Distinct intrathecal interleukin-17/interleukin-6 activation in anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis

Innovation and optimization in autoimmune encephalitis trials: the design and rationale for the Phase 3, randomized study of satralizumab in patients with NMDAR-IgG-antibody-positive or LGI1-IgG-antibody-positive autoimmune encephalitis (CIELO)

Background

Autoimmune encephalitis (AIE) encompasses a spectrum of rare autoimmune-mediated neurological disorders, which are characterized by brain inflammation and dysfunction. Autoantibodies targeting the N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR) and leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1) are the most common subtypes of antibody-positive AIE. Currently, there are no approved therapies for AIE. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) signaling plays a role in the pathophysiology of AIE. Satralizumab, a humanized, monoclonal recycling antibody that specifically targets the IL-6 receptor and inhibits IL-6 signaling, has demonstrated efficacy and safety in another autoantibody-mediated neuroinflammatory disease, aquaporin-4 immunoglobulin G antibody-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder, and has the potential to be an evidence-based disease modifying treatment in AIE.

Objectives

CIELO will evaluate the efficacy, safety, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics of satralizumab compared with placebo in patients with NMDAR-immunoglobulin G antibody-positive (IgG+) or LGI1-IgG+ AIE.

Study design

CIELO (NCT05503264) is a prospective, Phase 3, randomized, double-blind, multicenter, basket study that will enroll approximately 152 participants with NMDAR-IgG+ or LGI1-IgG+ AIE. Prior to enrollment, participants will have received acute first-line therapy. Part 1 of the study will consist of a 52-week primary treatment period, where participants will receive subcutaneous placebo or satralizumab at Weeks 0, 2, 4, and every 4 weeks thereafter. Participants may continue to receive background immunosuppressive therapy, symptomatic treatment, and rescue therapy throughout the study. Following Part 1, participants can enter an optional extension period (Part 2) to continue the randomized, double-blind study drug, start open-label satralizumab, or stop study treatment and continue with follow-up assessments.

Endpoints

The primary efficacy endpoint is the proportion of participants with a ≥1-point improvement in the modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score from study baseline and no use of rescue therapy at Week 24. Secondary efficacy assessments include mRS, Clinical Assessment Scale of Autoimmune Encephalitis (CASE), time to rescue therapy, sustained seizure cessation and no rescue therapy, Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) measures. Safety, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, exploratory efficacy, and biomarker endpoints will be captured.

Conclusion

The innovative basket study design of CIELO offers the opportunity to yield prospective, robust evidence, which may contribute to the development of evidence-based treatment recommendations for satralizumab in AIE.

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate Receptor Encephalitis in People Living with HIV: Case Report and Literature Review

With the increase in the number of cases of autoimmune encephalitis (AE), the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of people living with HIV (PLWH) showing abnormal behavior, cognitive impairment or abnormal movements should be actively screened for the antibody panel of AE. Early recognition and treatment can prevent severe seizures or coma and markedly improve the prognosis of patients. The first-line immunotherapy for AE includes intravenous methylprednisolone and immunoglobulin. However, whether long-time immunosuppressive maintenance therapy is needed is debated. For PLWH, immunosuppressive therapy and even steroids could be more challenging. Here, we review and summarize the clinical characteristics often reported cases and report one case from our center to improve the diagnosis and treatment of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis in PLWH.

Leucine-Rich Glioma-Inactivated 1 (LGI1) Protein Stimulates Proliferation and IL-10 Production in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells of Patients with LGI1 Antibody-Mediated Autoimmune Encephalitis In Vitro

Limbic encephalitis (LE) due to anti-leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1) antibodies is an autoimmune disease characterized by distinct clinical features unique to LGI1 LE, such as faciobrachial dystonic seizures. However, it is unclear whether an additional disease-related LGI1 antigen-specific T cell response is involved in the pathogenesis of this disease. To address this question, we studied the effect of recombinant LGI1 on the proliferation and effector-specific cytokine production (IFN-γ, IL-5, IL-10, and IL-17) of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with LGI1 LE and healthy controls. We observed that recombinant LGI1 stimulated the proliferation of PBMCs from patients with LGI1 LE, but not from healthy controls. Cytokine measurement of cell culture supernatants from PBMCs incubated with recombinant LGI1 revealed a highly significant increase in IL-10 release in PBMCs from patients with LGI1 LE in comparison with healthy controls. These results suggest that LGI1-mediated stimulation of PBMCs from patients with LGI1 LE leads to the establishment of an IL-10-dominated immunosuppressive cytokine milieu, which may inhibit Th1 differentiation and support B cell proliferation, IgG production, and IgG subclass switching.

Identifying the Anti-inflammatory Effects of Astragalus Polysaccharides in Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis: Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation

BACKGROUND

Astragalus polysaccharides (APS), a group of bioactive compounds obtained from the natural source Astragalus membranaceus (AM), exhibits numerous pharmacological actions in the central nervous system, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. Despite the remarkable benefits, the effectiveness of APS in treating anti- N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis and the corresponding mechanism have yet to be fully understood. As such, this study aims to investigate the impact of APS on anti-NMDAR encephalitis and explore the potential molecular network mechanism.

METHODS

The impact of APS intervention on mice with anti-NMDAR encephalitis was assessed, and the possible molecular network mechanism was investigated utilizing network pharmacology and bioinformatics techniques such as Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG),protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, and molecular docking. Enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was applied to detect the expression of core target proteins.

RESULTS

APS significantly ameliorated cognitive impairment and reduced susceptibility to PTZinduced seizures in mice with anti-NMDAR encephalitis, confirming the beneficial effect of APS on anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Seventeen intersecting genes were identified between APS and anti- NMDAR encephalitis. GO and KEGG analyses revealed the characteristics of the intersecting gene networks. STRING interaction in the PPI network was applied to find crucial molecules. The results of molecular docking suggested that APS may regulate interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) as potential targets in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Furthermore, the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α detected by ELISA in anti-NMDAR encephalitis mice were significantly downregulated in response to the administration of APS.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study demonstrate the significant role of APS in the treatment of anti-NMDAR encephalitis, as it effectively suppresses inflammatory cytokines. These results suggest that APS has the potential to be considered as a viable herbal medication for the treatment of anti-NMDAR encephalitis.

A complex case of young child with ADHD, developmental delay who developed seronegative autoimmune encephalitis exacerbated by stimulants

Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is a group of disorders characterized by a wide clinical spectrum ranging from the typical limbic encephalitis to more complex neuropsychiatric symptoms including abnormal movements, psychosis, deficits in memory and cognition, dysautonomia, seizures, or coma. Psychiatric symptoms can occur early in the disease progress or manifest during its course. These symptoms are challenging and often slow down the diagnosis of AE. This is a crucial aspect considering that early diagnosis and management of AE are critical for a good outcome. However, there is a lack in studies outlining the exact symptomatology and specific appropriate care that would allow clinicians to achieve an early diagnosis and management. Additionally, AE in children mostly presents with neuropsychiatric symptoms and diagnosis is especially challenging in kids because of their limited capacity in describing their symptoms, the normal childhood behavioral changes and the possibility of a comorbid psychiatric diagnosis. We present a complex case of seronegative AE with comorbid ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) and anxiety in a young six-year-old girl.

Elevated serum levels of the NLRP3 inflammasome are associated with the severity of anti-NMDAR encephalitis in children

BACKGROUND

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is the most common autoimmune encephalitis, mainly impacting young females and children. The involvement of the Nod-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and related cytokines in pediatric individuals with this condition remains unclear.

METHODS

We collected information from 27 children who had anti-NMDAR encephalitis and 12 individuals with non-inflammatory neurological disorders as controls. We used an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to identify NLRP3 inflammasome, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-18 expression in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and matching serum samples. The modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score was performed throughout the acute phase and at the 6-month follow-up to determine the severity of the disease. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic curve was utilized to calculate the prediction efficacy.

RESULTS

When compared to controls, individuals with anti-NMDAR encephalitis had significantly increased serum expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome (p < 0.001), IL-1β (p < 0.05), and IL-18 (p < 0.01). In the acute phase, mRS scores were correlated positively with serum levels of NLRP3 inflammasome (p = 0.008), IL-1β (p = 0.023), and IL-18 (p < 0.001). A positive connection was also found between serum levels of NLRP3 inflammasome and IL-1β (p = 0.005). Furthermore, the expression of IL-1β and IL-18 in serum correlated with the 6-month follow-up outcome. The AUC for NLRP3 inflammasome in distinguishing patients with severe neurologic impairments from those with moderate impairments was 0.808 (95 % CI: 0.645-0.972).

CONCLUSION

In our investigation, children with anti-NMDAR encephalitis have more severe first clinical presentations when their serum concentrations of the NLRP3 inflammasome and related cytokines were higher. These findings provide a potential role for the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway in the pathogenesis of NMDAR encephalitis and provide a basis for targeted therapeutic interventions.

Cytokine/chemokine levels in the CSF and serum of anti-NMDAR encephalitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objectives

To summarize the cytokine/chemokine levels of anti-N-methyl-Daspartate receptor encephalitis (NMDAR-E) and explore the potential role of these molecules and immune cells in the pathogenic mechanism.

Methods

The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Web of Science databases were searched for various articles that assessed the concentrations of cytokines/chemokines in the unstimulated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or serum of patients with NMDAR-E in this systematic review and meta-analysis. The standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated by Stata17.0.

Results

A total of 19 articles were included in the systematic review from 260 candidate papers, and cytokine/chemokine levels reported in the CSF/serum were examined in each article. This meta-analysis included 17 eligible studies comprising 579 patients with NMDAR-E, 367 patients with noninflammatory neurological disorders, and 42 healthy controls from China, Spain, South Korea, Australia, Czechia, and Sweden. The results indicated that the levels of different cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-10, IL-13, IL-1β, IL-12, and IL-17 and chemokine C-X-C motif ligand (CXCL)10 in the CSF were significantly higher in NMDAR-E patients with a large effect size. In addition, B cell activating factor (BAFF), CXCL13, and interferon (IFN)-γ levels in the CSF were higher in NMDAR-E patients with a middle effect size. In contrast, levels of IL-2 and IL-4 in the CSF and CXCL13 and BAFF in the serum did not show a significant difference between cases and controls.

Conclusions

These analyses showed that the central immune response in NMDAR-E is a process that involves multiple immune cell interactions mediated by cytokines/chemokines, and T cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of immunity.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier (CRD42022342485).

Regulatory T cell profiles in patients with N-methyl-ᴅ-aspartate receptor-antibody encephalitis

Purpose

Purpose Regulatory T cells (Tregs) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune disorders and used in adoptive cell transfer therapies. Neither have been explored in patients with autoimmune encephalitis where treated patient outcomes remain suboptimal with frequent relapses. Here, to identify new treatment strategies for autoimmune encephalitis, we sought to evaluate the proportion of circulating Tregs and Treg subpopulations in peripheral blood of patients with N-methyl-ᴅ-aspartate receptor-antibody encephalitis (NMDAR-Ab-E) and compared this with healthy controls.

Methods

We compared the phenotype of peripheral blood Tregs in four adult NMDAR-Ab-E patients and four age- and sex-matched healthy controls using an 11-color flow cytometry assay panel for characterization of Tregs (CD4+ CD25+ FoxP3+) cells into naïve (chemokine receptor [CCR] 7+ CD45RA+), central memory (CCR7+ CD45RA-), and effector memory (CCR7- CD45RA-) cells. We also examined and compared the expression of the CCR6 by circulating Tregs and the respective Treg subpopulations between the study groups.

Results

The proportion of circulating Tregs was similar between patients with NMDAR-Ab-E and healthy controls but the proportion of naïve Tregs was lower in NMDAR-Ab-E patients (p = 0.0026). Additionally, the frequency of circulating effector memory Tregs was higher, and the proportion of circulating effector memory Tregs expressing CCR6 was lower, in NMDAR-Ab-E patients compared with healthy controls (p = 0.0026).

Conclusion

Altered Treg homeostasis may be a feature of patients with NMDAR-Ab-E. Future studies with larger samples are warranted to validate these findings.

Possible Autoimmune Encephalitis Associated with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Omicron Variant Successfully Treated with Steroids

We encountered a 55-year-old woman with possible autoimmune encephalitis associated with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron variant. She was not vaccinated against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Consciousness disturbance, myoclonic-like movements and gait disturbance occurred 10 days after the COVID-19 symptom onset. Her neurological symptoms improved two days after methylprednisolone pulse therapy. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was negative for SARS-CoV-2 reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, the CSF-to-serum albumin quotient was mildly elevated, and interleukin 6 and 8 levels were normal in serum but mildly elevated in CSF. Omicron variant infection may increase blood-brain barrier permeability and intrathecal inflammation, causing autoimmune encephalitis.

Circulating plasmablasts and follicular helper T-cell subsets are associated with antibody-positive autoimmune epilepsy

Autoimmune epilepsy (AE) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system with symptoms that have seizures that are refractory to antiepileptic drugs. Since the diagnosis of AE tends to rely on a limited number of anti-neuronal antibody tests, a more comprehensive analysis of the immune background could achieve better diagnostic accuracy. This study aimed to compare the characteristics of anti-neuronal antibody-positive autoimmune epilepsy (AE/Ab(+)) and antibody-negative suspected autoimmune epilepsy (AE/Ab(-)) groups. A total of 23 patients who met the diagnostic criteria for autoimmune encephalitis with seizures and 11 healthy controls (HC) were enrolled. All patients were comprehensively analyzed for anti-neuronal antibodies; 13 patients were identified in the AE/Ab(+) group and 10 in the AE/Ab(-) group. Differences in clinical characteristics, including laboratory and imaging findings, were evaluated between the groups. In addition, the immunophenotype of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and CSF mononuclear cells, particularly B cells and circulating Tfh (cTfh) subsets, and multiplex assays of serum and CSF were analyzed using flow cytometry. Patients with AE/Ab(+) did not show any differences in clinical parameters compared to patients with AE/Ab(-). However, the frequency of plasmablasts within PBMCs and CSF in patients with AE/Ab(+) was higher than that in patients with AE/Ab(-) and HC, and the frequency of cTfh17 cells and inducible T-cell co-stimulator (ICOS) expressing cTfh17 cells within cTfh subsets was higher than that in patients with AE/Ab(-). Furthermore, the frequency of ICOS^highcTfh17 cells was positively correlated with that of the unswitched memory B cells. We also found that IL-12, IL-23, IL-6, IL-17A, and IFN-γ levels were elevated in the serum and IL-17A and IL-6 levels were elevated in the CSF of patients with AE/Ab(+). Our findings indicate that patients with AE/Ab(+) showed increased differentiation of B cells and cTfh subsets associated with antibody production. The elevated frequency of plasmablasts and ICOS expressing cTfh17 shift in PBMCs may be indicative of the presence of antibodies in patients with AE.

Increased formation of neutrophil extracellular traps in patients with anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis

Background

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been found to play an important role in several nervous system diseases. However, their role in anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the possible role of NETs in anti-NMDAR encephalitis.

Materials and methods

Eleven patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis and ten healthy participants were enrolled. Plasma NETs levels were detected using an immunofluorescence assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Additionally, we examined 10 plasma cytokines in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis and analyzed the correlation between citrullinated histone 3 levels and cytokine release.

Results

Peripheral blood neutrophils from patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis were more susceptible to NET generation. When compared with controls, cases of anti-NMDAR encephalitis showed elevated levels of IL-1 α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-13, MCP-1, and TNF-α (p < 0.05). Moreover, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α levels were positively correlated with H3Cit levels.

Conclusion

We provide evidence that NETs may play a role in anti-NMDAR encephalitis, providing clues for elucidation of the pathogenesis of this disease.

Identification of cerebrospinal fluid biomarker candidates for anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: High-throughput proteomic investigation

BACKGROUND

Although the diagnosis is mainly dependent on the detection of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and/or serum, there was no direct correlations between anti-NMDAR antibody titers in CSF and disease severity and prognosis in anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients. Here, we aimed to extensively identify CSF biomarkers related to the occurrence, development, and prognosis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis using a high-throughput proteomic approach.

METHODS

A CSF cytokine antibody array containing 80 cytokines and inflammatory mediators related to immune and inflammatory responses was applied to identify biomarker candidates in individual CSF samples from a well-characterized cohort comprising patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis (n = 6) and controls (n = 6). Validation and specific detection were performed in an extended cohort consisting of anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients (n = 13), controls (n = 13), and viral encephalitis (n = 13) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Additionally, the levels of some inflammatory proteins in three groups in cohort 2 reported in previous literatures that may be involved in the development of anti-NMDAR encephalitis were also tested by ELISA. Correlations between candidate biomarkers and clinical characteristics of anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients were analyzed.

RESULTS

Three differentially expressed cytokines and inflammatory mediators were screened from the 80-cytokine array in cohort 1. Functional enrichment analysis results suggested that these differentially expressed proteins were related to autophagy, immune/inflammatory responses, cell death, and other processes. In cohort 2, the elevations of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1 (cIAP-1), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (MCSF), CXC chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13), and nucleotide binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) in anti-NMDAR encephalitis were validated by ELISA. Linear regression revealed that the levels of CSF CXCL13 and cIAP-1 were positively correlated with the highest modified Rankin scale (mRS) score in the acute phase (p < 0.05). The level of cIAP-1 was positively correlated with the anti-NMDAR Encephalitis One-Year Functional Status (NEOS) score (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These biomarkers show promising functions to evaluate severity or prognosis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis. The biological processes of immune/inflammatory responses, altered levels of autophagy, and the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signal pathway may be involved in the pathophysiology of anti-NMDAR encephalitis to some extent.

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis after coronavirus disease 2019: A case report and literature review

RATIONALE

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global pandemic and COVID-19-associated anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis may occur through an immune-mediated pathomechanism.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 21-year-old woman with a history of COVID-19 presented to our hospital with memory decline and psychiatric symptoms.

DIAGNOSIS

The patient was diagnosed with anti-NMDAR encephalitis.

INTERVENTION

Intravenous methylprednisolone (1 g/day over 5 days) followed by immunoglobulin (0.4 g/kg/day over 5 days) were administered. The patient underwent laparoscopic salpingo-oophorectomy to remove an ovarian teratoma.

OUTCOMES

The patient was discharged with sequelae of short-term memory impairment, without other neuropsychiatric symptoms.

LESSONS

Cases of previously reported anti-NMDAR encephalitis with COVID-19 were reviewed and compared with the present case. Clinicians should be aware of the occurrence of anti-NMDAR encephalitis in patients who present with neuropsychiatric complaints during or after exposure to COVID-19. Further studies are required to determine the causal relationship between the 2 diseases and predict the prognosis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis after COVID-19 exposure.

Cytokines and chemokines profile in encephalitis patients: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Encephalitis is caused by autoimmune or infectious agents marked by brain inflammation. Investigations have reported altered concentrations of the cytokines in encephalitis. This study was conducted to determine the relationship between encephalitis and alterations of cytokine levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum.

METHODS

We found possibly suitable studies by searching PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science, systematically from inception to August 2021. 23 articles were included in the meta-analysis. To investigate sources of heterogeneity, subgroup analysis and sensitivity analysis were conducted. The protocol of the study has been registered in PROSPERO with a registration ID of CRD42021289298.

RESULTS

A total of 23 met our eligibility criteria to be included in the meta-analysis. A total of 12 cytokines were included in the meta-analysis of CSF concentration. Moreover, 5 cytokines were also included in the serum/plasma concentration meta-analysis. According to the analyses, patients with encephalitis had higher CSF amounts of IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, CXCL10, and TNF-α than healthy controls. The alteration in the concentration of IL-2, IL-4, IL-17, CCL2, CXCL9, CXCL13, and IFN-γ was not significant. In addition, the serum/plasma levels of the TNF-α were increased in encephalitis patients, but serum/plasma concentration of the IL-6, IL-10, CXCL10, and CXCL13 remained unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis provides evidence for higher CSF concentrations of IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, CXCL10, and TNF-α in encephalitis patients compared to controls. The diagnostic and prognostic value of these cytokines and chemokines should be investigated in future studies.

Advances in Potential Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers for Autoimmune Encephalitis: A Review

Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is a severe inflammatory disease of the brain. Patients with AE demonstrate amnesia, seizures, and psychosis. Recent studies have identified numerous associated autoantibodies (e.g., against NMDA receptors (NMDARs), LGI1, etc.) involved in the pathogenesis of AE, and the levels of diagnosis and treatment are thus improved dramatically. However, there are drawbacks of clinical diagnosis and treatment based solely on antibody levels, and thus the application of additional biomarkers is urgently needed. Considering the important role of immune mechanisms in AE development, we summarize the relevant research progress in identifying cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers with a focus on cytokines/chemokines, demyelination, and nerve damage.

Cytokine dynamics and targeted immunotherapies in autoimmune encephalitis

Autoimmune encephalitides constitute a diverse group of immune-mediated central nervous system disorders mainly characterized by the presence of antibodies targeting neuronal or glial antigens. Despite the notable contribution of antibody discovery to the understanding of their physiopathology, the specific immune cells and inflammatory mediators involved in autoimmune encephalitis are still poorly defined. However, cytokines have recently emerged as crucial signalling molecules in the pathogenesis of autoimmune encephalitis. Cytokines are biologically active, soluble, low-molecular-weight proteins or glycoproteins involved in a wide variety of physiological functions, including central nervous system development and homeostasis, immune surveillance, as well as proliferation and maturation of immune cells. Since unbalanced cytokine expression is considered a hallmark of many autoimmune central nervous system disorders, their identification and quantification has become an essential element in personalized medicine applied to the field of neuroimmunology. Several studies have explored the cytokine profile of autoimmune encephalitis, but their interpretation and comparison is challenging due to their small sample sizes and extremely high heterogeneity, especially regarding the cytokines analysed, type of sample used, and associated neural antibody. Only the cytokine profile of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis has extensively been investigated, with findings suggesting that, although humoral immunity is the main effector, T cells may also be relevant for the development of this disorder. A better understanding of cytokine dynamics governing neuroinflammation might offer the opportunity of developing new therapeutic strategies against specific immune cells, cytokines, antibodies, or intracellular signalling cascades, therefore leading to better outcomes and preventing undesired side effects of the presently used strategies. In this review, we first summarize the current knowledge about the role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of autoimmune encephalitis, combining theoretical analysis with experimental validations, to assess their suitability as clinical biomarkers. Second, we discuss the potential applicability of the novel targeted immunotherapies in autoimmune encephalitis depending on the immunobiology of the associated antibody, their limitations, as well as the main limitations that should be addressed in future studies.

Inflammation in pediatric epilepsies: Update on clinical features and treatment options

The role of inflammation is increasingly recognized in triggering or sustaining epileptic activity. In the last decades, increasing research has provided definite evidence to support the link between immunity, inflammatory process, and epilepsy. Neuro- and systemic inflammation play a pivotal role in driving epileptogenesis through different pathogenetic mechanisms: the activation of innate immunity in glia, neurons, and microvasculature, the brain mediated by blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment, and the imbalance of pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules produced by both arms of immunity. More recently, research has focused on the adverse effects of maternal or early-life immune activation and cytokine imbalance on fetal neurodevelopment and postnatal epilepsy. A complex crosstalk between the immune and nervous system, and a crucial interplay of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors may influence structures and functions of the developing brain. A better understanding of the inflammatory process in promoting epilepsy implies that targeting specific pathways may be effective in seizure control. Multiple targets have been identified so far, and several antiseizure interventions are obtained by inhibiting inflammatory signaling or protecting/restoring BBB. All this evidence has changed the field of epilepsy research and neuropharmacology. Further developments and new treatments will rapidly emerge to improve seizure management in inflammation-related epilepsies. This article is part of the Special Issue "Severe Infantile Epilepsies".

Autoimmune encephalitis associated with COVID-19: A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

There are increasing reports of COVID-19 related neurological complications which may be due to direct viral invasion, or immune mediated inflammatory diseases such as autoimmune encephalitis and ADEM (acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis). In this study, a systematic review is presented of the reported cases infected by the COVID-19 who were diagnosed with various forms of autoimmune encephalitis (AE).

METHODS

The authors searched three databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of science for extracting original articles on coronavirus/ COVID-19 and AE.

RESULTS

Eighteen articles were considered in this study, including 15 case reports, and three case series with a total of 81 patients. Among the studies, 19 cases were reported with AE including 7 (37%) cases of limbic encephalitis, 5 (26%) patients with anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis, 2 (11%) with AE presenting as new-onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE), 1 (5%) case of steroid-responsive encephalitis, and 4 (21%) cases with an unknown type of AE.

CONCLUSION

Our systematic review revealed evidence on AE development in patients infected with the COVID-19. Clinicians should be aware of the possible diagnosis of AE when considering other neurological differential diagnosis in SARS-CoV-2 infected patients.

CSF-Neurofilament Light Chain Levels in NMDAR and LGI1 Encephalitis: A National Cohort Study

Background and Objectives

The two most common autoimmune encephalitides (AE), N-methyl-D-Aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and Leucine-rich Glioma-Inactivated 1 (LGI1) encephalitis, have been known for more than a decade. Nevertheless, no well-established biomarkers to guide treatment or estimate prognosis exist. Neurofilament light chain (NfL) has become an unspecific screening marker of axonal damage in CNS diseases, and has proven useful as a diagnostic and disease activity marker in neuroinflammatory diseases. Only limited reports on NfL in AE exist. We investigated NfL levels at diagnosis and follow-up in NMDAR and LGI1-AE patients, and evaluated the utility of CSF-NfL as a biomarker in AE.

Methods

Patients were included from the National Danish AE cohort (2009-present) and diagnosed based upon autoantibody positivity and diagnostic consensus criteria. CSF-NfL was analyzed by single molecule array technology. Clinical and diagnostic information was retrospectively evaluated and related to NfL levels at baseline and follow-up. NMDAR-AE patients were subdivided into: idiopathic/teratoma associated or secondary NMDAR-AE (post-viral or concomitant with malignancies/demyelinating disease).

Results

A total of 74 CSF samples from 53 AE patients (37 NMDAR and 16 LGI1 positive) were included in the study. Longitudinal CSF-NfL levels was measured in 21 patients. Median follow-up time was 23.8 and 43.9 months for NMDAR and LGI1-AE respectively. Major findings of this study are: i) CSF-NfL levels were higher in LGI1-AE than in idiopathic/teratoma associated NMDAR-AE at diagnosis; ii) CSF-NfL levels in NMDAR-AE patients distinguished idiopathic/teratoma cases from cases with other underlying etiologies (post-viral or malignancies/demyelinating diseases) and iii) Elevated CSF-NfL at diagnosis seems to be associated with worse long-term disease outcomes in both NMDAR and LGI1-AE.

Discussion

CSF-NfL measurement may be beneficial as a prognostic biomarker in NMDAR and LGI1-AE, and high CSF-NfL could foster search for underlying etiologies in NMDAR-AE. Further studies on larger cohorts, using standardized methods, are warranted.

Contemporary advances in antibody-mediated encephalitis: anti-LGI1 and anti-Caspr2 antibody (Ab)-mediated encephalitides

Encephalitides with antibodies directed against leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1) and contactin-associated protein-like 2 (Caspr2) represent two increasingly well characterised forms of autoimmune encephalitis. Both share overlapping and distinct clinical features, are mediated by autoantibodies directed against differing proteins complexed with voltage-gated potassium channels, with unique genetic predisposition identified to date. Herein we summarise disease mechanisms, clinical features, treatment considerations, prognostic factors and clinical outcomes regarding these disorders.

Contemporary advances in anti-NMDAR antibody (Ab)-mediated encephalitis

The study of antibody (Ab)-mediated encephalitis has advanced dramatically since the discovery of antibodies directed against the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) in association with a unique neuro-psychiatric syndrome, over a decade-and-a-half ago. Anti-NMDAR Ab-mediated encephalitis now represents the most well characterised form of autoimmune encephalitis. The disease most commonly manifests in young women, but all ages and both sexes can be affected. Autoantibodies may arise in the context of two well-recognised disease triggers in a proportion of patients, and ultimately facilitate NMDAR displacement from synapses. Various CSF cytokines, chemokines, and other molecules have been explored as candidate biomarkers but are limited in sensitivity and specificity. The clinical spectrum is diverse, with evolution and a combination of neuro-psychiatric abnormalities at disease nadir common. Anti-NMDAR Ab-mediated encephalitis is immunotherapy responsive, and a near-majority ultimately acquire a broadly favourable clinical outcome. The diagnosis, and more particularly, the management of the disease can still hold considerable challenges. Moreover, well-defined biomarkers remain elusive. The present review will therefore delineate pathogenic and clinical advances to date in anti-NMDAR antibody-mediated encephalitis.

Cytokine/chemokine levels in the CSF and serum of anti-NMDAR encephalitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

To summarize the cytokine/chemokine levels of anti-N-methyl-Daspartate receptor encephalitis (NMDAR-E) and explore the potential role of these molecules and immune cells in the pathogenic mechanism.

METHODS

The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Web of Science databases were searched for various articles that assessed the concentrations of cytokines/chemokines in the unstimulated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or serum of patients with NMDAR-E in this systematic review and meta-analysis. The standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated by Stata17.0.

RESULTS

A total of 19 articles were included in the systematic review from 260 candidate papers, and cytokine/chemokine levels reported in the CSF/serum were examined in each article. This meta-analysis included 17 eligible studies comprising 579 patients with NMDAR-E, 367 patients with noninflammatory neurological disorders, and 42 healthy controls from China, Spain, South Korea, Australia, Czechia, and Sweden. The results indicated that the levels of different cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-10, IL-13, IL-1β, IL-12, and IL-17 and chemokine C-X-C motif ligand (CXCL)10 in the CSF were significantly higher in NMDAR-E patients with a large effect size. In addition, B cell activating factor (BAFF), CXCL13, and interferon (IFN)-γ levels in the CSF were higher in NMDAR-E patients with a middle effect size. In contrast, levels of IL-2 and IL-4 in the CSF and CXCL13 and BAFF in the serum did not show a significant difference between cases and controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These analyses showed that the central immune response in NMDAR-E is a process that involves multiple immune cell interactions mediated by cytokines/chemokines, and T cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of immunity.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier (CRD42022342485).

Current Status of Biomarkers in Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis

The discovery of biomarkers in rare diseases is of paramount importance to allow a better diagnosis, improve predictions of outcomes, and prompt the development of new treatments. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is a rare autoimmune disorder associated with the presence of antibodies targeting the GluN1 subunit of the NMDAR. Since it was discovered in 2007, large efforts have been made towards the identification of clinical, paraclinical, and molecular biomarkers to better understand the immune mechanisms that govern the course of the disease as well as to define predictors of treatment response and long-term outcomes. However, most of these biomarkers are still in an exploratory phase, with only a few candidates reaching the final phases of the always-complex process of biomarker development, mainly due to the low incidence of the disease and its recent description. Clinical and paraclinical markers are probably the most widely explored in anti-NMDAR encephalitis, five of them combined in a clinical score to predict 1 year outcome. On the contrary, soluble molecules, such as persistent antibody positivity, antibody titers, cytokines, and other inflammatory mediators, have been proposed as biomarkers of clinical activity, inflammation, prognosis, and treatment response, but further studies are required for their clinical validation including larger and more homogenous cohorts of patients. Similarly, genetic susceptibility biomarkers are still in the exploratory phase and, therefore, weak conclusions can for now only be achieved. Thus, further studies are warranted to define biomarkers and unravel the underlying mechanisms driving rare diseases such as anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Future international collaborative studies with prospective designs that enable the enrollment of large cohorts will allow for the identification and validation of novel biomarkers for clinical decision-making.

Neural autoantibodies in delirium

BACKGROUND

Delirium in hospitalized and intensive care unit patients is an emerging condition due to its rapid-onset requiring fast action to mitigate a worse clinical outcome. Although several causes and conditions are known, the association between delirium and neural autoantibodies has often been neglected in cohort studies and reviews as causing delirium. The aim of our review is to delineate the occurrence and type of neural autoantibodies and to depict other biological markers of autoimmunity in relationship to delirium.

METHODS

For this narrative review Pubmed research was done to select articles about delirium and neural autoantibodies.

RESULTS

We can report on several cell-surface autoantibodies such as anti-α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors, anti-contactin associated protein 2, anti-Leucin rich glioma inactivated protein 1, anti-dipeptidyl-peptidase-like 6 protein, anti-glycine receptor and anti-myelin autoantibodies, as well as intracellular autoantibodies such as anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65), anti-CV2 and anti-Hu associated with delirium in patients. Our case reports and case series screening revealed that 20 of 63 patients with delirium presented neural autoantibodies, thus revealing a 32% frequency of autoantibody-associated delirium in delirium patients. Our main finding is that delirium's hyperactive form is associated with neural autoantibodies. Diagnosing delirium differentially is difficult, as in patients with delirium and GAD65 autoantibodies, as it must be distinguished from other psychopathological excitation states such as mania. We also describe autoimmune delirium's potential pathophysiologic pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

The existence of neural autoantibodies in delirious patients is scientifically and clinically highly relevant in its diagnosis, therapy, and pathogenesis. More large-scale studies should be conducted to evaluate their significance and prevalence in delirium.

Unraveling the enigma of new-onset refractory status epilepticus: a systematic review of aetiologies

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

New-onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE) is a clinical presentation, neither a specific diagnosis nor a clinical entity. It refers to a patient without active epilepsy or other pre-existing relevant neurological disorder, with a NORSE without a clear acute or active structural, toxic or metabolic cause. This study reviews the currently available evidence about the aetiology of patients presenting with NORSE and NORSE-related conditions.

METHODS

A systematic search was carried out for clinical trials, observational studies, case series and case reports including patients who presented with NORSE, febrile-infection-related epilepsy syndrome or the infantile hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia and epilepsy syndrome.

RESULTS

Four hundred and fifty records were initially identified, of which 197 were included in the review. The selected studies were retrospective case-control (n = 11), case series (n = 83) and case reports (n = 103) and overall described 1334 patients both of paediatric and adult age. Aetiology remains unexplained in about half of the cases, representing the so-called 'cryptogenic NORSE'. Amongst adult patients without cryptogenic NORSE, the most often identified cause is autoimmune encephalitis, either non-paraneoplastic or paraneoplastic. Infections are the prevalent aetiology of paediatric non-cryptogenic NORSE. Genetic and congenital disorders can have a causative role in NORSE, and toxic, vascular and degenerative conditions have also been described.

CONCLUSIONS

Far from being a unitary condition, NORSE is a heterogeneous and clinically challenging presentation. The development and dissemination of protocols and guidelines to standardize diagnostic work-up and guide therapeutic approaches should be implemented. Global cooperation and multicentre research represent priorities to improve the understanding of NORSE.

Differentiation of viral and autoimmune central nervous system inflammation by kynurenine pathway

Objective

To determine whether the metabolites of Kynurenine pathway (KP) could serve as biomarkers for distinguishing between viral CNS infections and autoimmune neuroinflammatory diseases, especially anti‐N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate receptor encephalitis (NMDARE) and herpes virus encephalitis (HSE).

Methods

This study enrolled CSF samples from 76 patients with viral CNS infections, autoimmune neuroinflammatory, and non‐inflammatory neurological diseases. We measured cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of tryptophan (Trp) and kynurenine (Kyn) by ELISA.

Results

Kyn concentrations and Kyn/Trp ratios were highly increased (p < 0.001, viral vs. autoimmune) in viral CNS infections, whereas patients with autoimmune neuroinflammatory and non‐inflammatory diseases exhibited low concentrations. Furthermore, Kyn concentrations and Kyn/Trp ratio turned out to be excellent biomarkers to distinguish between herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) and NMDARE (AUC 0.920 and AUC 0.906), whereas Trp concentrations were similar in all three groups.

Interpretation

The results suggest that elevated CSF Kyn concentrations and Kyn/Trp ratio may serve as biomarkers for distinguishing viral CNS infections from autoimmune neuroinflammatory diseases. In particular, the distinction between HSE and NMDARE is of great clinical relevance. Further studies are warranted to investigate the potential of CSF Kyn levels and Kyn/Trp ratio as routine parameters in patients with CNS diseases.

Diagnostic utility of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) findings in seizures and epilepsy with and without autoimmune-associated disease

Patients with seizures and epilepsy routinely undergo multiple diagnostic tests, which may include cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis. This review aims to outline different CSF parameters and their alterations in seizures or epilepsy. We then discuss the utility of CSF analysis in seizure patients in different clinical settings in depth. Some routine CSF parameters are frequently altered after seizures, but are not specific such as CSF protein and lactate. Pleocytosis and CSF specific oligoclonal bands are rare and should be considered as signs of infectious or immune mediated seizures and epilepsy. Markers of neuronal damage show conflicting results, and are as yet not established in clinical practice. Parameters of neuronal degeneration and more specific immune parameters are less well studied, and are areas of further research. CSF analysis in new-onset seizures or status epilepticus serves well in the differential diagnosis of seizure etiology. Here, considerations should include autoimmune-associated seizures. CSF findings in these disorders are a special focus of this review and are summarized in a comprehensive overview. Until now, CSF analysis has not yielded clinically helpful biomarkers for refractory epilepsy or for assessment of neuronal damage which is a subject of further studies.

Cerebrospinal Fluid IL-17A Could Predict Acute Disease Severity in Non-NMDA-Receptor Autoimmune Encephalitis

Introduction

Most of our knowledge into autoimmune encephalitis (AE) comes from N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis. The concentrations of cytokines in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) including IL-17A have been found to be increased and associated with poor outcome. However, data on the cytokine concentration in CSF and its correlation with outcome is lacking for other types of AE.

Objective

To report the concentrations of CSF sIL-2R, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and IL-17A and to correlate it with acute disease severity and the 1-year outcome in non-NMDAR AE.

Methods

We measured the CSF concentration of each cytokine in 20 AE patients, and compared IL-6 and IL-17A concentrations with 13 patients with CNS demyelinating diseases and 20 non-inflammatory controls. Patients were > 18yr and had at least 1-year clinical follow-up. Intracellular and NMDAR antibody (Ab) -mediated encephalitis were excluded. A mRS ≤ 2 was retained as a 1-year good outcome.

Results

The IL-17A concentration in CSF was higher in AE patients than in both control groups (p<0.01). No difference was observed in CSF concentration of IL-6 between groups. At disease onset, a high CSF IL-17A concentration correlated with a high modified Rankin Scale (p<0.05), a high Clinical Assessment Scale for Autoimmune Encephalitis score (p<0.001) and ICU admission (p<0.01). There was no correlation between the concentration of all CSF cytokines and the 1-year clinical outcome.

Conclusion

Our results show that CSF IL-17A could be interesting to assess initial severity in non-NMDAR AE. Thus, CSF IL-17A could be an interesting therapeutic target and be useful to assess early selective immunosuppressive therapy.

Clinical efficacy of plasma exchange in patients with autoimmune encephalitis

Objective

To determine the clinical and antibody response after therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) in patients with severe refractory antibody‐associated autoimmune encephalitis (AE).

Methods

This single‐center prospective cohort included all patients consecutively admitted to our hospital because of severe refractory AE over the period from July 2014 to June 2019. All patients received immunotherapy (steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), and/or TPE). The primary outcome was evaluated at 1‐ and 2‐month postenrollment, and the long‐term outcome was followed up at 6 and 12 months. AE antibody titers in the cerebrospinal fluid and plasma were evaluated before and after TPE/IVIG.

Results

This study enrolled 57 patients with severe refractory AE, including anti‐NMDA receptor encephalitis (n = 51), anti‐GABAb receptor encephalitis (n = 3), anti‐LGI 1 encephalitis (n = 2), and anti‐AMPA receptor encephalitis (n = 1). Of all 57 patients, 33 patients received TPE for a total of 193 procedures, and 24 patients with contraindications or refusal of TPE were in the non‐TPE group. Compared with the non‐TPE group, the TPE group exhibited greater clinical improvement: 21 (37%) versus 8 (14%) after 1 month (P = 0.03) and 31 (54%) versus 16 (28%) after 2 months (P = 0.01), respectively. Complications and adverse events associated with TPE occurred in 91 procedures (47%) without serious adverse events associated with the use of TPE.

Interpretation

TPE might be an effective rescue therapy associated with rapid functional improvement in patients with severe steroid/IVIG refractory antibody‐associated AE from this nonrandomized control trial.

Seizures and memory impairment induced by patient-derived anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies in mice are attenuated by anakinra, an interleukin-1 receptor antagonist

OBJECTIVE

Neuroinflammation associated with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis may facilitate seizures. We previously showed that intraventricular administration of cerebrospinal fluid from patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis to mice precipitates seizures, thereby confirming that antibodies are directly pathogenic. To determine whether interleukin (IL)-1-mediated inflammation exacerbates autoimmune seizures, we asked whether blocking the effects of IL-1 by anakinra, a selective IL-1 receptor antagonist, blunts antibody-induced seizures.

METHODS

We infused C57BL/6 mice intraventricularly with purified serum IgG from patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis or monoclonal anti-NMDAR IgG; subdural electroencephalogram was continuously recorded. After a 6-day interval, mice received anakinra (25 mg/kg sc, twice daily) or vehicle for 5 days. Following a 4-day washout period, we performed behavioral tests to assess motor function, anxiety, and memory, followed by hippocampus tissue analysis to assess astrocytic (glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP]) and microglial (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule [Iba]-1) activation.

RESULTS

Of 31 mice infused with purified patient NMDAR-IgG (n = 17) or monoclonal NMDAR-IgG (n = 14), 81% developed seizures. Median baseline daily seizure count during exposure to antibodies was 3.9; most seizures were electrographic. Median duration of seizures during the baseline was 82.5 s. Anakinra administration attenuated daily seizure frequency by 60% (p = .02). Anakinra reduced seizure duration; however, the effect was delayed and became apparent only after the cessation of treatment (p = .04). Anakinra improved novel object recognition in mice with antibody-induced seizures (p = .03) but did not alter other behaviors. Anakinra reduced the expression of GFAP and Iba-1 in the hippocampus of mice with seizures, indicating decreased astrocytic and microglial activation.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our evidence supports a role for IL-1 in the pathogenesis of seizures in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. These data are consistent with therapeutic effects of anakinra in other severe autoimmune and inflammatory seizure syndromes. Targeting inflammation via blocking IL-1 receptor-mediated signaling may be promising for developing novel treatments for refractory autoimmune seizures.

Decreased inflammatory cytokine production of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells in NMDA receptor encephalitis

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is the most common autoimmune encephalitis with psychosis, amnesia, seizures and dyskinesias. The disease is mediated by pathogenic autoantibodies against the NR1 subunit that disrupt NMDAR function. Antibody infusion into mouse brains can recapitulate encephalitis symptoms, while active immunization resulted also in strong T cell infiltration into the hippocampus. However, whether T cells react against NMDAR and their specific contribution to disease development are poorly understood. Here we characterized the ex vivo frequency and phenotype of circulating CD4⁺ T helper (T_H) cells reactive to NR1 protein using antigen-reactive T cell enrichment (ARTE) in 24 patients with NMDAR encephalitis, 13 patients with LGI1 encephalitis and 51 matched controls. Unexpectedly, patients with NMDAR encephalitis had lower frequencies of CD154-expressing NR1-reactive T_H cells than healthy controls and produced significantly less inflammatory cytokines. No difference was seen in T cells reactive to the synaptic target LGI1 (Leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1), ubiquitous Candida antigens or neoantigens, suggesting that the findings are disease-specific and not related to therapeutic immunosuppression. Also, patients with LGI1 encephalitis showed unaltered numbers of LGI1 antigen-reactive T cells. The data reveal disease-specific functional alterations of circulating NMDAR-reactive T_H cells in patients with NMDAR encephalitis and challenge the idea that increased pro-inflammatory NMDAR-reactive T cells contribute to disease pathogenesis.

Cytokines/Chemokines: Potential Biomarkers for Non-paraneoplastic Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis

Objective: Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is the most common type of autoimmune encephalitis. This study focuses on finding new biomarkers to evaluate the clinical condition and provide new directions for treatment. Methods: A total of 44 cytokines/chemokines in the cerebrospinal fluid of 10 non-paraneoplastic patients and nine controls were measured. We selected some of the cytokines/chemokines that significantly increased in patients. Six selected cytokines/chemokines, including IL-10, CXCL10, CCL22, CCL3, IL-7, TNF-α, and three previously reported (IL-2, IL-6, and IL-17A), were measured in seven other patients who provided repeat samples. We compared their levels and explored correlations with severity of disease and antibody titers. Results: The levels of Th1 axis (CXCL10, TNF-α, IFN-γ, CCL3), Th2 axis (CCL1, CCL8, CCL17, CCL22), Treg axis (IL-10), Th17 axis (IL-7), and B cell axis (CXCL13) cytokines, as well as IL-12 p40 and IL-16, were significantly higher in patients compared to those in controls. The level of IL-2 was significantly decreased at the intermediate stage of treatment compared with that before treatment. The severity of disease is positively correlated with levels of CXCL10, CCL3, IL-10, CCL22, and IL-6. The level of CCL3 in the high antibody titer group was greater than that in the low antibody titer group. Conclusion: The pathogenesis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis involves T cell and B cell cytokines. T cells likely assist B cells to produce antibodies. IL-2, CXCL10, CCL3, IL-10, CCL22, and IL-6 may represent new biomarkers in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Given the lack of research on IL-10, CCL3, and CCL22 in this disease, it will be informative to explore their potential role in pathogenesis in larger studies.

Developing Consensus in the Assessment and Treatment Pathways for Autoimmune Encephalitis in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Children with a diagnosis of Autoimmune Encephalitis (AE) frequently require multi-disciplinary care in order to mobilize the assessment and treatment necessary for recovery. Institutional and provider practice differences often influence the diagnostic workup and treatment pathways made available to patients. There are a variety of provider coalitions in pediatric rheumatology, internal medicine, and neurology that have been making meaningful progress toward the development of consensus in assessment and treatment approaches to patient care. However, child psychiatry is currently underrepresented in this work in spite of the high psychiatric symptom burden seen in some young patients. The need for consensus is often made visible only with inter-institutional dialogue regarding patient care trajectories. We aim to review key updates in the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with autoimmune encephalitis during the acute phase, with or without catatonia, and to outline provider perspectives by comparing current treatment models in the United States, Canada, and Europe.

Association of Polymorphisms in Inflammatory Cytokines Encoding Genes With Anti-N-methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis in the Southern Han Chinese

Background: Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that occur within genes encoding inflammatory cytokines can result in quantitative or qualitative changes in their expression or functionality, potentially leading to the development of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis. This study sought to evaluate the relationship between SNPs in inflammatory cytokines genes and the incidence of anti-NMDAR encephalitis in the Southern Han Chinese. Methods: In total, we enrolled 107 patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis as well as 202 inpatient controls who had no first-degree relative with autoimmune diseases. Genotyping determination of all 309 patients was conducted for the IL-1β rs16944, IL-4 rs2243250, IL-4 rs2070874, IL-6 rs1800796, IL-10 rs1800872, and IL-17 rs2275913 gene SNPs. Results: We observed statistically significant differences in the frequencies of G allele in IL-1β rs16944 between anti-NMDAR encephalitis and controls (p = 0.017). Also, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-17 SNPs were not associated with the disease (p > 0.05). Conclusions: We found that patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis exhibit a distinct immunological profile, and we found that the decreased frequency of G allele in IL-1β rs16944 showed a protective role for anti-NMDAR encephalitis in the Southern Han Chinese.

Pro-inflammatory dopamine-2 receptor-specific T cells in paediatric movement and psychiatric disorders

Objectives

A dysregulated inflammatory response against the dopamine‐2 receptor (D2R) has been implicated in movement and psychiatric disorders. D2R antibodies were previously reported in a subset of these patients; however, the role of T cells in these disorders remains unknown. Our objective was to identify and characterise pro‐inflammatory D2R‐specific T cells in movement and psychiatric disorders.

Methods

Blood from paediatric patients with movement and psychiatric disorders of suspected autoimmune and neurodevelopmental aetiology (n = 24) and controls (n = 16) was cultured in vitro with a human D2R peptide library, and D2R‐specific T cells were identified by flow cytometric quantification of CD4⁺CD25⁺CD134⁺ T cells. Cytokine secretion was analysed using a cytometric bead array and ELISA. HLA genotypes were examined in D2R‐specific T‐cell‐positive patients. D2R antibody seropositivity was determined using a flow cytometry live cell‐based assay.

Results

Three immunodominant regions of D2R, amino acid (aa)121–131, aa171–181 and aa396–416, specifically activated CD4⁺ T cells in 8/24 patients. Peptides corresponding to these regions were predicted to bind with high affinity to the HLA of the eight positive patients and had also elicited the secretion of pro‐inflammatory cytokines IL‐2, IFN‐ γ, TNF, IL‐6, IL‐17A and IL‐17F. All eight patients were seronegative for D2R antibodies.

Conclusion

Autoreactive D2R‐specific T cells and a pro‐inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cytokine profile characterise a subset of paediatric patients with movement and psychiatric disorders, further underpinning the theory of immune dysregulation in these disorders. These findings offer new perspectives into the neuroinflammatory mechanisms of movement and psychiatric disorders and can influence patient diagnosis and treatment.

Anti-NMDAR encephalitis may develop concurrently with anti-MOG antibody-associated bilateral medial frontal cerebral cortical encephalitis and relapse with elevated CSF IL-6 and CXCL13

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis may develop concurrently with or separate from episodes of demyelinating disorders. Previously, we reported a patient with relapsing anti-NMDAR encephalitis who had presented with bilateral medial frontal cerebral cortical lesions at onset. Recently, we assessed CSF anti-myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) antibody for the first time in this case and found that the patient had been double positive for anti-NMDAR and anti-MOG antibodies from onset. The two antibody titres, CSF cells, IL-6 and CXCL13 were all elevated at onset. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis may develop concurrently with anti-MOG antibody-associated cortical encephalitis and relapse with elevated levels of CSF cytokines.

The B cell immunobiology that underlies CNS autoantibody-mediated diseases

A rapidly expanding and clinically distinct group of CNS diseases are caused by pathogenic autoantibodies that target neuroglial surface proteins. Despite immunotherapy, patients with these neuroglial surface autoantibody (NSAb)-mediated diseases often experience clinical relapse, high rates of long-term morbidity and adverse effects from the available medications. Fundamentally, the autoantigen-specific B cell lineage leads to production of the pathogenic autoantibodies. These autoantigen-specific B cells have been consistently identified in the circulation of patients with NSAb-mediated diseases, accompanied by high serum levels of autoantigen-specific antibodies. Early evidence suggests that these cells evade well-characterized B cell tolerance checkpoints. Nearer to the site of pathology, cerebrospinal fluid from patients with NSAb-mediated diseases contains high levels of autoantigen-specific B cells that are likely to account for the intrathecal synthesis of these autoantibodies. The characteristics of their immunoglobulin genes offer insights into the underlying immunobiology. In this Review, we summarize the emerging knowledge of B cells across the NSAb-mediated diseases. We review the evidence for the relative contributions of germinal centres and long-lived plasma cells as sources of autoantibodies, discuss data that indicate migration of B cells into the CNS and summarize insights into the underlying B cell pathogenesis that are provided by therapeutic effects.

Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis presenting as new onset refractory status epilepticus in COVID-19

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Autoimmune encephalitis and status epilepticus in COVID-19 can be challenging.

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Immunotherapy could be useful for anti-NMDAr encephalitis and SARS-Cov-2 infection.

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Cytokines storm could play a role for NORSE presentation in NDMA-R encephalitis.

Multifocal Stroke Complicating Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis (NMDARE) is an autoimmune form of encephalitis, first described in 2005 and now recognized as among the more common causes of encephalitis. While NMDARE can result in permanent neurologic deficits or even mortality, the prognosis in children is generally more favorable; 75–85% of children and teenagers achieve a full or substantial recovery. We describe here a preadolescent female, whose course of NMDARE was complicated by a unilateral stroke, resulting in permanent deficits. The imaging characteristics suggest a vascular (thrombotic) etiology. To our knowledge, this is the first report of stroke in the setting of NMDARE.

HMGB1/CXCL12-Mediated Immunity and Th17 Cells Might Underlie Highly Suspected Autoimmune Epilepsy in Elderly Individuals

PURPOSE

Late-onset epilepsy due to autoimmune dysfunction has been reported. However, definitive diagnosis requires positive antibody results. As a result, patients with negative antibody results, but presenting with classical manifestation of autoimmune epilepsy, may be managed as suspected cases. In this study, we aim to isolate and profile the concentration of cytokines/chemokines in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the serum to ascertain if they could act as alternative diagnostic biomarkers.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Twenty patients aged ≥50 years were considered in this study. Ten patients were diagnosed with suspected autoimmune epilepsy (sAE) based on clinic manifestation, electroencephalogram, magnetic resonance imaging, and with negative antibody results of the serum and the CSF. The equivalent control group exhibited neurological disorders due to non-inflammatory pathologies. Serum and CSF were analyzed for cytokines/chemokines concentration, including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-17, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand (CXCL)12 and CXCL13, as well as high-mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) and B cell activation factor (BAFF)).

RESULTS

The CSF levels of IL-6, IL-17, HMGB1, and CXCL12 were significantly higher in the sAE group than in the control group. There was no difference in the CSF levels of IL-10, CXCL13 and BAFF. The serum levels of HMGB1 and CXCL12 were elevated in the sAE group compared with the control group, and there was no statistical difference in the serum levels of IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, CXCL13, and BAFF between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows that cytokines/chemokines may act as alternative biomarkers for diagnosis of sAE. The activation of both HMGB1/CXCL12-mediated immunity and T helper cells 17 (Th17) cells may be playing a central role in the pathogenesis of sAE. We suggest that cytokines/chemokines be treated as adjuvant biomarkers, instead of solely relying on antibody screening test. However, a larger cohort in a prospective approach is required to validate our findings.

Neuronal damage and neuroinflammation markers in patients with autoimmune encephalitis and multiple sclerosis

Inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) are a diagnostic challenge to clinicians. Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is an important diagnostic consideration in patients with CNS inflammatory disorders; despite of a wide range of neuropsychiatric symptoms it should be diagnosed as soon as possible and the patient transferred to the neurologist. We studied a group of AE patients (n = 24) as compared to multiple sclerosis (MS, n = 61) and control (n = 19) groups. Detailed clinical pictures of patients are presented. We focused on relevant cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tests like protein levels, cytosis and oligoclonal bands, neuroinflammation indices (interleukin-6, soluble receptor of IL-6, neopterin, anti-ribosomal proteins antibodies) and markers of neurodegeneration (phosphorylated neurofilament heavy chain, pNfh). Elevated neopterin level was found in AE group as compared to the MS and control groups, while protein and pNfh were increased in both AE and MS groups. In the MS group, the cytosis and soluble receptor of IL-6 were higher as compared to the control group. Anti-ribosomal proteins antibodies were increased in a single patient with AE. High levels of protein were predictive of mortality in AE patients, while IL-6 and pNfh were elevated in severe AE patients. AE patients with paraneoplastic etiology demonstrated oligoclonal bands positivity. Taken together, our results suggest the neopterin as an additional marker of autoimmune brain inflammation. Though higher levels of protein, IL-6 and pNfh were found in patients with severe disease progression and death, prognostic values of these markers should be validated in larger cohorts of patients.

Innate Immunity in the Central Nervous System: A Missing Piece of the Autoimmune Encephalitis Puzzle?

The autoimmune encephalitides are a group of autoimmune conditions targeting the central nervous system and causing severe clinical symptoms including drug-resistant seizures, cognitive dysfunction and psychiatric disturbance. Although these disorders appear to be antibody mediated, the role of innate immune responses needs further clarification. Infiltrating monocytes and microglial proliferation at the site of pathology could contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease with resultant blood brain barrier dysfunction, and subsequent activation of adaptive immune response. Both innate and adaptive immune cells can produce pro-inflammatory molecules which can perpetuate ongoing neuroinflammation and drive ongoing seizure activity. Ultimately neurodegenerative changes can ensue with resultant long-term neurological sequelae that can impact on ongoing patient morbidity and quality of life, providing a potential target for future translational research.

Autoimmune receptor encephalitis in mice induced by active immunization with conformationally stabilized holoreceptors

Autoimmunity to membrane proteins in the central nervous system has been increasingly recognized as a cause of neuropsychiatric disease. A key recent development was the discovery of autoantibodies to N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in some cases of encephalitis, characterized by cognitive changes, memory loss, and seizures that could lead to long-term morbidity or mortality. Treatment approaches and experimental studies have largely focused on the pathogenic role of these autoantibodies. Passive antibody transfer to mice has provided useful insights but does not produce the full spectrum of the human disease. Here, we describe a de novo autoimmune mouse model of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Active immunization of immunocompetent mice with conformationally stabilized, native-like NMDA receptors induced a fulminant encephalitis, consistent with the behavioral and pathologic characteristics of human cases. Our results provide evidence for neuroinflammation and immune cell infiltration as components of the autoimmune response in mice. Use of transgenic mice indicated that mature T cells and antibody-producing cells were required for disease induction. This active immunization model may provide insights into disease induction and a platform for testing therapeutic approaches.

Higher CSF Levels of NLRP3 Inflammasome Is Associated With Poor Prognosis of Anti-N-methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is accepted as an autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a potent innate inflammatory mediator, can activate IL-1β and induce the migration of T helper cell into CNS. However, the possible role of NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis remains unclear. This study aims to determine the levels of NLRP3 and related cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients and to assess whether NLRP3 influences the clinical outcomes of this disease. Twenty-five patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis, 12 viral meningoencephalitis patients and 26 controls with non-inflammatory neurological diseases were recruited. CSF NLRP3 inflammasome, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Thirteen out of 25 patients were re-examed for the concentrations of NLRP3 and cytokines 6 months later. Our results showed significant increases of CSF NLRP3 inflammasome, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17 in anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients. There were positive correlations between CSF NLRP3 inflammasome and cytokines in anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients. There was also a positive correlation between maximum modified Rankin Scale (mRS) scores and CSF NLRP3 inflammasome in anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients. During follow-up, the decrease of mRS was positively correlated with the decrease of CSF NLRP3 inflammasomes. These results suggested that the level of CSF NLRP3 inflammasome could represent the severity of anti-NMDAR encephalitis and the reduction of CSF NLRP3 inflammasome could act as an indicator for the prognosis of this disease.

Elevated Serum and Cerebrospinal Fluid CD138 in Patients With Anti-N-Methyl-d-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis

Background

CD138 (also known as syndecan-1) is an important component of endothelial cell glycocalyx, and it is reportedly involved in negative regulation of various inflammatory processes. The clinical implications of circulating and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) soluble CD138 (sCD138) in patients with Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis remain unclear.

Objective

The aim of the current study was to investigate associations between serum and CSF sCD138 levels in anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients.

Methods

The participants enrolled in the study included 27 with anti-NMDAR encephalitis, 11 with viral meningoencephalitis, and 22 controls. At acute stage and 3 to 6-month follow-up time-points, sCD138, tumor necrosis factor-α, matrix metalloproteinase-2, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in serum and CSF were measured in all participants via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays.

Results

Serum and CSF levels of sCD138 were significantly increased in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Furthermore, after 3–6 months of follow-up CSF sCD138 levels were significantly decreased in anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients. Changes in sCD138 levels were significantly associated with amelioration of modified Rankin Scale scores in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis.

Conclusion

In anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients, high circulating, and CSF sCD138 is associated with inflammation and poor clinical prognosis. The present study suggests that sCD138 may be an informative biomarker of inflammation in anti-NMDAR encephalitis.

CXCL13 Is A Biomarker Of Anti-Leucine-Rich Glioma-Inactivated Protein 1 Encephalitis Patients

BACKGROUND

Although antibody-mediated immune responses are considered pathogenic and responsible for neural injury in anti-leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 (anti-LGI1) encephalitis, previous studies have indicated that cytokines and chemokines might play roles in the pathogenic process by serving as B cell enhancers. In this study, we detected the profiles of cytokines and chemokines in the cerebral fluid (CSF) and serum of patients with anti-LGI1 encephalitis to identify potential biomarkers.

METHODS

Sixteen patients diagnosed with anti-LGI1 encephalitis and nine patients diagnosed with noninflammatory neurologic disorders were included in the study. Cytokines and chemokines including IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, CXCL12, CXCL13, BAFF and HMGB1 in serum and CSF were measured.

RESULTS

The serum and CSF levels of CXCL13 were significantly higher in patients with anti-LGI1 encephalitis (36.32±34.71 pg/mL and 2.23±2.41 pg/mL, respectively) than in controls (10.84±5.02 pg/mL and 0.34±0.21 pg/mL, respectively). There was no significant difference in serum or CSF levels of IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, CXCL12, BAFF and HMGB1 between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

CXCL13 is a potential biomarker of active inflammation in anti-LGI1 encephalitis. The distinctive response of cytokines and chemokines might be closely linked to the mechanisms underlying this condition.