation, respectively, in UC mucosa, but no change occurred in UC muscle. In contrast to UC, no difference was observed for any tachykinin genes in CD mucosa. In CD muscle, expression of TAC1 (P < 0.01), TAC4 and TACR1 (both P < 0.05) were moderately upregulated. In DD, there was a decrease in TACR1 (P < 0.05), and TACR2 (encoding NK2 receptor, P < 0.0001) in muscle compared with control. Histological staining showed increased collagen fibers between muscle bundles in DD smooth muscle. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES We provide evidence for the first time that HK-1, like SP, may be involved in the pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel disease. Distinctly different expression patterns of tachykinin-related genes occur in UC, CD and DD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Zhang W, Song J, Mu L, Zhang B, Liu L, Xing Y, Wang K, Li Z, Wang R. Improving anticancer activity and selectivity of camptothecin through conjugation with releasable substance P. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:1452-5. [PMID: 21282053 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2010] [Revised: 12/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Substance P, an 11-residue neuropeptide, can be rapidly internalized through specific interaction with the neurokinin-1 receptor. Therefore, we designed and synthesized the substance P targeted camptothecin (CPT) conjugates via a releasable disulfide carbonate linker. All the conjugates exhibited comparable or stronger cytotoxicity to cancer cells that highly over-express neurokinin-1 receptor than free CPT. More importantly, the selectivity of conjugates was significantly improved compared with CPT. Our results indicated that these conjugates can be promising candidates for new chemotherapeutic drugs. In addition, increasing CPT loading or attachment of CPT to the C-terminal hexapeptide of substance P are useful strategies to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of substance P targeted conjugates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Mou L, Xing Y, Kong Z, Zhou Y, Chen Z, Wang R. The N-terminal domain of human hemokinin-1 influences functional selectivity property for tachykinin receptor neurokinin-1. Biochem Pharmacol 2010; 81:661-8. [PMID: 21168392 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2010.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Revised: 12/01/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Human hemokinin-1 (hHK-1) is a substance P-like tachykinin peptide preferentially expressed in non-neuronal tissues. It is involved in multiple physiological functions such as inflammation, hematopoietic cells development and vasodilatation via the interaction with tachykinin receptor neurokinin-1 (NK1). To further understand the intracellular signal transduction mechanism under such functional multiplicity, current study was focused on the differential activation of Gs and Gq pathways by hHK-1 and its C-terminal fragments, which is termed as functional selectivity. We demonstrated these hHK-1 and related peptide fragments can independently activate Gs and Gq pathways, showing a relative bias toward Gq over Gs pathway. The T1, K3 and Q6 of hHK-1 might play roles in the activation of adenylate cyclase mediated by Gs, while having negligible effect on Gq mediated intracellular calcium release. The stepwise truncation of N-terminal amino acid of hHK-1 caused gradual decrease in ERK1/2 phosphorylation level and NF-κB activity. However, it had little influence on the induction of NK1 receptor desensitization and internalization. Taken together these data support that hHK-1 and its C-terminal fragments are human NK1 receptor agonists with different functional selectivity properties and that such functional selectivity leads to differential activation of downstream signaling and receptor trafficking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lingyun Mou
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Medicine, Lanzhou University, 222 Tian Shui South Road, Lanzhou 730000, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Tran AH, Berger A, Wu GE, Kee BL, Paige CJ. Early B-cell factor regulates the expression of Hemokinin-1 in the olfactory epithelium and differentiating B lymphocytes. J Neuroimmunol 2010; 232:41-50. [PMID: 20965576 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2010] [Revised: 09/23/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hemokinin-1, encoded by the TAC4 gene, is a tachykinin most closely related to substance P. Previous studies have shown that TAC4 distinguishes itself from other tachykinins by its predominantly non-neuronal expression profile, particularly in cells of the immune system. Here we report for the first time that the highest levels of TAC4 expression are found in the olfactory epithelium. Furthermore, we identify olfactory neuron-specific transcription factor (Olf-1), also known as early B-cell factor (EBF), as a novel regulator of TAC4 expression. EBF present in the olfactory epithelium and in B cells binds to two sites in the TAC4 promoter and modulates expression in developing B cells. Our findings suggest a role for TAC4 in cell differentiation, and represent a regulatory bridge between the nervous system and the immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne H Tran
- Department of Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, 610 University Ave, Toronto, ON, M5G 2M9, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Grassin-Delyle S, Naline E, Buenestado A, Risse PA, Sage E, Advenier C, Devillier P. Expression and function of human hemokinin-1 in human and guinea pig airways. Respir Res 2010; 11:139. [PMID: 20929541 PMCID: PMC2959027 DOI: 10.1186/1465-9921-11-139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 10/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human hemokinin-1 (hHK-1) and endokinins are peptides of the tachykinin family encoded by the TAC4 gene. TAC4 and hHK-1 expression as well as effects of hHK-1 in the lung and airways remain however unknown and were explored in this study. Methods RT-PCR analysis was performed on human bronchi to assess expression of tachykinin and tachykinin receptors genes. Enzyme immunoassay was used to quantify hHK-1, and effects of hHK-1 and endokinins on contraction of human and guinea pig airways were then evaluated, as well as the role of hHK-1 on cytokines production by human lung parenchyma or bronchi explants and by lung macrophages. Results In human bronchi, expression of the genes that encode for hHK-1, tachykinin NK1-and NK2-receptors was demonstrated. hHK-1 protein was found in supernatants from explants of human bronchi, lung parenchyma and lung macrophages. Exogenous hHK-1 caused a contractile response in human bronchi mainly through the activation of NK2-receptors, which blockade unmasked a NK1-receptor involvement, subject to a rapid desensitization. In the guinea pig trachea, hHK-1 caused a concentration-dependant contraction mainly mediated through the activation of NK1-receptors. Endokinin A/B exerted similar effects to hHK-1 on both human bronchi and guinea pig trachea, whereas endokinins C and D were inactive. hHK-1 had no impact on the production of cytokines by explants of human bronchi or lung parenchyma, or by human lung macrophages. Conclusions We demonstrate endogenous expression of TAC4 in human bronchi, the encoded peptide hHK-1 being expressed and involved in contraction of human and guinea pig airways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stanislas Grassin-Delyle
- Laboratory of pulmonary pharmacology UPRES EA220, Foch Hospital, University Versailles-Saint Quentin en Yvelines, 11 rue Guillaume Lenoir, Suresnes, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Kong ZQ, Yang WL, Tao Y, Shi XM, Fu CY, Zhao RF, Wang R. Effects of rat/mouse hemokinin-1, human hemokinin-1 and human hemokinin-1(4-11), mammalian tachykinin peptides, on rate and perfusion pressure in the isolated guinea pig heart. Neuropeptides 2010; 44:437-44. [PMID: 20471676 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2010.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2009] [Revised: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 04/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Rat/mouse hemokinin-1 (r/m HK-1), human hemokinin-1 (h HK-1) and human hemokinin-1(4-11) (h HK-1(4-11)) are members of the tachykinin family. In the present study, the coronary vascular activities and cardiac functions of r/m HK-1, h HK-1 and h HK-1(4-11) were investigated in isolated, spontaneously beating guinea pig hearts. Bolus injections of r/m HK-1 caused decrease in perfusion pressure indicative of coronary vasodilation, which was primarily due to the action on tachykinin NK1 receptors on vascular endothelial cells, causing the release of nitric oxide that relaxed the coronary vessels. H HK-1 caused biphasic perfusion pressure changes that were coronary vasodilation followed by coronary vasoconstriction. The mechanisms involved in the vasodilation induced by h HK-1 were similar to that of r/m HK-1 while the mechanisms for coronary vasoconstriction were mediated through the activation of tachykinin NK2 receptors on coronary sympathetic neurons to release catecholamines. H HK-1(4-11) only produced coronary vasoconstriction and the mechanisms involved in this effect were similar to that of h HK-1 in vasoconstriction. Moreover, r/m HK-1 and h HK-1 produced similar decreases in heart rate indicative of negative chronotropic responses and the decreases were mainly mediated through the activation of tachykinin NK1 receptors to release ACh acting on muscarinic receptors. H HK-1(4-11) also produced negative chronotropic response, which was mainly mediated through tachykinin NK2 receptors and muscarinic receptors. Our present results provide evidence that all of the three tachykinins could influence cardiac function and coronary vascular activity in the isolated guinea pig heart.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Qing Kong
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, and Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 222 Tian Shui South Road, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Targeted deletion of the tachykinin 4 gene (TAC4-/-) influences the early stages of B lymphocyte development. Blood 2010; 116:3792-801. [PMID: 20660792 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2010-06-291062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemokinin-1 (HK-1), encoded by the TAC4 gene, is a tachykinin peptide that is predominantly expressed in non-neuronal cells, such as immune cells. We have disrupted the mouse TAC4 gene to obtain a better understanding of the actions of HK-1 during hematopoiesis. We demonstrate here that TAC4(-/-) mice exhibit an increase of CD19(+)CD117(+)HSA(+)BP.1(-) "fraction B" pro-B cells in the bone marrow, whereas pre-B, immature, and mature B cells are within the normal range. We show that in vitro cultures derived from TAC4(-/-) bone marrow, sorted "fraction B" pro-B cells or purified long-term reconstituting stem cells, contain significantly higher numbers of pro-B cells compared with controls, suggesting an inhibitory role for HK-1 on developing B cells. Supporting this idea, we show that addition of HK-1 to cultures established from long-term reconstituting stem cells and the newly described intermediate-term reconstituting stem cells leads to a significant decrease of de novo generated pro-B cells. Based on our studies, we postulate that HK-1 plays an inhibitory role in hematopoiesis, and we hypothesize that it may be part of the bone marrow microenvironment that supports and regulates the proliferation and differentiation of hematopoietic cells.
Collapse
|
30
|
Wang W, Li Q, Zhang J, Wu H, Yin Y, Ge Q, Zhang Y. Hemokinin-1 activates the MAPK pathway and enhances B cell proliferation and antibody production. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:3590-7. [PMID: 20208012 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hemokinin 1 (HK-1) is a substance P-like tachykinin peptide predominantly expressed in non-neuronal tissues. In addition to a prominent function in lymphoid development, recent studies indicate a potential role for HK-1 in immunoregulation. The current study was focused on its action on mature B cells. Despite the negligible effect on its own, HK-1 exhibited a profound influence on B cell activation elicited by several classical signals, including LPS stimulation, BCR cross-linking, and CD40 ligation. Cells therefore showed enhanced proliferation, survival, and CD80/86 expression, and produced more IgM with a higher frequency of Ab-forming cells. Biochemical analysis revealed that HK-1 alone was sufficient to induce the activation of MAPKs and the expression of Blimp-1 and Xbp-1 in B cells. Nevertheless, costimulation with a known B cell activator resulted in much enhanced phosphorylation of MAPKs and transcriptional activation of Blimp-1 and Xbp-1. Overall, these data support that HK-1 provides an important costimulatory signal for B cell activation, possibly through synergistic activation of the MAPK pathway and induction of transcription factors critical for plasmacytic differentiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Immunology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Jin L, Jin BQ, Song CJ, Zhang Y. Murine Monoclonal Antibodies Generated Against Mouse/Rat Hemokinin-1. Hybridoma (Larchmt) 2009; 28:259-67. [DOI: 10.1089/hyb.2009.0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Jin
- Department of Immunology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Bo-quan Jin
- Department of Immunology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Chao-jun Song
- Department of Immunology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Immunology, Peking University Health Science Centre, Bei Jing, China
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Zhao YL, Tao Y, Fu CY, Kong ZQ, Chen Q, Wang R. Human hemokinin-1 and human hemokinin-1(4-11), mammalian tachykinin peptides, suppress proliferation and induce differentiation in HL-60 cells. Peptides 2009; 30:1514-22. [PMID: 19433125 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2009.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2009] [Revised: 04/29/2009] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Human hemokinin-1 (h HK-1) and its truncated form h HK-1(4-11) are mammalian tachykinin peptides encoded by the TAC4 gene identified in human, and the biological functions of these peptides have not been well investigated. The tachykinins have shown immuno-regulatory activities in humans. In the present study, we investigated the effects of h HK-1 and h HK-1(4-11) on the proliferation and differentiation of a human promyelocyte leukemia cell line, HL-60. It is noteworthy that h HK-1 (1-300muM) displayed inhibitory effects on the proliferation of HL-60 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The effect of suppressing proliferation induced by these peptides was accompanied by an accumulation of cell cycle in the S phase. Moreover, this peptide induced differentiation of HL-60 cells by significantly increasing the NBT-reduction activity. The effects induced by h HK-1(4-11) on HL-60 cells were similar to that of h HK-1, indicating that it is the active fragment of h HK-1. However these effects induced by h HK-1 or h HK-1(4-11) were not antagonized by the NK(1) receptor antagonist SR140333 or the NK(2) receptor antagonist SR48968. All the results indicated that h HK-1 and h HK-1(4-11) were able to significantly inhibit proliferation and induce differentiation and S phase arrest of a human promyelocyte leukemia cell line HL-60, which may not be mediated through the activation of classical tachykinin NK(1) receptors and tachykinin NK(2) receptors. Our observations also implied that h HK-1 and h HK-1(4-11) could act as immunomodulatory factors in cancer chemotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- You-Li Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Kong ZQ, Han M, Yang WL, Zhao YL, Fu CY, Tao Y, Chen Q, Wang R. In vitro characterization of the effects of rat/mouse hemokinin-1 on mouse colonic contractile activity: a comparison with substance P. Neuropeptides 2009; 43:213-20. [PMID: 19394690 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2009.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2008] [Revised: 02/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Rat/mouse hemokinin-1 (r/m HK-1) has been identified as a member of the tachykinin family and its effect in colonic contractile activity remains unknown. We investigated the effects and mechanisms of actions of r/m HK-1 on the mouse colonic contractile activity in vitro by comparing it with that of substance P (SP). R/m HK-1 induced substantial contractions on the circular muscle of mouse colon. The maximal contractile responses to r/m HK-1 varied significantly among proximal-, mid- and distal-colon, suggesting that the action of r/m HK-1 was region-specific in mouse colon. The contractile response induced by r/m HK-1 is primarily via activation of tachykinin NK(1) receptors leading to activation of cholinergic excitatory pathways and with a minor contribution of NK(2) receptors, which may be on the smooth muscle itself. A direct action on colonic smooth muscles may be also involved. In contrast, SP induced biphasic colonic responses (contractile and relaxant responses) on the circular muscle, in which the contractile action of SP was equieffective with r/m HK-1. SP exerted its contractile effect predominantly through neural and muscular tachykinin NK(1) receptors, but unlike r/m HK-1 did not appear to act via NK(2) receptors. The relaxation induced by SP was largely due to release of nitric oxide (NO) produced via an action on neural NK(1) receptors. These results indicate that the receptors and the activation properties involved in r/m HK-1-induced mouse colonic contractile activity are different from those of SP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Qing Kong
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Akazawa T, Kwatra SG, Goldsmith LE, Richardson MD, Cox EA, Sampson JH, Kwatra MM. A constitutively active form of neurokinin 1 receptor and neurokinin 1 receptor-mediated apoptosis in glioblastomas. J Neurochem 2009; 109:1079-86. [PMID: 19519779 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06032.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) occurs naturally in human glioblastomas and its stimulation causes cell proliferation. In the present study we show that stimulation of NK1R in human U373 glioblastoma cells by substance P increases Akt phosphorylation by 2.5-fold, with an EC(50) of 57 nM. Blockade of NK1R lowers basal phosphorylation of Akt, indicating the presence of a constitutively active form of NK1R; similar results are seen in U251 MG and DBTRG-05 glioblastoma cells. Linkage of NK1R to Akt implicates NK1R in apoptosis of glioblastoma cells. Indeed, treatment of serum-starved U373 cells with substance P reduces apoptosis by 53 +/- 1% (p < 0.05), and treatment with NK1R antagonist L-733,060 increases apoptosis by 64 +/- 16% (p < 0.01). Further, the blockade of NK1R in human glioblastoma cells with L-733,060 causes cleavage of Caspase-3 and proteolysis of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. Experiments designed to elucidate the mechanism of NK1R-mediated Akt phosphorylation revealed total involvement of non-receptor tyrosine kinase Src and phosphatidyl-3-kinase, a partial involvement of epidermal growth factor receptor, and no involvement of mitogen-activated protein/extracellular signal-related kinase. Taken together, the results of the present study indicate a key role for NK1R in glioblastoma apoptosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Toshimasa Akazawa
- Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Tran AH, Berger A, Wu GE, Paige CJ. Regulatory mechanisms in the differential expression of Hemokinin-1. Neuropeptides 2009; 43:1-12. [PMID: 19081134 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2008.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2008] [Revised: 10/22/2008] [Accepted: 10/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Hemokinin-1, encoded by the TAC4 gene, is the most recent addition to the tachykinin family. Although most closely related to the neuropeptide Substance P, Hemokinin-1 distinguishes itself from other tachykinins by its predominantly non-neuronal expression pattern. Its expression in T and B lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells points to an important role for Hemokinin-1 in the immune system. To seek reasons for its preferential expression in the immune system and ultimately to provide clues to its function, we investigated the molecular mechanisms driving the differential expression pattern of this unique tachykinin. Our study provides the first analysis of the promoter region of the TAC4 gene, which reveals regulatory mechanism different from the Substance P promoter. We demonstrate for the first time that Hemokinin-1 initiates transcription from multiple start sites through a TATA-less promoter. Conservation of the 5' non-coding region indicates the importance of the upstream regulatory region in directing expression of Hemokinin-1 in specific cell types, during cell differentiation and activation. Furthermore, NFkappaB, a transcription factor important in the activation of immune cells was shown to be involved in promoting increased TAC4 transcription during PMA induction of a T cell line. Our studies reveal that Hemokinin-1 is regulated by a unique transcription regulation system that likely governs its differential expression pattern and suggests a role for Hemokinin-1 distinct from Substance P.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne H Tran
- Department of Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, University of Toronto, 610 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 2M9.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Fu CY, Zhao YL, Dong L, Chen Q, Ni JM, Wang R. In vivo characterization of the effects of human hemokinin-1 and human hemokinin-1(4-11), mammalian tachykinin peptides, on the modulation of pain in mice. Brain Behav Immun 2008; 22:850-60. [PMID: 18262387 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2007.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2007] [Revised: 12/09/2007] [Accepted: 12/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human hemokinin-1 (h HK-1) and its truncated form h HK-1(4-11) are mammalian tachykinin peptides encoded by the recently identified TAC4 gene in human, and the biological functions of these peptides have not been well investigated. In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate the effects and mechanisms of action of h HK-1 and h HK-1(4-11) in pain modulation at the supraspinal level in mice using the tail immersion test. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of h HK-1 (0.3, 1, 3 and 6 nmol/mouse) produced a dose- and time-related antinociceptive effect. This effect was significantly antagonized by the NK(1) receptor antagonist SR140333, but not by the NK(2) receptor antagonist SR48968, indicating that the analgesic effect induced by i.c.v. h HK-1 is mediated through the activation of NK(1) receptors. Interestingly, naloxone, beta-funaltrexamine and naloxonazine, but not naltrindole and nor-binaltorphimine, could also block the analgesic effect markedly, suggesting that this effect is related to descending mu opioidergic neurons (primary mu(1) subtype). Human HK-1(4-11) could also induce a dose- and time-dependent analgesic effect after i.c.v. administration, however, the potency of analgesia was less than h HK-1. Surprisingly, SR140333 could not modify this analgesic effect, suggesting that this effect is not mediated through the NK(1) receptors like h HK-1. SR48968 could modestly enhance the analgesic effect induced by h HK-1(4-11), indicating that a small amount of h HK-1(4-11) may bind to NK(2) receptors. Furthermore, none of the opioid receptor (OR) antagonists could markedly block the analgesia of h HK-1(4-11), suggesting that the analgesic effect is not mediated through the descending opioidergic neurons. Blocking of delta ORs significantly enhanced the analgesia, indicating that delta OR is a negatively modulatory factor in the analgesic effect of h HK-1(4-11). It is striking that bicuculline (a competitive antagonist at GABA(A) receptors) effectively blocked the analgesia induced by h HK-1(4-11), suggesting that this analgesic effect is mediated through the descending inhibitory GABAergic neurons. The novel mechanism involved in the analgesic effect of h HK-1(4-11), which is different from that of h HK-1, may pave the way for a new strategy for the investigation and control of pain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cai Y Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Kong ZQ, Fu CY, Chen Q, Wang R. Cardiovascular responses to intravenous administration of human hemokinin-1 and its truncated form hemokinin-1(4-11) in anesthetized rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 590:310-6. [PMID: 18582457 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.05.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2007] [Revised: 05/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/31/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Human hemokinin-1 and its carboxy-terminal fragment human hemokinin-1(4-11) have been recently identified as the members of the tachykinin family. The peripheral cardiovascular effects of these two tachykinin peptides were investigated in anesthetized rats. Lower doses of human hemokinin-1 (0.1-3 nmol/kg) injected intravenously (i.v.) induced depressor response, whereas higher doses (10 and 30 nmol/kg) caused biphasic (depressor and pressor) responses. The depressor response is primarily due to the action on endothelial tachykinin NK(1) receptor to release endothelium-derived relaxing factor (NO) and vagal reflex was absent in this modulation. The pressor response is mediated through the activation of tachykinin NK(1) receptor to release catecholamines from sympathetic ganglia and adrenal medulla. Moreover, human hemokinin-1 injected i.v. produced a dose-dependent tachycardia response along with blood pressure responses and the activation of sympathetic ganglia and adrenal medulla are involved in the tachycardia response. Human hemokinin-1(4-11) only lowered mean arterial pressure dose-dependently (0.1-30 nmol/kg) and the mechanisms involved in the depressor response are similar to that of human hemokinin-1. Additionally, human hemokinin-1(4-11) could also produce tachycardia response dose-dependently and the mechanisms involved in the tachycardia response are similar to that of human hemokinin-1 except that bilateral adrenalectomy could not affect the tachycardia markedly, indicating that the tachycardia induced by human hemokinin-1(4-11) is primarily due to the stimulation of sympathetic ganglia. In a word, to a certain extent, human hemokinin-1(4-11) is the active fragment of human hemokinin-1, however, the differences between human hemokinin-1 and hemokinin-1(4-11) involved in the effects of cardiovascular system suggest that the divergent amino acid residues at the N-terminus of human hemokinin-1 produced different activation properties for tachykinin NK(1) receptor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Qing Kong
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Berger A, Tran AH, Paige CJ. Co-regulated decrease of Neurokinin-1 receptor and Hemokinin-1 gene expression in monocytes and macrophages after activation with pro-inflammatory cytokines. J Neuroimmunol 2007; 187:83-93. [PMID: 17537522 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2007] [Revised: 04/14/2007] [Accepted: 04/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hemokinin-1 (HK-1), a potent ligand for the Neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1) is thought to play a role in the immune system. To investigate the regulation of this receptor-ligand pair, we examined the effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines on their expression in the monocyte/macrophage cell lines Wehi-3 and RAW264.7. We demonstrate co-expression of NK-1 and HK-1 mRNA in both lines, as well as functional NK-1 receptor protein in Wehi-3 cells. Stimulation with IFN-gamma, IL-1beta and TNF-alpha markedly decreased NK-1 and HK-1 mRNA as well as NK-1 receptor protein, which coincided with monocytic differentiation. A co-regulated decrease could also be observed in differentiating primary bone marrow macrophages, suggesting that this receptor-ligand pair may be controlled by cytokine networks and may serve a developmental role in the immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Berger
- Princess Margaret Hospital, Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, 610 University Avenue, M5G 2M9 Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Fu CY, Kong ZQ, Long Y, Chen Q, Wang R. Cardiovascular responses to rat/mouse hemokinin-1, a mammalian tachykinin peptide: systemic study in anesthetized rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 572:175-81. [PMID: 17628523 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2007] [Revised: 05/29/2007] [Accepted: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Rat/mouse hemokinin-1 is a mammalian tachykinin peptide whose biological functions have not been well characterized. In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate the effect and mechanism of action of rat/mouse hemokinin-1 on systemic arterial pressure after intravenous (i.v.) injections in anesthetized rats by comparing it with that of substance P. Our data showed that injection of rat/mouse hemokinin-1 (0.1, 0.3, 1, 3 and 10 nmol/kg) lowered systemic arterial pressure dose-dependently. This effect was significantly blocked by pretreatment with SR140333 (a selective tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonist) and the NO synthase inhibitor L-NAME (Nomega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride), respectively, but was not affected by bilateral vagotomy or the muscarinic receptor blocker atropine. Compared to rat/mouse hemokinin-1, a dose of 3 nmol/kg of substance P caused biphasic changes in systemic arterial pressure (depressor and pressor responses). The results suggest that the mechanism of the depressor response caused by substance P was similar to rat/mouse hemokinin-1 in that it was inhibited by SR140333 and L-NAME, respectively, but that there was a component of the cardiovascular change induced by rat/mouse hemokinin-1 (but not substance P) that was attenuated by SR48968 (a selective tachykinin NK2 receptor antagonist). The depressor response induced by rat/mouse hemokinin-1 (i.v.) might be explained primarily by the action on endothelial tachykinin NK1 receptors to release endothelium-derived relaxing factor (NO) and this effect was not affected by vagal components. In addition, rat/mouse hemokinin-1 could not induce the pressor response through stimulation of sympathetic ganglion like substance P in anesthetized rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cai-Yun Fu
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Lanzhou University, 222 Tian Shui South Road, Lanzhou 730000, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Long Y, Fu CY, Tian XZ, Chen J, Han M, Wang R. Mechanisms of relaxing response induced by rat/mouse hemokinin-1 in porcine coronary arteries: roles of potassium ion and nitric oxide. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 569:119-25. [PMID: 17560993 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2006] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 04/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Rat and mouse hemokinin-1(r/m hemokinin-1) is a recently described member of the tachykinin family whose cardiovascular functions are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of the relaxing response induced by r/m hemokinin-1 in isolated porcine coronary arteries by using a specific antagonist of tachykinin NK(1) receptor (SR140333), a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine (L-NNA), and 1H-[1,2,4] Oxadiazolo [4,3-a] quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ), a blocker of cGMP production. r/m Hemokinin-1 (10(-12)-10(-6 )M) evoked a marked endothelium-dependent vasodilatation (E(max)=121.12+/-10.6% and 91.79+/-2.39% in 10(-6) M PGF(2)alpha and 30 mM KCl precontracted arterial rings, respectively) of coronary arteries mediated by activation of endothelial tachykinin NK(1) receptors. Two components contributed to this r/m hemokinin-1-elicited vasodilatation, the first of which was endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF), which played a major role. This EDHF was identified as a potassium current through certain kinds of potassium channels on the endothelial cell membrane of porcine coronary arteries. Specific antagonists of Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels (dequalinium and clotrimazole) did not have an inhibitory effect on the r/m hemokinin-1-induced vasodilatation, whereas they did on the substance P-induced vasodilatation. When potassium ion efflux was impaired by a high K(+) concentration (30 mM) or removal of K(+) from the surroundings, NO synthesis was triggered by r/m hemokinin-1 to produce an equivalent EDHF (K(+))-independent vasorelaxation as a compensatory mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Long
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Lanzhou University, 222 Tianshui South Road, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Nelson DA, Bost KL. Quantification of hemokinin-1 peptide production and secretion from mouse B cells. Cell Immunol 2005; 237:115-22. [PMID: 16360135 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2005.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2005] [Revised: 10/25/2005] [Accepted: 11/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Hemokinin-1 is a recent addition to the family of mammalian tachykinins and is thought to play an important role in B cell and T cell lymphopoiesis. The mRNA coding for this peptide was expressed in some B lymphocyte cell lines including 70Z/3.12, ABE-8.1/2, and RAW8.1 cells, suggesting the possibility that hemokinin-1 may function in an autocrine or paracrine manner in these cells. Therefore, we quantified secretion of this peptide from the 70Z/3.12 cell line expressing hemokinin-1 mRNA. Despite a sensitive radioimmunoassay, we were surprised to find that hemokinin-1 secretion from confluent cells was below the level of detection of this assay. Furthermore, cell lysates routinely demonstrated a low or undetectable immunoreactive peptide. Collectively these studies show a limited production of hemokinin-1 peptide by transformed B cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Nelson
- Department of Biology, 9201 University City Boulevard, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|