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Schnyder SK, Molina JJ, Yamamoto R, Turner MS. Rational social distancing policy during epidemics with limited healthcare capacity. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1011533. [PMID: 37844111 PMCID: PMC10602387 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemics of infectious diseases posing a serious risk to human health have occurred throughout history. During recent epidemics there has been much debate about policy, including how and when to impose restrictions on behaviour. Policymakers must balance a complex spectrum of objectives, suggesting a need for quantitative tools. Whether health services might be 'overwhelmed' has emerged as a key consideration. Here we show how costly interventions, such as taxes or subsidies on behaviour, can be used to exactly align individuals' decision making with government preferences even when these are not aligned. In order to achieve this, we develop a nested optimisation algorithm of both the government intervention strategy and the resulting equilibrium behaviour of individuals. We focus on a situation in which the capacity of the healthcare system to treat patients is limited and identify conditions under which the disease dynamics respect the capacity limit. We find an extremely sharp drop in peak infections at a critical maximum infection cost in the government's objective function. This is in marked contrast to the gradual reduction of infections if individuals make decisions without government intervention. We find optimal interventions vary less strongly in time when interventions are costly to the government and that the critical cost of the policy switch depends on how costly interventions are.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon K. Schnyder
- Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro, Tokyo, Japan
| | - John J. Molina
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryoichi Yamamoto
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Matthew S. Turner
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Institute for Global Pandemic Planning, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
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2
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Schnyder SK, Molina JJ, Yamamoto R, Turner MS. Rational social distancing in epidemics with uncertain vaccination timing. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288963. [PMID: 37478107 PMCID: PMC10361534 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023] Open
Abstract
During epidemics people may reduce their social and economic activity to lower their risk of infection. Such social distancing strategies will depend on information about the course of the epidemic but also on when they expect the epidemic to end, for instance due to vaccination. Typically it is difficult to make optimal decisions, because the available information is incomplete and uncertain. Here, we show how optimal decision-making depends on information about vaccination timing in a differential game in which individual decision-making gives rise to Nash equilibria, and the arrival of the vaccine is described by a probability distribution. We predict stronger social distancing the earlier the vaccination is expected and also the more sharply peaked its probability distribution. In particular, equilibrium social distancing only meaningfully deviates from the no-vaccination equilibrium course if the vaccine is expected to arrive before the epidemic would have run its course. We demonstrate how the probability distribution of the vaccination time acts as a generalised form of discounting, with the special case of an exponential vaccination time distribution directly corresponding to regular exponential discounting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon K. Schnyder
- Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - John J. Molina
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryoichi Yamamoto
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Matthew S. Turner
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Institute for Global Pandemic Planning, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
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3
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Wang D, Bjørnstad ON, Lei T, Sun Y, Huo J, Hao Q, Zeng Z, Zhu S, Hallegatte S, Li R, Guan D, Stenseth NC. Supply chains create global benefits from improved vaccine accessibility. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1569. [PMID: 36944651 PMCID: PMC10030081 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37075-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Ensuring a more equitable distribution of vaccines worldwide is an effective strategy to control global pandemics and support economic recovery. We analyze the socioeconomic effects - defined as health gains, lockdown-easing effect, and supply-chain rebuilding benefit - of a set of idealized COVID-19 vaccine distribution scenarios. We find that an equitable vaccine distribution across the world would increase global economic benefits by 11.7% ($950 billion per year), compared to a scenario focusing on vaccinating the entire population within vaccine-producing countries first and then distributing vaccines to non-vaccine-producing countries. With limited doses among low-income countries, prioritizing the elderly who are at high risk of dying, together with the key front-line workforce who are at high risk of exposure is projected to be economically beneficial (e.g., 0.9%~3.4% annual GDP in India). Our results reveal how equitable distributions would cascade more protection of vaccines to people and ways to improve vaccine equity and accessibility globally through international collaboration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daoping Wang
- Department of Computer Science and Technology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- The World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ottar N Bjørnstad
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA
| | - Tianyang Lei
- Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yida Sun
- Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Jingwen Huo
- Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Hao
- Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhao Zeng
- College of Management and Economics, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shupeng Zhu
- Advanced Power and Energy Program, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Ruiyun Li
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Dabo Guan
- Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
- The Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Nils C Stenseth
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
- Centre for Pandemics and One Health Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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4
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Mühlhoff K. Convincing the "Herd" of immunity: Lessons from smallpox vaccination in 19 th century Germany. ECONOMICS AND HUMAN BIOLOGY 2022; 47:101193. [PMID: 36335767 DOI: 10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Although vaccination is a cost-effective way to control infectious diseases, it is often met with popular resistance. Studying smallpox in 19th century Germany, this paper explores how economic incentives contribute to this phenomenon. The paper adds to the literature by combining mathematical epidemiology and unpublished archival evidence from two German states - Baden and Wurttemberg. The two states are an intriguing case because their initial conditions and vaccination laws were similar. Despite this, Baden experienced lower smallpox prevalence and higher vaccination uptake than Wurttemberg. The epidemiological model predicts that incentives to vaccinate decline rapidly when immunization reduces prevalence. The archival evidence reveals that Baden offset this decline by creating a public vaccination system which reduced costs for vaccinees and vaccinators alike. This suggests that the high fixed costs of centralized immunization policies can be compensated by economies of scale and popular acceptance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Mühlhoff
- Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Economic History, Calle Madrid 126B, 28903 Getafe Madrid, Spain.
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5
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Gans JS. VACCINE HESITANCY, PASSPORTS, AND THE DEMAND FOR VACCINATION. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC REVIEW 2022; 64:IERE12609. [PMID: 36247112 PMCID: PMC9537792 DOI: 10.1111/iere.12609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Vaccine hesitancy is modeled as an endogenous decision within a behavioral epidemiological model with endogenous agent activity. It is shown that policy interventions that directly target costs associated with vaccine adoption may counter vaccine hesitancy whereas those that manipulate the utility of unvaccinated agents will either lead to the same or lower rates of vaccine adoption. This latter effect arises with vaccine passports whose effects are mitigated in equilibrium by reductions in viral/disease prevalence that themselves reduce the demand for vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua S. Gans
- Rotman School of ManagementUniversity of Toronto, Canada and NBER
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Goodkin-Gold M, Kremer M, Snyder CM, Williams H. Optimal vaccine subsidies for endemic diseases. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION 2022; 84:102840. [PMID: 35400771 PMCID: PMC8975799 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijindorg.2022.102840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In Goodkin-Gold et al. (2021), we analyzed optimal subsidies for a vaccine against an epidemic outbreak like Covid-19. This companion paper alters the underlying epidemiological model to suit endemic diseases requiring continuous vaccination of new cohorts-also suiting an epidemic like Covid-19 if, following Gans (2020), one assumes peaks are leveled by social distancing. We obtain qualitatively similar results: across market structures ranging from perfect competition to monopoly, the subsidy needed to induce first-best vaccination coverage on the private market is highest for moderately infectious diseases, which invite the most free riding; extremely infectious diseases drive more consumers to become vaccinated, attenuating externalities. Stylized calibrations to HIV, among other diseases, suggest that first-best subsidies can be exorbitantly high when suppliers have market power, rationalizing alternative policies observed in practice such as bulk purchases negotiated by the government on behalf of the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Kremer
- Department of Economics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | | | - Heidi Williams
- Department of Economics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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Toxvaerd F, Rowthorn R. On the management of population immunity. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC THEORY 2022; 204:105501. [PMID: 35702334 PMCID: PMC9186754 DOI: 10.1016/j.jet.2022.105501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This paper considers a susceptible-infected-recovered type model of infectious diseases, such as COVID-19 or swine flu, in which costly treatment or vaccination confers immunity on recovered individuals. Once immune, individuals indirectly protect the remaining susceptibles, who benefit from a measure of herd immunity. Treatment and vaccination directly induce such herd immunity, which builds up over time. Optimal treatment is shown to involve intervention at early stages of the epidemic, while optimal vaccination may defer intervention to intermediate stages. Thus, while treatment and vaccination have superficial similarities, their effects and desirability at different stages of the epidemic are different. Equilibrium vaccination is qualitatively similar to socially optimal vaccination, while equilibrium treatment differs in nature from socially optimal treatment. The optimal policies are compared to traditional non-economic public health interventions which rely on herd immunity thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavio Toxvaerd
- Faculty of Economics, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
- CEPR, United Kingdom
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8
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Boppart T, Harmenberg K, Krusell P, Olsson J. Integrated epi-econ assessment of vaccination. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC DYNAMICS & CONTROL 2022; 140:104308. [PMID: 35039700 PMCID: PMC8755642 DOI: 10.1016/j.jedc.2022.104308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Using an integrated epi-econ model, we compute the value of vaccines for Covid-19, both under a planner's solution and in competitive equilibrium. The specific model, developed in Boppart, Harmenberg, Hassler, Krusell, and Olsson (2020), factors in not just value-of-life aspects along with standard economic variables but also the value of leisure activities that rely on a social component. We find that the societal value of vaccination is large; we estimate that, translated into monetary terms, the value of vaccinating one young individual in the competitive equilibrium is $17,800. Externalities are large: less than half the societal value is internalized by individuals (assuming that they act purely in their self-interest). Finally, behavioral responses are important, with a substantial share of the value of vaccines being attributed to people enjoying more socially-oriented leisure when more people are vaccinated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Boppart
- Institute for International Economic Studies, Sweden, and University of St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Per Krusell
- Institute for International Economic Studies, Sweden
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9
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES While the development of vaccines against the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) brought hope of establishing herd immunity and ending the global pandemic, vaccine hesitancy can hinder the progress towards herd immunity. In this study, by analysing the data collected when citizens undergo public health restrictions due to the pandemic, we assess the determinants of vaccine hesitancy, reasons for hesitation and potential effectiveness of vaccine passports used to relax public health restrictions on mitigating vaccine hesitancy. DESIGN Cross-sectional study, longitudinal study and conjoint experimental design. SETTING An online survey conducted in Japan in July 2021. PARTICIPANTS A demographically representative sample of 5000 Japanese adults aged 20-74. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES COVID-19 vaccination intention RESULTS: We found that about 30% of respondents did not intend to get vaccinated or had not yet decided, with major reasons for vaccine hesitancy relating to concerns about the safety and side effects of the vaccine. In line with previous findings, younger age, lower socioeconomic status, and psychological and behavioural factors such as weaker COVID-19 fear were associated with vaccine hesitancy. Easing of public health restrictions such as travel, wearing face masks and dining out at night was associated with an increase in vaccine acceptance by 4%-10%. Moreover, we found that more than 90% of respondents who intended to get vaccinated actually received it while smaller proportions among those undecided and unwilling to get vaccinated did so. CONCLUSION With a major concern about vaccine safety and side effects, interventions to mitigate against these may help to reduce vaccine hesitancy. Moreover, when citizens are imposed with restrictions, vaccine passports that increase their freedom may be helpful to increase vaccination rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shohei Okamoto
- Research Team for Social Participation and Community Health, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Institute for Global Health Policy Research, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Research Center for Financial Gerontology, Keio University, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuki Kamimura
- Research Center for Financial Gerontology, Keio University, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Hirao School of Management, Konan University, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kohei Komamura
- Research Center for Financial Gerontology, Keio University, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Faculty of Economics, Keio University, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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10
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Dangerfield C, Fenichel EP, Finnoff D, Hanley N, Hargreaves Heap S, Shogren JF, Toxvaerd F. Challenges of integrating economics into epidemiological analysis of and policy responses to emerging infectious diseases. Epidemics 2022; 39:100585. [PMID: 35636312 PMCID: PMC9124042 DOI: 10.1016/j.epidem.2022.100585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 has shown that the consequences of a pandemic are wider-reaching than cases and deaths. Morbidity and mortality are important direct costs, but infectious diseases generate other direct and indirect benefits and costs as the economy responds to these shocks: some people lose, others gain and people modify their behaviours in ways that redistribute these benefits and costs. These additional effects feedback on health outcomes to create a complicated interdependent system of health and non-health outcomes. As a result, interventions primarily intended to reduce the burden of disease can have wider societal and economic effects and more complicated and unintended, but possibly not anticipable, system-level influences on the epidemiological dynamics themselves. Capturing these effects requires a systems approach that encompasses more direct health outcomes. Towards this end, in this article we discuss the importance of integrating epidemiology and economic models, setting out the key challenges which such a merging of epidemiology and economics presents. We conclude that understanding people's behaviour in the context of interventions is key to developing a more complete and integrated economic-epidemiological approach; and a wider perspective on the benefits and costs of interventions (and who these fall upon) will help society better understand how to respond to future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciara Dangerfield
- Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | | | - David Finnoff
- Department of Economics, University of Wyoming, United States
| | - Nick Hanley
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Jason F Shogren
- Department of Economics, University of Wyoming, United States
| | - Flavio Toxvaerd
- Faculty of Economics, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom; Centre for Economic Policy Research, United Kingdom
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11
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Campos EL, Cysne RP, Madureira AL, Mendes GL. Multi-generational SIR modeling: Determination of parameters, epidemiological forecasting and age-dependent vaccination policies. Infect Dis Model 2021; 6:751-765. [PMID: 34127952 PMCID: PMC8189834 DOI: 10.1016/j.idm.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
We use an age-dependent SIR system of equations to model the evolution of the COVID-19. Parameters that measure the amount of interaction in different locations (home, work, school, other) are approximated from in-sample data using a random optimization scheme, and indicate changes in social distancing along the course of the pandemic. That allows the estimation of the time evolution of classical and age-dependent reproduction numbers. With those parameters we predict the disease dynamics, and compare our results with out-of-sample data from the City of Rio de Janeiro. Finally, we provide a numerical investigation regarding age-based vaccination policies, shedding some light on whether is preferable to vaccinate those at most risk (the elderly) or those who spread the disease the most (the youngest). There is no clear upshot, as the results depend on the age of those immunized, contagious parameters, vaccination schedules and efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Lima Campos
- EPGE Brazilian School of Economics and Finance (FGV EPGE), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- ENCE - Escola Nacional de Ciências Estatísticas (ENCE/IBGE), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rubens Penha Cysne
- EPGE Brazilian School of Economics and Finance (FGV EPGE), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Alexandre L. Madureira
- EPGE Brazilian School of Economics and Finance (FGV EPGE), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Laboratório Nacional de Computação Científica, Petrópolis, RJ, Brazil
| | - Gélcio L.Q. Mendes
- INCA - Brazilian National Cancer Institute, Coordination of Assistance, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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12
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Lai X, Rong H, Ma X, Hou Z, Li S, Jing R, Zhang H, Lyu Y, Wang J, Feng H, Peng Z, Feng L, Fang H. The Economic Burden of Influenza-Like Illness among Children, Chronic Disease Patients, and the Elderly in China: A National Cross-Sectional Survey. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126277. [PMID: 34200619 PMCID: PMC8296061 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Background: The disease burden of seasonal influenza is substantial in China, while there is still a lack of nationwide economic burden estimates. This study aims to examine influenza-like illness (ILI) prevalence, healthcare-seeking behaviors, economic impact of ILI, and its influencing factors among three priority groups during the 2018–19 influenza season. Methods: From August to October 2019, 6668 children’s caregivers, 1735 chronic disease patients, and 3849 elderly people were recruited from 10 provinces in China to participate in an on-site survey. The economic burden of ILI consisted of direct (medical or non-medical) and indirect burdens, and a two-part model was adopted to predict the influencing factors of total economic burden. Results: There were 45.73% children, 16.77% chronic disease patients, and 12.70% elderly people reporting ILI, and most participants chose outpatient service or over-the-counter (OTC) medication after ILI. The average economic burden was CNY 1647 (USD 237.2) for children, CNY 951 (USD 136.9) for chronic disease patients, and CNY 1796 (USD 258.6) for the elderly. Two-part regression showed that age, gender, whether the only child in the family, region, and household income were important predictors of ILI economic burden among children, while age, region, place of residence, basic health insurance, and household income were significant predictors of ILI economic burden among chronic disease patients and the elderly. Conclusions: A large economic burden of ILI was highlighted, especially among the elderly with less income and larger medical burdens, as well as children, with higher prevalence and higher self-payment ratio. It is important to adopt targeted interventions for high-risk groups, and this study can help national-level decision-making on the introduction of influenza vaccination as a public health project.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaozhen Lai
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.L.); (R.J.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (J.W.); (H.F.)
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
| | - Hongguo Rong
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
- Institute for Excellence in Evidence-Based Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xiaochen Ma
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
| | - Zhiyuan Hou
- School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China;
| | - Shunping Li
- School of Health Care Management, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China;
- NHC Key Laboratory of Health Economics and Policy Research (Shandong University), Jinan 250012, China
| | - Rize Jing
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.L.); (R.J.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (J.W.); (H.F.)
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
| | - Haijun Zhang
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.L.); (R.J.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (J.W.); (H.F.)
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
| | - Yun Lyu
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.L.); (R.J.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (J.W.); (H.F.)
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
| | - Jiahao Wang
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.L.); (R.J.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (J.W.); (H.F.)
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
| | - Huangyufei Feng
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.L.); (R.J.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (J.W.); (H.F.)
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
| | - Zhibin Peng
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China;
| | - Luzhao Feng
- School of Population Medicine and Public Health, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
- Correspondence: (L.F.); (H.F.); Tel.: +86-10-6525-6093 (L.F.); +86-10-8280-5702 (H.F.)
| | - Hai Fang
- China Center for Health Development Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China; (H.R.); (X.M.)
- Peking University Health Science Center—Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Joint Center for Vaccine Economics, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: (L.F.); (H.F.); Tel.: +86-10-6525-6093 (L.F.); +86-10-8280-5702 (H.F.)
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13
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Wein T. [Is Mandatory Vaccination Against the Coronavirus Necessary?]. WIRTSCHAFTSDIENST (HAMBURG, GERMANY : 1949) 2021; 101:114-120. [PMID: 33642648 PMCID: PMC7896173 DOI: 10.1007/s10273-021-2852-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The end of the pandemic requires that SARS-CoV-2 vaccines be used. However, vaccination itself can lead to temporary adverse health effects and/or long-term damage. Vaccination initially represents a private good demanded by an individual cost-benefit calculus; however, it also creates positive externalities and thus too few individual incentives to vaccinate. Getting vaccinated is not a dominant rational strategy, neither in the overall population, nor among the old and the young, nor when the long-term costs of the pandemic are taken into account. It is all the more important to "price in" the long-term consequences of a lasting pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wein
- Institut für Volkswirtschaftlehre, Leuphana Universität Lüneburg, Universitätsallee 1, 21335 Lüneburg, Deutschland
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14
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Willingness to Pay for Seasonal Influenza Vaccination among Children, Chronic Disease Patients, and the Elderly in China: A National Cross-Sectional Survey. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030405. [PMID: 32707831 PMCID: PMC7563663 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The disease burden of seasonal influenza is substantial in China, while the vaccination rate is extremely low, and most people have to pay 100% for vaccination. This study aims to examine willingness to pay (WTP) and recommended financing sources for influenza vaccination among children, chronic disease patients, and the elderly in China and determine feasible measures to expand vaccination coverage. Methods: From August to October 2019, 6668 children's caregivers, 1735 chronic disease patients, and 3849 elderly people were recruited from 10 provinces in China. An on-site survey was conducted via a especially designed PAD system. Tobit regression was adopted to predict the influencing factors of WTP. Results: The average WTP was 127.5 yuan (USD18.0) for children, 96.5 yuan (USD13.7) for chronic disease patients, and 88.1 yuan (USD12.5) for the elderly. Most participants in the three groups thought government subsidies (94.8%, 95.8%, and 95.5%) or health insurance (94.3%, 95.3%, and 94.5%) should cover part of the cost, and nearly four-fifths (80.1%, 79.5%, and 76.8%) believed that individuals should also pay for part. Tobit regression showed that a higher perceived importance of vaccination, knowing about priority groups, and considering that individuals should co-pay were promoters of WTP, while considering price as a hindrance lowered WTP. Conclusions: The WTP for influenza vaccination among children, chronic disease patients, and the elderly in China is fairly high, suggesting that price is not the primary hindrance and there is room to expand immunization. Most participants expected the government and/or health insurance to pay part of the cost, and such supportive funding could act as a promotive policy "signal" to improve vaccine uptake. Influenza-related health education is also needed to expand vaccine coverage.
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Talamàs E, Vohra R. Free and perfectly safe but only partially effective vaccines can harm everyone. GAMES AND ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR 2020; 122:277-289. [PMID: 32395013 PMCID: PMC7207171 DOI: 10.1016/j.geb.2020.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Risk compensation can undermine the ability of partially-effective vaccines to curb epidemics: Vaccinated agents may optimally choose to engage in more risky interactions and, as a result, may increase everyone's infection probability. We show that-in contrast to the prediction of standard models-things can be worse than that: Free and perfectly safe but only partially effective vaccines can reduce everyone's welfare, and hence fail to satisfy-in a strong sense-the fundamental principle of "first, do no harm." Our main departure from standard economic epidemiological models is that we allow agents to strategically choose their partners, which we show creates strategic complementarities in risky interactions. As a result, the introduction of a partially-effective vaccine can lead to a much denser interaction structure-whose negative welfare effects overwhelm the beneficial direct welfare effects of this intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rakesh Vohra
- University of Pennsylvania, United States of America
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16
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Lim W, Zhang P. Herd immunity and a vaccination game: An experimental study. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232652. [PMID: 32407329 PMCID: PMC7224512 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Would the affected communities voluntarily obtain herd immunity if a cure for COVID-19 was available? This paper experimentally investigates people’s vaccination choices in the context of a nonlinear public good game. A “vaccination game” is defined in which costly commitments (vaccination) are required of a fraction of the population to reach the critical level needed for herd immunity, without which defectors are punished by the natural contagion of epidemics. Our experimental implementation of a vaccination game in a controlled laboratory setting reveals that endogenous epidemic punishment is a credible threat, resulting in voluntary vaccination to obtain herd immunity, for which the orthodox principle of positive externalities fails to account. The concave nature of the infection probability plays a key role in facilitating the elimination of an epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooyoung Lim
- Department of Economics, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- * E-mail: (WL); (PZ)
| | - Pengfei Zhang
- Department of Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (WL); (PZ)
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Siciliani L, Wild C, McKee M, Kringos D, Barry MM, Barros PP, De Maeseneer J, Murauskiene L, Ricciardi W. Strengthening vaccination programmes and health systems in the European Union: A framework for action. Health Policy 2020; 124:511-518. [PMID: 32276852 DOI: 10.1016/j.healthpol.2020.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination is one of the most cost-effective public health interventions. However, the EU is facing increasing outbreaks of vaccine preventable diseases, with some fatal cases of measles. This paper reviews the main factors influencing vaccination uptake, and assesses measures expected to improve vaccination coverage. Obstacles to vaccination include concerns about vaccine safety and side effects, lack of trust, social norms, exposure to rumours and myths, and access barriers. Responses fall into three broad categories. Regulation, including the introduction of mandatory vaccination, can be justified but it is important to be sure that it is an appropriate solution to the existing problem and does not risk unintended consequences. Facilitation involves ensuring that there is an effective vaccination programme, comprehensive in nature, and reducing the many barriers, in terms of cost, distance, and time, to achieving high levels of uptake, especially for marginalised or vulnerable populations. Information is crucial, but whether in the form of public information campaigns or interactions between health workers and target populations, must be designed very carefully to avoid the risk of backfire. There is no universal solution to achieving high levels of vaccine uptake but rather a range or combinations of options. The choice of which to adopt in each country will depend on a detailed understanding of the problem, including which groups are most affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Siciliani
- Department of Economics and Related Studies, University of York, YO10 5DD, York, UK.
| | - Claudia Wild
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Health Technology Assessment, Garnisongasse 7/20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin McKee
- Department of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, 15-17 Tavistock Place, London, WC1H 9SH, UK
| | - Dionne Kringos
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Public Health, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Margaret M Barry
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Health Promotion Research, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | | | - Jan De Maeseneer
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Liubove Murauskiene
- Public Health Division, Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Walter Ricciardi
- Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
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18
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Flaig J, Houy N, Michel P. Cost effectiveness and policy announcement: The case of measles mandatory vaccination. J Theor Biol 2020; 485:110028. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2019.110028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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19
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Liu Z, Chen J, Li W, Bi Y, Li Y, Fan M. Identification of FimH derivatives as adjuvant vaccinated with PAc that enhance protection against Streptcoccus mutans colonization. Mol Cell Probes 2019; 45:19-25. [PMID: 30940544 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
FimH is the adhesin of type I fimbriae expressed on Escherichia coli that can mediate specific adherence to host cells. High binding mutations in FimH are related to the adaptive evolution of bacteria. However, additional roles that these allelic variations may play remain elusive. To investigate novel biological functions of the mutations in FimH, we introduced four different variants of FimH by incorporating single amino acid substitutions at specific sites, namely A25P, G73R, A106, and T158P, respectively. In this study, adjuvant potential of FimH variants was evaluated by investigating their ability to trigger innate immune response to DC2.4 and adaptive immunity to improve immunological characteristics. The data revealed that purified A106 and T158P up-regulated the expression of co-stimulatory molecules critically involved in DC2.4 activation by interaction with TLR4, whereas A25P and G73R did not induce the phenotypic maturation of DC2.4. Besides, the culture of DC2.4 with A106 and T158P enhanced the release of cytokines and protein phagocytosis. When formulated with PAc, T158P elicited more robust PAc-specific IgG and IgA antibody responses compared to PBS, PAc and PAc+K12 groups and inhibited bacteria colonization. Collectively, the results confirmed that the T158P mutation located around the inter-domain interface of the protein induced a specific enhancement effect on adjuvant characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongfang Liu
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST), Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine of Ministry of Education (KLOBM), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Junlan Chen
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST), Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine of Ministry of Education (KLOBM), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Wuyou Li
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST), Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine of Ministry of Education (KLOBM), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Yongli Bi
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST), Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine of Ministry of Education (KLOBM), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Yuhong Li
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST), Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine of Ministry of Education (KLOBM), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430079, China.
| | - Mingwen Fan
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST), Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine of Ministry of Education (KLOBM), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430079, China.
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Chen F. Voluntary vaccinations and vaccine shortages: A theoretical analysis. J Theor Biol 2018; 446:19-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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21
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Rowthorn R, Walther S. The optimal treatment of an infectious disease with two strains. J Math Biol 2016; 74:1753-1791. [PMID: 27837260 PMCID: PMC5420024 DOI: 10.1007/s00285-016-1074-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This paper explores the optimal treatment of an infectious disease in a Susceptible-Infected-Susceptible model, where there are two strains of the disease and one strain is more infectious than the other. The strains are perfectly distinguishable, instantly diagnosed and equally costly in terms of social welfare. Treatment is equally costly and effective for both strains. Eradication is not possible, and there is no superinfection. In this model, we characterise two types of fixed points: coexistence equilibria, where both strains prevail, and boundary equilibria, where one strain is asymptotically eradicated and the other prevails at a positive level. We derive regimes of feasibility that determine which equilibria are feasible for which parameter combinations. Numerically, we show that optimal policy exhibits switch points over time, and that the paths to coexistence equilibria exhibit spirals, suggesting that coexistence equilibria are never the end points of optimal paths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Rowthorn
- Faculty of Economics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Selma Walther
- Department of Economics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
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