1
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Cosgrove DJ. Structure and growth of plant cell walls. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2024; 25:340-358. [PMID: 38102449 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-023-00691-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant cells build nanofibrillar walls that are central to plant growth, morphogenesis and mechanics. Starting from simple sugars, three groups of polysaccharides, namely, cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectins, with very different physical properties are assembled by the cell to make a strong yet extensible wall. This Review describes the physics of wall growth and its regulation by cellular processes such as cellulose production by cellulose synthase, modulation of wall pH by plasma membrane H+-ATPase, wall loosening by expansin and signalling by plant hormones such as auxin and brassinosteroid. In addition, this Review discusses the nuanced roles, properties and interactions of cellulose, matrix polysaccharides and cell wall proteins and describes how wall stress and wall loosening cooperatively result in cell wall growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
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2
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Saffer AM, Baskin TI, Verma A, Stanislas T, Oldenbourg R, Irish VF. Cellulose assembles into helical bundles of uniform handedness in cell walls with abnormal pectin composition. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 116:855-870. [PMID: 37548081 PMCID: PMC10592269 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant cells and organs grow into a remarkable diversity of shapes, as directed by cell walls composed primarily of polysaccharides such as cellulose and multiple structurally distinct pectins. The properties of the cell wall that allow for precise control of morphogenesis are distinct from those of the individual polysaccharide components. For example, cellulose, the primary determinant of cell morphology, is a chiral macromolecule that can self-assemble in vitro into larger-scale structures of consistent chirality, and yet most plant cells do not display consistent chirality in their growth. One interesting exception is the Arabidopsis thaliana rhm1 mutant, which has decreased levels of the pectin rhamnogalacturonan-I and causes conical petal epidermal cells to grow with a left-handed helical twist. Here, we show that in rhm1 the cellulose is bundled into large macrofibrils, unlike the evenly distributed microfibrils of the wild type. This cellulose bundling becomes increasingly severe over time, consistent with cellulose being synthesized normally and then self-associating into macrofibrils. We also show that in the wild type, cellulose is oriented transversely, whereas in rhm1 mutants, the cellulose forms right-handed helices that can account for the helical morphology of the petal cells. Our results indicate that when the composition of pectin is altered, cellulose can form cellular-scale chiral structures in vivo, analogous to the helicoids formed in vitro by cellulose nano-crystals. We propose that an important emergent property of the interplay between rhamnogalacturonan-I and cellulose is to permit the assembly of nonbundled cellulose structures, providing plants flexibility to orient cellulose and direct morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Saffer
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06520, USA
| | - Tobias I Baskin
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts, 611 N. Pleasant St, Amherst, Massachusetts, 01003, USA
| | - Amitabh Verma
- Marine Biological Laboratories, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 02543, USA
| | - Thomas Stanislas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRAE, CNRS, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Rudolf Oldenbourg
- Marine Biological Laboratories, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 02543, USA
| | - Vivian F Irish
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06520, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06520, USA
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3
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Thimm JC, Beketow E, Thiem J. Studies of carbohydrate-carbohydrate-interactions by atomic force microscopy employing functionalized 4-acetylthio-butyl glucopyranosides. Carbohydr Res 2022; 521:108649. [PMID: 36037650 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2022.108649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
By Fischer glycosylation both anomers of 4-chlorobutyl gluco-as well as galactopyranosides were obtained and transformed into the corresponding 4-acetylthio-butyl glycopyranosides. Dependent on the precursors two straightforward routes were followed to obtain the appropriate 3-O-sulfated derivatives. Unsubstituted and sulfated glucopyranosides were attached to gold surfaces a gold tips. Their interactions were studied using atomic force microscopy for simulations of intercellular glycoside-based interactions and discussed in-depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian C Thimm
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Eugen Beketow
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joachim Thiem
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146, Hamburg, Germany.
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4
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Ishida K, Yokoyama R. Reconsidering the function of the xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase family. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2022; 135:145-156. [PMID: 35000024 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-021-01361-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Plants possess an outer cell layer called the cell wall. This matrix comprises various molecules, such as polysaccharides and proteins, and serves a wide array of physiologically important functions. This structure is not static but rather flexible in response to the environment. One of the factors responsible for this plasticity is the xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH) family, which cleaves and reconnects xyloglucan molecules. Since xyloglucan molecules have been hypothesised to tether cellulose microfibrils forming the main load-bearing network in the primary cell wall, XTHs have been thought to play a central role in cell wall loosening for plant cell expansion. However, multiple lines of recent evidence have questioned this classic model. Nevertheless, reverse genetic analyses have proven the biological importance of XTHs; therefore, a major challenge at present is to reconsider the role of XTHs in planta. Recent advances in analytical techniques have allowed for gathering rich information on the structure of the primary cell wall. Thus, the integration of accumulated knowledge in current XTH studies may offer a turning point for unveiling the precise functions of XTHs. In the present review, we redefine the biological function of the XTH family based on the recent architectural model of the cell wall. We highlight three key findings regarding this enzyme family: (1) XTHs are not strictly required for cell wall loosening during plant cell expansion but play vital roles in response to specific biotic or abiotic stresses; (2) in addition to their transglycosylase activity, the hydrolase activity of XTHs is involved in physiological benefits; and (3) XTHs can recognise a wide range of polysaccharides other than xyloglucans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konan Ishida
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QE, UK
| | - Ryusuke Yokoyama
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan.
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5
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Xu Y, Liu G, Ren Y, Li X, Yu J, Guo J, Yuan J. The change of rheological property in Tan mutton tissue during storage. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.15622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuqian Xu
- School of Food and Wine Ningxia University Yinchuan China
| | - Guishan Liu
- School of Food and Wine Ningxia University Yinchuan China
| | - Yingchun Ren
- School of Food and Wine Ningxia University Yinchuan China
| | - Xiaorui Li
- School of Food and Wine Ningxia University Yinchuan China
| | - Jiangyong Yu
- School of Food and Wine Ningxia University Yinchuan China
| | - Jiajun Guo
- School of Food and Wine Ningxia University Yinchuan China
| | - Jiangtao Yuan
- School of Food and Wine Ningxia University Yinchuan China
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6
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Liu G, Liu Y, Yan S, Li J. Acetic acid reducing the softening of lotus rhizome during heating by regulating the chelate-soluble polysaccharides. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 240:116209. [PMID: 32475543 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Lotus rhizomes were used to study on the relationship between the cell wall polysaccharides and cooked texture by adding acetic acid. Hardness and scanning electron microscopy results showed that acetic acid treatment can maintain higher hardness and the integrity of the cell wall. Then, the cell walls were sequentially extracted and divided into water-soluble fraction, chelate-soluble fraction (CSF), sodium carbonate-soluble fraction and hemicellulose fraction. The pectin fraction contents, monosaccharides composition, esterification degree and sugar ratios in different groups were evaluated, the results showed that acetic acid increased the total amount of CSF, decreased the esterification degree and less side chain compared that in the solely thermal treatment group. The nanostructures showed that acetic acid treatment maintained longer chain and destroy helical structure of CSF backbone. This work helps us to demonstrate the relationship between polysaccharides structure and cooked texture, and further control the plant-based vegetables processing texture in food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gongji Liu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China; Aquatic Vegetable Preservation and Processing Technology Engineering Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanzhao Liu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China; Aquatic Vegetable Preservation and Processing Technology Engineering Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Shoulei Yan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China; Aquatic Vegetable Preservation and Processing Technology Engineering Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jie Li
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China; Aquatic Vegetable Preservation and Processing Technology Engineering Center of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
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7
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High-Resolution Imaging of Cellulose Organization in Cell Walls by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2020. [PMID: 32617938 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0621-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) is a powerful tool for analyzing surface structures of biological and nonbiological samples. However, when it is used to study fine structures of nanometer-sized microfibrils of epidermal cell walls, one often encounters tremendous challenges to acquire clear and undistorted images because of two major issues: (1) Preparation of samples suitable for high resolution imaging; due to the delicateness of some plant materials, such as onion epidermal cell walls, many things can happen during sample processing, which subsequently result in damaged samples or introduce artifacts. (2) Difficulties to acquire clear images of samples which are electron-beam sensitive and prone to charging artifacts at magnifications over 100,000×. In this chapter we described detailed procedures for sample preparation and conditions for high-resolution FESEM imaging of onion epidermal cell walls. The methods can be readily adapted for other wall materials.
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8
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Yilmaz N, Kodama Y, Numata K. Revealing the Architecture of the Cell Wall in Living Plant Cells by Bioimaging and Enzymatic Degradation. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21:95-103. [PMID: 31496226 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b00979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Plant cell walls consist mostly of crystalline cellulose fibrils embedded in a matrix of complex polysaccharides, but information on their morphological features has generally been limited to that obtained from nonliving plant specimens. Here, we characterized the primary cell wall of a living plant cell (from the tobacco BY-2 suspension culture) at nanometer resolution using high-speed atomic force microscopy and at micrometer resolution using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Our results showed aligned and disordered cellulose fibrils coexisting in the outermost layer of the cell wall. We investigated the orientation of the aligned cellulose fibrils in the outer lamellae of the cell wall of living plant cells after removing cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin by enzymatic degradation to make the cellulose fibrils more visible and, accordingly, to reveal the structure of the nanoachitecture formed by these fibrils within the cell wall. We observed that the cellulose fibrils in the outermost layer were usually oriented close to the direction of cell growth, whereas the orientation of the cellulose fibrils in the successive lamellae further inward changed randomly. Such organization should be crucial to render the plant cell wall both rigid and flexible. This finding provides insight not only into the structure of the functional plant cell wall but also into its growth mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neval Yilmaz
- Biomacromolecules Research Team , RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science , Wako , Saitama , Japan
| | - Yutaka Kodama
- Biomacromolecules Research Team , RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science , Wako , Saitama , Japan
- Center for Bioscience Research and Education , Utsunomiya University , Tochigi , Japan
| | - Keiji Numata
- Biomacromolecules Research Team , RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science , Wako , Saitama , Japan
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9
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A nanostructural view of the cell wall disassembly process during fruit ripening and postharvest storage by atomic force microscopy. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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10
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Abstract
The study of biological samples is one of the most attractive and innovative fields of application of atomic force microscopy AFM. Recent breakthroughs in software and hardware have revolutionized this field and this paper reports on recent trends and describes examples of applications on biological samples. Originally developed for high-resolution imaging purposes, the AFM also has unique capabilities as a nano-indentor to probe the dynamic visco-elastic material properties of living cells in culture. In particular, AFM elastography combines imaging and indentation modalities to map the spatial distribution of cell mechanical properties, which in turn reflect the structure and function of the underlying structure. This paper describes the progress and development of atomic force microscopy as applied to animal and plant cell structures.
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11
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Saffer AM. Expanding roles for pectins in plant development. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 60:910-923. [PMID: 29727062 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Pectins are complex cell wall polysaccharides important for many aspects of plant development. Recent studies have discovered extensive physical interactions between pectins and other cell wall components, implicating pectins in new molecular functions. Pectins are often localized in spatially-restricted patterns, and some of these non-uniform pectin distributions contribute to multiple aspects of plant development, including the morphogenesis of cells and organs. Furthermore, a growing number of mutants affecting cell wall composition have begun to reveal the distinct contributions of different pectins to plant development. This review discusses the interactions of pectins with other cell wall components, the functions of pectins in controlling cellular morphology, and how non-uniform pectin composition can be an important determinant of developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Saffer
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, OML260, 266 Whitney Ave, New Haven, CT 06520-8104, USA
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12
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Ye D, Kiemle SN, Rongpipi S, Wang X, Wang C, Cosgrove DJ, Gomez EW, Gomez ED. Resonant soft X-ray scattering reveals cellulose microfibril spacing in plant primary cell walls. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12449. [PMID: 30127533 PMCID: PMC6102304 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31024-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose microfibrils are crucial for many of the remarkable mechanical properties of primary cell walls. Nevertheless, many structural features of cellulose microfibril organization in cell walls are not yet fully described. Microscopy techniques provide direct visualization of cell wall organization, and quantification of some aspects of wall microstructure is possible through image processing. Complementary to microscopy techniques, scattering yields structural information in reciprocal space over large sample areas. Using the onion epidermal wall as a model system, we introduce resonant soft X-ray scattering (RSoXS) to directly quantify the average interfibril spacing. Tuning the X-ray energy to the calcium L-edge enhances the contrast between cellulose and pectin due to the localization of calcium ions to homogalacturonan in the pectin matrix. As a consequence, RSoXS profiles reveal an average center-to-center distance between cellulose microfibrils or microfibril bundles of about 20 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Ye
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Sarah N Kiemle
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Sintu Rongpipi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Xuan Wang
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Cheng Wang
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA, 94720, United States
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Esther W Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
| | - Enrique D Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States.
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13
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Jarvis MC. Structure of native cellulose microfibrils, the starting point for nanocellulose manufacture. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2018; 376:rsta.2017.0045. [PMID: 29277742 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2017.0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
There is an emerging consensus that higher plants synthesize cellulose microfibrils that initially comprise 18 chains. However, the mean number of chains per microfibril in situ is usually greater than 18, sometimes much greater. Microfibrils from woody tissues of conifers, grasses and dicotyledonous plants, and from organs like cotton hairs, all differ in detailed structure and mean diameter. Diameters increase further when aggregated microfibrils are isolated. Because surface chains differ, the tensile properties of the cellulose may be augmented by increasing microfibril diameter. Association of microfibrils with anionic polysaccharides in primary cell walls and mucilages leads to in vivo mechanisms of disaggregation that may be relevant to the preparation of nanofibrillar cellulose products. For the preparation of nanocrystalline celluloses, the key issue is the nature and axial spacing of disordered domains at which axial scission can be initiated. These disordered domains do not, as has often been suggested, take the form of large blocks occupying much of the length of the microfibril. They are more likely to be located at chain ends or at places where the microfibril has been mechanically damaged, but their structure and the reasons for their sensitivity to acid hydrolysis need better characterization.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'New horizons for cellulose nanotechnology'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Jarvis
- College of Science and Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
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14
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Guedes FTP, Laurans F, Quemener B, Assor C, Lainé-Prade V, Boizot N, Vigouroux J, Lesage-Descauses MC, Leplé JC, Déjardin A, Pilate G. Non-cellulosic polysaccharide distribution during G-layer formation in poplar tension wood fibers: abundance of rhamnogalacturonan I and arabinogalactan proteins but no evidence of xyloglucan. PLANTA 2017; 246:857-878. [PMID: 28699115 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2737-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
RG-I and AGP, but not XG, are associated to the building of the peculiar mechanical properties of tension wood. Hardwood trees produce tension wood (TW) with specific mechanical properties to cope with environmental cues. Poplar TW fibers have an additional cell wall layer, the G-layer responsible for TW mechanical properties. We investigated, in two poplar hybrid species, the molecules potentially involved in the building of TW mechanical properties. First, we evaluated the distribution of the different classes of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during xylem fiber differentiation, using immunolocalization. In parallel, G-layers were isolated and their polysaccharide composition determined. These complementary approaches provided information on the occurrence of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during G-fiber differentiation. We found no evidence of the presence of xyloglucan (XG) in poplar G-layers, whereas arabinogalactan proteins (AGP) and rhamnogalacturonan type I pectins (RG-I) were abundant, with an apparent progressive loss of RG-I side chains during G-layer maturation. Similarly, the intensity of immunolabeling signals specific for glucomannans and glucuronoxylans varies during G-layer maturation. RG-I and AGP are best candidate matrix components to be responsible for TW mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Carole Assor
- BIA, INRA, 44316, Nantes, France
- IATE, INRA, 34060, Montpellier, France
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15
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Simultaneous influence of pectin and xyloglucan on structure and mechanical properties of bacterial cellulose composites. Carbohydr Polym 2017; 174:970-979. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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16
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Zheng Y, Cosgrove DJ, Ning G. High-Resolution Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) Imaging of Cellulose Microfibril Organization in Plant Primary Cell Walls. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2017; 23:1048-1054. [PMID: 28835298 DOI: 10.1017/s143192761701251x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We have used field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) to study the high-resolution organization of cellulose microfibrils in onion epidermal cell walls. We frequently found that conventional "rule of thumb" conditions for imaging of biological samples did not yield high-resolution images of cellulose organization and often resulted in artifacts or distortions of cell wall structure. Here we detail our method of one-step fixation and dehydration with 100% ethanol, followed by critical point drying, ultrathin iridium (Ir) sputter coating (3 s), and FESEM imaging at a moderate accelerating voltage (10 kV) with an In-lens detector. We compare results obtained with our improved protocol with images obtained with samples processed by conventional aldehyde fixation, graded dehydration, sputter coating with Au, Au/Pd, or carbon, and low-voltage FESEM imaging. The results demonstrated that our protocol is simpler, causes little artifact, and is more suitable for high-resolution imaging of cell wall cellulose microfibrils whereas such imaging is very challenging by conventional methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunzhen Zheng
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Gang Ning
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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17
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Acetic acid pretreatment improves the hardness of cooked potato slices. Food Chem 2017; 228:204-210. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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18
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Brulé V, Rafsanjani A, Pasini D, Western TL. Hierarchies of plant stiffness. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 250:79-96. [PMID: 27457986 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Plants must meet mechanical as well as physiological and reproductive requirements for survival. Management of internal and external stresses is achieved through their unique hierarchical architecture. Stiffness is determined by a combination of morphological (geometrical) and compositional variables that vary across multiple length scales ranging from the whole plant to organ, tissue, cell and cell wall levels. These parameters include, among others, organ diameter, tissue organization, cell size, density and turgor pressure, and the thickness and composition of cell walls. These structural parameters and their consequences on plant stiffness are reviewed in the context of work on stems of the genetic reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis), and the suitability of Arabidopsis as a model system for consistent investigation of factors controlling plant stiffness is put forward. Moving beyond Arabidopsis, the presence of morphological parameters causing stiffness gradients across length-scales leads to beneficial emergent properties such as increased load-bearing capacity and reversible actuation. Tailoring of plant stiffness for old and new purposes in agriculture and forestry can be achieved through bioengineering based on the knowledge of the morphological and compositional parameters of plant stiffness in combination with gene identification through the use of genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronique Brulé
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 1205 Docteur Penfield Ave., Montreal, QC, H3A 1B1, Canada.
| | - Ahmad Rafsanjani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, 817 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC, H3A OC3, Canada.
| | - Damiano Pasini
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, 817 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC, H3A OC3, Canada.
| | - Tamara L Western
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 1205 Docteur Penfield Ave., Montreal, QC, H3A 1B1, Canada.
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Viell J, Inouye H, Szekely NK, Frielinghaus H, Marks C, Wang Y, Anders N, Spiess AC, Makowski L. Multi-scale processes of beech wood disintegration and pretreatment with 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate/water mixtures. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2016; 9:7. [PMID: 26752999 PMCID: PMC4706671 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-015-0422-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The valorization of biomass for chemicals and fuels requires efficient pretreatment. One effective strategy involves the pretreatment with ionic liquids which enables enzymatic saccharification of wood within a few hours under mild conditions. This pretreatment strategy is, however, limited by water and the ionic liquids are rather expensive. The scarce understanding of the involved effects, however, challenges the design of alternative pretreatment concepts. This work investigates the multi length-scale effects of pretreatment of wood in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (EMIMAc) in mixtures with water using spectroscopy, X-ray and neutron scattering. RESULTS The structure of beech wood is disintegrated in EMIMAc/water mixtures with a water content up to 8.6 wt%. Above 10.7 wt%, the pretreated wood is not disintegrated, but still much better digested enzymatically compared to native wood. In both regimes, component analysis of the solid after pretreatment shows an extraction of few percent of lignin and hemicellulose. In concentrated EMIMAc, xylan is extracted more efficiently and lignin is defunctionalized. Corresponding to the disintegration at macroscopic scale, SANS and XRD show isotropy and a loss of crystallinity in the pretreated wood, but without distinct reflections of type II cellulose. Hence, the microfibril assembly is decrystallized into rather amorphous cellulose within the cell wall. CONCLUSIONS The molecular and structural changes elucidate the processes of wood pretreatment in EMIMAc/water mixtures. In the aqueous regime with >10.7 wt% water in EMIMAc, xyloglucan and lignin moieties are extracted, which leads to coalescence of fibrillary cellulose structures. Dilute EMIMAc/water mixtures thus resemble established aqueous pretreatment concepts. In concentrated EMIMAc, the swelling due to decrystallinization of cellulose, dissolution of cross-linking xylan, and defunctionalization of lignin releases the mechanical stress to result in macroscopic disintegration of cells. The remaining cell wall constituents of lignin and hemicellulose, however, limit a recrystallization of the solvated cellulose. These pretreatment mechanisms are beyond common pretreatment concepts and pave the way for a formulation of mechanistic requirements of pretreatment with simpler pretreatment liquors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörn Viell
- />Aachener Verfahrenstechnik-Process Systems Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Turmstr. 46, 52064 Aachen, Germany
- />JARA-ENERGY, Jülich, Germany
| | - Hideyo Inouye
- />Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Noemi K. Szekely
- />Jülich Centre for Neutron Science, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Outstation at MLZ, Lichtenbergstraße 1, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Henrich Frielinghaus
- />Jülich Centre for Neutron Science, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Outstation at MLZ, Lichtenbergstraße 1, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Caroline Marks
- />Aachener Verfahrenstechnik-Process Systems Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Turmstr. 46, 52064 Aachen, Germany
| | - Yumei Wang
- />Aachener Verfahrenstechnik-Enzyme Process Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringer Weg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Nico Anders
- />Aachener Verfahrenstechnik-Enzyme Process Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringer Weg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Antje C. Spiess
- />Aachener Verfahrenstechnik-Enzyme Process Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringer Weg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
- />DWI-Leibniz Institute für Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 40, 52072 Aachen, Germany
- />Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Gaußstr. 17, 38102 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lee Makowski
- />Bioengineering Department and Chemistry and Chemical Biology Department, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115 USA
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Bidhendi AJ, Geitmann A. Relating the mechanics of the primary plant cell wall to morphogenesis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:449-61. [PMID: 26689854 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Regulation of the mechanical properties of the cell wall is a key parameter used by plants to control the growth behavior of individual cells and tissues. Modulation of the mechanical properties occurs through the control of the biochemical composition and the degree and nature of interlinking between cell wall polysaccharides. Preferentially oriented cellulose microfibrils restrict cellular expansive growth, but recent evidence suggests that this may not be the trigger for anisotropic growth. Instead, non-uniform softening through the modulation of pectin chemistry may be an initial step that precedes stress-induced stiffening of the wall through cellulose. Here we briefly review the major cell wall polysaccharides and their implication for plant cell wall mechanics that need to be considered in order to study the growth behavior of the primary plant cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir J Bidhendi
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, Département de sciences biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - Anja Geitmann
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, Département de sciences biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H1X 2B2, Canada
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21
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Application of X-ray and neutron small angle scattering techniques to study the hierarchical structure of plant cell walls: a review. Carbohydr Polym 2015; 125:120-34. [PMID: 25857967 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Plant cell walls present an extremely complex structure of hierarchically assembled cellulose microfibrils embedded in a multi-component matrix. The biosynthesis process determines the mechanism of cellulose crystallisation and assembly, as well as the interaction of cellulose with other cell wall components. Thus, a knowledge of cellulose microfibril and bundle architecture, and the structural role of matrix components, is crucial for understanding cell wall functional and technological roles. Small angle scattering techniques, combined with complementary methods, provide an efficient approach to characterise plant cell walls, covering a broad and relevant size range while minimising experimental artefacts derived from sample treatment. Given the system complexity, approaches such as component extraction and the use of plant cell wall analogues are typically employed to enable the interpretation of experimental results. This review summarises the current research status on the characterisation of the hierarchical structure of plant cell walls using small angle scattering techniques.
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22
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Griffiths JS, Tsai AYL, Xue H, Voiniciuc C, Sola K, Seifert GJ, Mansfield SD, Haughn GW. SALT-OVERLY SENSITIVE5 Mediates Arabidopsis Seed Coat Mucilage Adherence and Organization through Pectins. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 165:991-1004. [PMID: 24808103 PMCID: PMC4081351 DOI: 10.1104/pp.114.239400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between cell wall polymers are critical for establishing cell wall integrity and cell-cell adhesion. Here, we exploit the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seed coat mucilage system to examine cell wall polymer interactions. On hydration, seeds release an adherent mucilage layer strongly attached to the seed in addition to a nonadherent layer that can be removed by gentle agitation. Rhamnogalacturonan I (RG I) is the primary component of adherent mucilage, with homogalacturonan, cellulose, and xyloglucan constituting minor components. Adherent mucilage contains rays composed of cellulose and pectin that extend above the center of each epidermal cell. CELLULOSE SYNTHASE5 (CESA5) and the arabinogalactan protein SALT-OVERLY SENSITIVE5 (SOS5) are required for mucilage adherence through unknown mechanisms. SOS5 has been suggested to mediate adherence by influencing cellulose biosynthesis. We, therefore, investigated the relationship between SOS5 and CESA5. cesa5-1 seeds show reduced cellulose, RG I, and ray size in adherent mucilage. In contrast, sos5-2 seeds have wild-type levels of cellulose but completely lack adherent RG I and rays. Thus, relative to each other, cesa5-1 has a greater effect on cellulose, whereas sos5-2 mainly affects pectin. The double mutant cesa5-1 sos5-2 has a much more severe loss of mucilage adherence, suggesting that SOS5 and CESA5 function independently. Double-mutant analyses with mutations in MUCILAGE MODIFIED2 and FLYING SAUCER1 that reduce mucilage release through pectin modification suggest that only SOS5 influences pectin-mediated adherence. Together, these findings suggest that SOS5 mediates adherence through pectins and does so independently of but in concert with cellulose synthesized by CESA5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan S Griffiths
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
| | - Allen Yi-Lun Tsai
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
| | - Hui Xue
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
| | - Cătălin Voiniciuc
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
| | - Krešimir Sola
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
| | - Georg J Seifert
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
| | - George W Haughn
- Departments of Botany (J.S.G., A.Y.-L.T., C.V., K.S., G.W.H.) andWood Science (S.D.M.), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4; andDepartment of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, A-1990 Vienna, Austria (H.X., G.J.S.)
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Liaotrakoon W, Van Buggenhout S, Christiaens S, Houben K, De Clercq N, Dewettinck K, Hendrickx ME. An explorative study on the cell wall polysaccharides in the pulp and peel of dragon fruits (Hylocereus spp.). Eur Food Res Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-013-1997-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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24
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Ratnayake RMS, Sims IM, Newman RH, Melton LD. Effects of cooking on the cell walls (dietary fiber) of 'Scarlet Warren' winter squash ( Cucurbita maxima ) studied by polysaccharide linkage analysis and solid-state (13)C NMR. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:7186-7193. [PMID: 21604813 DOI: 10.1021/jf104784g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Cell wall polysaccharides of 'Scarlet Warren' winter squash ( Cucurbita maxima ) were investigated before and after thermal processing. Linkage analysis of polysaccharides was done by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The linkage analysis showed the cell wall polysaccharide compositions of raw and cooked squash were similar. The total pectic polysaccharides (galacturonan, rhamnogalacturonan, arabinan, and arabinogalactan) contents of the cell walls of both raw and cooked squash were 39 mol %. The amounts of pectic polysaccharides and xyloglucan in the cell walls of squash showed little alteration on heating. The cellulose content of the raw and cooked cell walls was relatively high at 47 mol %, whereas the xyloglucan content was low at 4 mol %. Solid-state (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy techniques were used to examine the molecular motion of the polysaccharides in the cell walls. The mobility of highly flexible galactan depends on the water content of the sample, but no difference was seen between raw and cooked samples. Likewise, the mobility of semimobile pectic polysaccharides was apparently unaltered by cooking. No change was detected in the rigid cellulose microfibrils on cooking.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Sunil Ratnayake
- Food Science, Department of Chemistry, University of Auckland , Auckland, New Zealand
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25
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Houben K, Jolie RP, Fraeye I, Van Loey AM, Hendrickx ME. Comparative study of the cell wall composition of broccoli, carrot, and tomato: Structural characterization of the extractable pectins and hemicelluloses. Carbohydr Res 2011; 346:1105-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2011.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 03/29/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Roach MJ, Mokshina NY, Badhan A, Snegireva AV, Hobson N, Deyholos MK, Gorshkova TA. Development of cellulosic secondary walls in flax fibers requires beta-galactosidase. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 156:1351-63. [PMID: 21596948 PMCID: PMC3135967 DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.172676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Bast (phloem) fibers, tension wood fibers, and other cells with gelatinous-type secondary walls are rich in crystalline cellulose. In developing bast fibers of flax (Linum usitatissimum), a galactan-enriched matrix (Gn-layer) is gradually modified into a mature cellulosic gelatinous-layer (G-layer), which ultimately comprises most of the secondary cell wall. Previous studies have correlated this maturation process with expression of a putative β-galactosidase. Here, we demonstrate that β-galactosidase activity is in fact necessary for the dynamic remodeling of polysaccharides that occurs during normal secondary wall development in flax fibers. We found that developing stems of transgenic (LuBGAL-RNAi) flax with reduced β-galactosidase activity had lower concentrations of free Gal and had significant reductions in the thickness of mature cellulosic G-layers compared with controls. Conversely, Gn-layers, labeled intensively by the galactan-specific LM5 antibody, were greatly expanded in LuBGAL-RNAi transgenic plants. Gross morphology and stem anatomy, including the thickness of bast fiber walls, were otherwise unaffected by silencing of β-galactosidase transcripts. These results demonstrate a specific requirement for β-galactosidase in hydrolysis of galactans during formation of cellulosic G-layers. Transgenic lines with reduced β-galactosidase activity also had biochemical and spectroscopic properties consistent with a reduction in cellulose crystallinity. We further demonstrated that the tensile strength of normal flax stems is dependent on β-galactosidase-mediated development of the phloem fiber G-layer. Thus, the mechanical strength that typifies flax stems is dependent on a thick, cellulosic G-layer, which itself depends on β-galactosidase activity within the precursor Gn-layer. These observations demonstrate a novel role for matrix polysaccharides in cellulose deposition; the relevance of these observations to the development of cell walls in other species is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Michael K. Deyholos
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9 (M.J.R., A.B., N.H., M.K.D.); Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan 420111, Russia (N.Y.M., A.V.S., T.A.G.)
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Sensing the structural differences in cellulose from apple and bacterial cell wall materials by Raman and FT-IR spectroscopy. SENSORS 2011; 11:5543-60. [PMID: 22163913 PMCID: PMC3231429 DOI: 10.3390/s110605543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2011] [Revised: 04/03/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy was used for assessment of structural differences of celluloses of various origins. Investigated celluloses were: bacterial celluloses cultured in presence of pectin and/or xyloglucan, as well as commercial celluloses and cellulose extracted from apple parenchyma. FT-IR spectra were used to estimate of the Iβ content, whereas Raman spectra were used to evaluate the degree of crystallinity of the cellulose. The crystallinity index (XCRAMAN%) varied from −25% for apple cellulose to 53% for microcrystalline commercial cellulose. Considering bacterial cellulose, addition of xyloglucan has an impact on the percentage content of cellulose Iβ. However, addition of only xyloglucan or only pectins to pure bacterial cellulose both resulted in a slight decrease of crystallinity. However, culturing bacterial cellulose in the presence of mixtures of xyloglucan and pectins results in an increase of crystallinity. The results confirmed that the higher degree of crystallinity, the broader the peak around 913 cm−1. Among all bacterial celluloses the bacterial cellulose cultured in presence of xyloglucan and pectin (BCPX) has the most similar structure to those observed in natural primary cell walls.
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28
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Richter S, Müssig J, Gierlinger N. Functional plant cell wall design revealed by the Raman imaging approach. PLANTA 2011; 233:763-72. [PMID: 21197544 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-010-1338-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2010] [Accepted: 12/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Using the Raman imaging approach, the optimization of the plant cell wall design was investigated on the micron level within different tissue types at different positions of a Phormium tenax leaf. Pectin and lignin distribution were visualized and the cellulose microfibril angle (MFA) of the cell walls was determined. A detailed analysis of the Raman spectra extracted from the selected regions, allowed a semi-quantitative comparison of the chemical composition of the investigated tissue types on the micron level. The cell corners of the parenchyma revealed almost pure pectin and the cell wall an amount of 38-49% thereof. Slight lignification was observed in the parenchyma and collenchyma in the top of the leaf and a high variability (7-44%) in the sclerenchyma. In the cell corners and in the cell wall of the sclerenchymatic fibres surrounding the vascular tissue, the highest lignification was observed, which can act as a barrier and protection of the vascular tissue. In the sclerenchyma high variable MFA (4°-40°) was detected, which was related with lignin variability. In the primary cell walls a constant high MFA (57°-58°) was found together with pectin. The different plant cell wall designs on the tissue and microlevel involve changes in chemical composition as well as cellulose microfibril alignment and are discussed and related according to the development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Richter
- Faculty 5/Biomimetics, Biological Materials, University of Applied Sciences Bremen, 28199, Bremen, Germany
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29
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Matthews JF, Bergenstråhle M, Beckham GT, Himmel ME, Nimlos MR, Brady JW, Crowley MF. High-Temperature Behavior of Cellulose I. J Phys Chem B 2011; 115:2155-66. [DOI: 10.1021/jp1106839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James F. Matthews
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, United States
| | - Malin Bergenstråhle
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gregg T. Beckham
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, United States
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, Boulder, Colorado, United States
| | - Michael E. Himmel
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, United States
| | - Mark R. Nimlos
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, United States
| | - John W. Brady
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States
| | - Michael F. Crowley
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, United States
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