1
|
Maggio MC, Miniaci A, Gallizzi R, Civino A. "Neuroimmunoendocrinology" in Children with Rheumatic Diseases: How Glucocorticoids Are the Orchestra Director. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13192. [PMID: 37685999 PMCID: PMC10487400 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The neural, the endocrine, and the immune systems are studied as distinct districts in physiological and pathological settings. However, these systems must be investigated with an integrative approach, while also considering that therapeutic agents, such as glucocorticoids, can induce a reversible or irreversible change of this homeostasis. Children and adolescents affected by rheumatic diseases frequently need treatment with corticosteroids, and the treatment must sometimes be continued for a long time. In the biological era, the treat-to-target strategy allowed a real revolution in treatment, with significant steroid dose sparing or, in many patients, steroid treatment withdrawal. In this review, the impact of glucocorticoids on endocrine, immune, and neurologic targets is analyzed, and the crosstalk between these systems is highlighted. In this narrative review, we explore the reasoning as to why glucocorticoids can disrupt this homeostasis, we summarize some of the key results supporting the impact of glucocorticoids treatment on endocrine, immune, and neurologic systems, and we discuss the data reported in the international literature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cristina Maggio
- University Department PROMISE “G. D’Alessandro”, University of Palermo, Via del Vespro 129, 90100 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Angela Miniaci
- Paediatric Rheumatology, UOC of Paediatrics, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Romina Gallizzi
- Paediatric Unit, Department of Health Science, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
| | - Adele Civino
- Paediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, Vito Fazzi Hospital, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Urhan E, Karaca Z, Unuvar GK, Gundogan K, Unluhizarci K. Investigation of pituitary functions after acute coronavirus disease 2019. Endocr J 2022; 69:649-658. [PMID: 34987144 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej21-0531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Although coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mainly involves the lungs, it also affects many systems. The hypothalamic/pituitary axis is vulnerable to hypoxia, hypercoagulation, endothelial dysfunction and autoimmune changes induced by COVID-19 infection. Given that there is no extensive investigation on this issue, we investigated the pituitary functions three to seven months after acute COVID-19 infection. Forty-three patients after diagnosis of COVID-19 infection and 11 healthy volunteers were included in the study. In addition to the basal pituitary hormone levels, growth hormone (GH) and hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axes were evaluated by glucagon stimulation test (GST) and low-dose adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test, respectively. The peak cortisol responses to low-dose ACTH test were insufficient in seven (16.2%) patients. Twenty (46.5%) and four (9.3%) patients had inadequate GH and cortisol responses to GST, respectively. Serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) values were also lower than age and sex-matched references in four (9.3%) patients. The peak GH responses to GST were lower in the patient group when compared to the control group. Other abnormalities were mild thyroid-stimulating hormone elevation in four (9.3%) patients, mild prolactin elevation in two (4.6%) patients and central hypogonadism in four (9.3%) patients. Mean total testosterone values were lower in male patients when compared to male controls; however, the difference was not significant. These findings suggest that COVID-19 infection may affect pituitary functions, particularly the HPA and GH axes. These insufficiencies should be kept in mind in post-COVID follow-up. Long-term data are needed to determine whether these deficiencies are permanent or not.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emre Urhan
- Department of Endocrinology, Erciyes University Medical School, Kayseri 38039, Turkey
| | - Zuleyha Karaca
- Department of Endocrinology, Erciyes University Medical School, Kayseri 38039, Turkey
| | - Gamze Kalin Unuvar
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Erciyes University Medical School, Kayseri 38039, Turkey
| | - Kursat Gundogan
- Department of Intensive Care, Erciyes University Medical School, Kayseri 38039, Turkey
| | - Kursad Unluhizarci
- Department of Endocrinology, Erciyes University Medical School, Kayseri 38039, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Foradori CD, Mackay L, Huang CCJ, Kemppainen RJ. Expression of Rasd1 in mouse endocrine pituitary cells and its response to dexamethasone. Stress 2021; 24:659-666. [PMID: 33840368 PMCID: PMC8405551 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2021.1907340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dexamethasone-induced Ras-related protein 1 (Rasd1) is a member of the Ras superfamily of monomeric G proteins that have a regulatory function in signal transduction. Rasd1, also known as Dexras1 or AGS1, is rapidly induced by dexamethasone (Dex). While prior data indicates that Rasd1 is highly expressed in the pituitary and that the gene may function in regulation of corticotroph activity, its exact cellular localization in this tissue has not been delineated. Nor has it been determined which endocrine pituitary cell type(s) are responsive to Dex-induced expression of Rasd1. We hypothesized that Rasd1 is primarily localized in corticotrophs and furthermore, that its expression in these cells would be upregulated in response to exogenous Dex administration. Rasd1 expression in each pituitary cell type both under basal conditions and 1-hour post Dex treatment were examined in adult male mice. While a proportion of all endocrine pituitary cell types expressed Rasd1, a majority of corticotrophs and thyrotrophs expressed Rasd1 under basal condition. In vehicle treated animals, approximately 50-60% of corticotrophs and thyrotrophs cells expressed Rasd1 while the gene was detected in only 15-30% of lactotrophs, somatotrophs, and gonadotrophs. In Dex treated animals, Rasd1 expression was significantly increased in corticotrophs, somatotrophs, lactotrophs, and gonadotrophs but not thyrotrophs. In Dex treated animals, Rasd1 was detected in 80-95% of gonadotrophs and corticotrophs. In contrast, Dex treatment increased Rasd1 expression to a lesser extent (55-60%) in somatotrophs and lactotrophs. Corticotrophs of the pars intermedia, which lack glucocorticoid receptors, failed to display increased Rasd1 expression in Dex treated animals. Rasd1 is highly expressed in corticotrophs under basal conditions and is further increased after Dex treatment, further supporting its role in glucocorticoid negative feedback. In addition, the presence and Dex-induced expression of Rasd1 in endocrine pituitary cell types, other than corticotrophs, may implicate Rasd1 in novel pituitary functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chad D Foradori
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Laci Mackay
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Chen-Che J Huang
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Robert J Kemppainen
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gogna R, Jung C, McLachlan K, Krishnamurthy B, Hong A, Derbyshire M, Kiburg KV, Zacharin M, MacIsaac RJ, Sachithanandan N, Caputo C. Reducing adverse events associated with the glucagon stimulation test for the assessment of growth hormone deficiency in adults with a high prevalence of pituitary hormone deficiencies. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2021; 95:125-133. [PMID: 33728673 DOI: 10.1111/cen.14464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
DESIGN A retrospective review of the adverse events (AEs) in 78 patients during the glucagon stimulation test (GST) for the assessment of growth hormone deficiency (GHD) before and after protocol amendments which aimed to reduce AEs in a group of patients with a high prevalence of pituitary hormone deficiencies. PATIENTS Based on our observations of frequent AEs during the standard GST protocol in an initial 25 patients (cohort 1), a modified protocol was introduced to include the routine administration of 20 mg of hydrocortisone pre-GST in a subsequent 53 patients (cohort 2). Post hoc analysis of the effect of glucocorticoid dosing pre-GST on AEs was examined in those receiving <20 mg hydrocortisone (group A, n = 19) vs ≥20 mg hydrocortisone (group B, n = 59). MEASUREMENTS AEs including hypotension, hypoglycaemia and nausea/vomiting. RESULTS Of the 78 patients undergoing the GST, 79% had ≥2 hormone deficiencies. Rates of AEs were 41% vs 30% for hypotension, 60% vs 28% for hypoglycaemia (p < .05) and 20% vs 13% for nausea/vomiting in cohort 1 compared with cohort 2, respectively. Post hoc analysis revealed lower rates of AEs in those receiving ≥20 mg hydrocortisone (group B) compared to those receiving <20 mg due to a reduction in hypoglycaemic events (82% vs 26%, p < .001) and hypotension (50% vs 27%, p = .05). Similar numbers of patients in group A and group B met criteria for GHD. CONCLUSIONS In patients with a high prevalence of pituitary deficiencies, a modified GST protocol of additional stress dose glucocorticoid attenuated the frequency of AEs without appearing to compromise the performance of the GST.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reetu Gogna
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Caroline Jung
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- Department of Medicine, St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Kylie McLachlan
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Balasubramanian Krishnamurthy
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- Department of Medicine, St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Alice Hong
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Maresa Derbyshire
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Katerina V Kiburg
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- Department of Medicine, St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Margaret Zacharin
- Hormone Research, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Vic., Australia
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, Vic., Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Richard J MacIsaac
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- Department of Medicine, St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Nirupa Sachithanandan
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- Department of Medicine, St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| | - Carmela Caputo
- Department of Endocrinology & Diabetes, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
- Department of Medicine, St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jin Y, Jarmasz JS, Cattini PA. Dexamethasone Rescues an Acute High-Fat Diet-Induced Decrease in Human Growth Hormone Gene Expression in Male Partially Humanized CD-1 Mice. DNA Cell Biol 2021; 40:543-552. [PMID: 33687272 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2020.6293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity in puberty, already a time of insulin resistance, increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Human (h) growth hormone (GH) levels also peak during puberty, where it contributes to growth and energy homeostasis through positive effects on maintaining pancreatic β cell mass. Thus, it is important to understand the effects of overeating and obesity on hGH production in puberty. Three days of overeating in young male adults or high-fat diet (HFD) in pubescent male transgenic (171hGH/CS) CD-1 mice containing the hGH gene (hGH-N) results in excess insulin and a decrease in hGH production. This reduction in these mice occurred during the light phase of the daily cycle, and was associated with decreased availability of the clock-related transcription factor Brain and Muscle ARNT-Like 1 (Bmal1). However, the HFD-induced decrease in hGH-N expression was blocked by forced daily swim activity, which is expected to increase glucocorticoid (GC) levels. The aim of the study was to assess whether GCs, specifically daily injections with a pharmacological dose of dexamethasone (DEX) in the light or dark phase of the daily cycle, can limit the negative effect of HFD for 3 days on hGH-N expression in male 171hGH/CS mice. DEX treatment increased or rescued hGH-N RNA levels, and was associated with elevated Bmal1 transcripts when assessed 12 h after final treatment, and at a time when serum corticosterone levels were suppressed >90%. In addition, a diet-dependent effect on hGH-N RNA levels was observed at 36 h after final treatment, but only in the light stage, presumably due to residual effects of DEX treatment and/or recovery of endogenous corticosterone levels. This is the first evidence for a direct effect of GCs on hGH-N expression in vivo and the ability to potentially limit the negative effect of overeating/obesity on hGH production in puberty.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Jin
- Department of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Jessica S Jarmasz
- Department of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Peter A Cattini
- Department of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhai M, Guo Y, Su A, Tian H, Sun G, Kang X, Li K, Yan F. Identification of genes related to dexamethasone-induced immunosuppression in chicken thymus using transcriptome analysis. Res Vet Sci 2020; 132:318-327. [PMID: 32726728 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanism of stress-induced immunosuppression (SIS) in certain poultry immune organs is not completely clear. In this study, we constructed a stress immunosuppression model by selecting 180 healthy 7-day-old Gushi chickens and dividing them randomly into two groups: a D_T group and a B_T group. The D_T group was given dexamethasone, and the B_T group was given normal saline, according to the treatment method established and reported in our previous study. Thymus samples were subsequently taken from both groups. RNA-seq was used to sequence the transcriptomes of the thymus samples from both groups, and 1278 significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained, of which 845 genes were up-regulated and 433 genes were down-regulated (padj<0.05, |FC| ≥ 2, FPKM>1). We identified immune-related gene ontology (GO) terms including immune system processes, immune system process regulation, and T cell activation. The results of KEGG (http: //www.kegg.jp) analysis showed that the DEGs are involved in a variety of immune-related pathways, such as cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions, Jak-STAT signaling pathways, and cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). The cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction pathway involves the DEGs CCR6, CCR5, CD40LG and FAS. The DEGs in the Jak-STAT signaling pathway were SPRY2, BCL2L1. These DEGS play an important role in cell apoptosis. CD40L, CD8, among other genes, are involved in the CAMs pathway. The results of this study add to existing data on the genomic study of stress affecting immune function, and provide a basis for further studies of the molecular mechanisms of stress-influenced immune function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minxi Zhai
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Yujie Guo
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Aru Su
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Huihui Tian
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Guirong Sun
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; Henan Innovative Engineering Research Center of Poultry Germplasm Resource, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Xiangtao Kang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; Henan Innovative Engineering Research Center of Poultry Germplasm Resource, Zhengzhou 450046, China.
| | - Kui Li
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China.
| | - Fengbin Yan
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; Henan Innovative Engineering Research Center of Poultry Germplasm Resource, Zhengzhou 450046, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
The development of the anterior pituitary gland occurs in distinct sequential developmental steps, leading to the formation of a complex organ containing five different cell types secreting six different hormones. During this process, the temporal and spatial expression of a cascade of signaling molecules and transcription factors plays a crucial role in organ commitment, cell proliferation, patterning, and terminal differentiation. The morphogenesis of the gland and the emergence of distinct cell types from a common primordium are governed by complex regulatory networks involving transcription factors and signaling molecules that may be either intrinsic to the developing pituitary or extrinsic, originating from the ventral diencephalon, the oral ectoderm, and the surrounding mesenchyme. Endocrine cells of the pituitary gland are organized into structural and functional networks that contribute to the coordinated response of endocrine cells to stimuli; these cellular networks are formed during embryonic development and are maintained or may be modified in adulthood, contributing to the plasticity of the gland. Abnormalities in any of the steps of pituitary development may lead to congenital hypopituitarism that includes a spectrum of disorders from isolated to combined hormone deficiencies including syndromic disorders such as septo-optic dysplasia. Over the past decade, the acceleration of next-generation sequencing has allowed for rapid analysis of the patient genome to identify novel mutations and novel candidate genes associated with hypothalmo-pituitary development. Subsequent functional analysis using patient fibroblast cells, and the generation of stem cells derived from patient cells, is fast replacing the need for animal models while providing a more physiologically relevant characterization of novel mutations. Furthermore, CRISPR-Cas9 as the method for gene editing is replacing previous laborious and time-consuming gene editing methods that were commonly used, thus yielding knockout cell lines in a fraction of the time. © 2020 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 10:389-413, 2020.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyriaki S Alatzoglou
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK
| | - Louise C Gregory
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK
| | - Mehul T Dattani
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Edwards W, Raetzman LT. Complex integration of intrinsic and peripheral signaling is required for pituitary gland development. Biol Reprod 2019; 99:504-513. [PMID: 29757344 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioy081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The coordination of pituitary development is complicated and requires input from multiple cellular processes. Recent research has provided insight into key molecular determinants that govern cell fate specification in the pituitary. Moreover, increasing research aimed to identify, characterize, and functionally describe the presumptive pituitary stem cell population has allowed for a better understanding of the processes that govern endocrine cell differentiation in the developing pituitary. The culmination of this research has led to the ability of investigators to recapitulate some of embryonic pituitary development in vitro, the first steps to developing novel regenerative therapies for pituitary diseases. In this current review, we cover the major players in pituitary stem/progenitor cell function and maintenance, and the key molecular determinants of endocrine cell specification. In addition, we discuss the contribution of peripheral hormonal regulation of pituitary gland development, an understudied area of research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Whitney Edwards
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Lori T Raetzman
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Yan L, Yu J, Chen Z, Chen R, Zhu H, Yan J, Shi Z. Glucocorticoid receptor involvement in goose ( Anas cygnoides) pituitary somatotroph differentiation induced by glucocorticoids during embryonic development. Br Poult Sci 2019; 60:395-403. [PMID: 31132872 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2019.1621988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
1. In this study, geese (Anas cygnoides) embryonic pituitary cells were cultured in vitro to determine if glucocorticoids could induce growth hormone (GH) expression and to investigate the molecular mechanisms involved in this process. 2. On embryonic day 15 (e15) and e20 the pituitary cells were treated with corticosterone (CORT), membrane impermeable bovine serum albumin-conjugate corticosterone (CORT-BSA), dexamethasone (DEX), and a glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist (RU486) to detect responsiveness of somatotrophs to glucocorticoids. 3. Treatment with CORT, CORT-BSA, and DEX for as little as 6 h increased the percentage of GH-positive cells (P < 0.01) and increased GH mRNA expression (P < 0.01) in e15 goose pituitary cells compared to the control. CORT significantly increased the level of GH protein secreted from cultured e15 goose embryonic pituitary cells, and CORT-BSA increased GH secretion from e20 goose embryonic pituitary cells. 4. A significant increase was observed in the glucocorticoid receptor in GR transcription levels (P < 0.01) with CORT, CORT-BSA, and DEX treatment. Furthermore, the CORT-stimulated GH mRNA expression was completely negated by pre-treatment with RU486. 5. These findings demonstrate that glucocorticoids can stimulate somatotroph differentiation in vitro, as characterised by enhanced GH protein secretion andmRNA expression in cultured geese embryonic pituitary cells. The membrane GR was involved in pituitary somatotroph differentiation induced by glucocorticoids during the embryonic development of geese.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Yan
- a Laboratory of Animal Improvement and Reproduction , Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China
| | - J Yu
- a Laboratory of Animal Improvement and Reproduction , Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China
| | - Z Chen
- a Laboratory of Animal Improvement and Reproduction , Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China
| | - R Chen
- a Laboratory of Animal Improvement and Reproduction , Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China
| | - H Zhu
- a Laboratory of Animal Improvement and Reproduction , Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China
| | - J Yan
- a Laboratory of Animal Improvement and Reproduction , Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China.,b Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology , Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China
| | - Z Shi
- a Laboratory of Animal Improvement and Reproduction , Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Nanjing , China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bomfim GF, Merighe GKF, de Oliveira SA, Negrao JA. Effect of acute stressors, adrenocorticotropic hormone administration, and cortisol release on milk yield, the expression of key genes, proliferation, and apoptosis in goat mammary epithelial cells. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:6486-6496. [PMID: 29706427 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-14123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cortisol is essential to milk synthesis; however, different acute stressors and the exogenous administration of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) decrease milk yield. Therefore, the effect of cortisol on milk yield and its influence on the survival of mammary epithelial cells have not been fully elucidated. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of cortisol on the expression of growth hormone receptor (GHR), insulin-like growth factor type 1 (IGF1), insulin-like growth factor type 1 receptor (IGF1R), insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 and 5 (IGFBP3 and IGFBP5), BAX, and BCL2 genes on the proliferation and apoptotic rates of mammary epithelial cells, and on milk yield in Saanen goats. In the present study, 3 experiments were conducted: (1) comparing the in vivo effects of first milking, vaccination, vermifugation, preventive hoof trimming, and the administration of ACTH or a placebo on cortisol release in dairy goats; (2) studying the in vivo effects of immediate increases in cortisol on the mammary gland of lactating goats; and (3) studying the in vitro effects of a prolonged increase in cortisol on mammary epithelial cells obtained from lactating goats. Cortisol release by goats increased significantly after ACTH administration compared with that observed after a placebo, and the cortisol profiles after first milking, vaccination, vermifugation, hoof trimming, and ACTH administration were similar. However, there was no effect of the immediate increase in cortisol in vivo on IGF-1 release, milk yield, milk quality, or the apoptosis and proliferation rates, nor was there any effect on the expression of the target genes. Furthermore, no interaction was observed between IGF-1 and cortisol in either the in vivo or in vitro experiments. However, the addition of cortisol in vitro significantly increased the expression of the GHR and IGF1R genes, which stimulate cell proliferation, and the BAX gene, which causes apoptosis. These contrasting results can explain why cortisol did not change the rates of proliferation or apoptosis in epithelial cells. Indeed, cortisol supplementation in vitro did not change the number or apoptotic rate of epithelial cells over the course of 5 d. Finally, further studies must be performed to understand the effect of cortisol on the expression of the GHR, IGF1R, and BAX genes by epithelial cells and the roles of these genes in milk synthesis during early lactation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G F Bomfim
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil, 13635-900
| | - G K F Merighe
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil, 13635-900
| | - S A de Oliveira
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil, 13635-900
| | - J A Negrao
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil, 13635-900.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Wolthers OD, Ramshanker N, Heuck C, Frystyk J. The timing of administration of exogenous glucocorticoid affects 24hour growth hormone secretion in children. Growth Horm IGF Res 2017; 35:40-44. [PMID: 28688245 DOI: 10.1016/j.ghir.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Exogenous glucocorticoids may suppress linear growth by affecting the diurnal secretory rhythm of GH. OBJECTIVE To assess whether the timing of exogenous glucocorticoid administration affects GH secretion in children. DESIGN Four girls and four boys aged 10.6 to 15.8 (mean 13.2) years with normal weight and height and pubertal stages I-IV were studied in an open randomized 2-period cross-over trial, with a 1-day un-in, and two 4-day periods of 5mg prednisolone in the morning or in the evening, respectively, separated by a 3-week washout period. At run-in and on the last day of each treatment period serum was collected every 20min for 24h for assessment of GH. Secondary analyses were serum levels of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 (measured every 8h), and IGFBP-1, insulin, and collagen markers PICP, PINP, ICTP and PIIINP (measured every 2h). RESULTS Evening prednisolone suppressed 24hour GH secretion (P=0.016), overnight GH secretion (P=0.023) and IGF-I (P=0.024) when compared to morning prednisolone, but not when compared to run-in. Evening prednisolone also increased nocturnal insulin levels as compared to run-in (P=0.010). Irrespective of time of day, prednisolone increased serum collagen markers PICP, PIINP, ICTP and PINP (all P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Short-term prednisolone 5mg administered in the morning may alleviate nocturnal GH suppression as compared to evening administration. In analogy, growth rates are less affected by morning as compared to evening administration of exogenous glucocorticoids. In contrast, collagen markers and metabolic indices were not affected by the timing of prednisolone administration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ole D Wolthers
- Asthma and Allergy Clinic, Children's Clinic Randers, Randers, Denmark.
| | - Nilani Ramshanker
- Medical Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Carsten Heuck
- Asthma and Allergy Clinic, Children's Clinic Randers, Randers, Denmark
| | - Jan Frystyk
- Medical Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Scaroni C, Zilio M, Foti M, Boscaro M. Glucose Metabolism Abnormalities in Cushing Syndrome: From Molecular Basis to Clinical Management. Endocr Rev 2017; 38:189-219. [PMID: 28368467 DOI: 10.1210/er.2016-1105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
An impaired glucose metabolism, which often leads to the onset of diabetes mellitus (DM), is a common complication of chronic exposure to exogenous and endogenous glucocorticoid (GC) excess and plays an important part in contributing to morbidity and mortality in patients with Cushing syndrome (CS). This article reviews the pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of changes in glucose metabolism associated with hypercortisolism, addressing both the pathophysiological aspects and the clinical and therapeutic implications. Chronic hypercortisolism may have pleiotropic effects on all major peripheral tissues governing glucose homeostasis. Adding further complexity, both genomic and nongenomic mechanisms are directly induced by GCs in a context-specific and cell-/organ-dependent manner. In this paper, the discussion focuses on established and potential pathologic molecular mechanisms that are induced by chronically excessive circulating levels of GCs and affect glucose homeostasis in various tissues. The management of patients with CS and DM includes treating their hyperglycemia and correcting their GC excess. The effects on glycemic control of various medical therapies for CS are reviewed in this paper. The association between DM and subclinical CS and the role of screening for CS in diabetic patients are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carla Scaroni
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medicine, DIMED, University of Padova, Via Ospedale 105, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Marialuisa Zilio
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medicine, DIMED, University of Padova, Via Ospedale 105, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Michelangelo Foti
- Department of Cell Physiology & Metabolism, Centre Médical Universitaire, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Genèva, Switzerland
| | - Marco Boscaro
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medicine, DIMED, University of Padova, Via Ospedale 105, 35128 Padua, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Strange MS, Bowden RM, Thompson CF, Sakaluk SK. Pre- and Postnatal Effects of Corticosterone on Fitness-Related Traits and the Timing of Endogenous Corticosterone Production in a Songbird. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 325:347-59. [PMID: 27279255 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Maternally derived corticosterone in the egg and corticosterone produced endogenously by altricial nestling birds play essential roles during development. Although persistently high corticosterone levels can be harmful, moderately elevated levels above baseline can lead to reallocation of resources between growth and maintenance to ensure immediate survival or to enhance the development of fitness-related traits. We tested two hypotheses concerning the fitness consequences of elevated corticosterone during prenatal and postnatal development in altricial house wrens: (1) elevated corticosterone shifts resources away from growth and immune function and (2) elevated corticosterone serves as a signal to allocate resources to fitness-related traits. We also explored the development of the stress response, hypothesizing that early-stage nestlings have little endogenously produced corticosterone, but that their baseline and stress-induced corticosterone levels increase with age. Nestlings hatching from corticosterone-injected eggs were lighter at hatching, but through compensatory growth, ended up heavier than controls near the time of fledging, an important, fitness-related trait. Nestlings that hatched from corticosterone-injected eggs and those given oral doses of corticosterone did not differ from controls in three other fitness-related traits: immunoresponsiveness, size, or haematocrit. Early- and late-stage nestlings had similar baseline corticosterone levels, and all nestlings increased their plasma corticosterone levels in response to a capture-and-restraint protocol, with older nestlings mounting a stronger stress-induced response than younger nestlings. These results suggest that prenatal exposure to corticosterone is important in shaping offspring phenotype and are consistent with the hypothesis that maternally derived corticosterone in the egg can have long-term, fitness-related effects on offspring phenotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meghan S Strange
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois
| | - Rachel M Bowden
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois
| | - Charles F Thompson
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois
| | - Scott K Sakaluk
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ferraù F, Korbonits M. Metabolic comorbidities in Cushing's syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 173:M133-57. [PMID: 26060052 DOI: 10.1530/eje-15-0354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cushing's syndrome (CS) patients have increased mortality primarily due to cardiovascular events induced by glucocorticoid (GC) excess-related severe metabolic changes. Glucose metabolism abnormalities are common in CS due to increased gluconeogenesis, disruption of insulin signalling with reduced glucose uptake and disposal of glucose and altered insulin secretion, consequent to the combination of GCs effects on liver, muscle, adipose tissue and pancreas. Dyslipidaemia is a frequent feature in CS as a result of GC-induced increased lipolysis, lipid mobilisation, liponeogenesis and adipogenesis. Protein metabolism is severely affected by GC excess via complex direct and indirect stimulation of protein breakdown and inhibition of protein synthesis, which can lead to muscle loss. CS patients show changes in body composition, with fat redistribution resulting in accumulation of central adipose tissue. Metabolic changes, altered adipokine release, GC-induced heart and vasculature abnormalities, hypertension and atherosclerosis contribute to the increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. In paediatric CS patients, the interplay between GC and the GH/IGF1 axis affects growth and body composition, while in adults it further contributes to the metabolic derangement. GC excess has a myriad of deleterious effects and here we attempt to summarise the metabolic comorbidities related to CS and their management in the perspective of reducing the cardiovascular risk and mortality overall.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Ferraù
- Centre for Endocrinology William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Márta Korbonits
- Centre for Endocrinology William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Iungman JL, Somoza GM, Piña CI. Are Stress-Related Hormones Involved in the Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination of the Broad-Snouted Caiman? SOUTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HERPETOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.2994/sajh-d-14-00027.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
|
16
|
Zhang L, Wang YY, Fu MZ, Li G, An N, Li SY, Zhou ZQ. The effects of ovariectomy on meat performance and expression of GH/IGF-I in young goats. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2014. [DOI: 10.4141/cjas-2014-001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Zhang, L., Wang, Y.-y., Fu, M.-z., Li, G., An, N., Li, S.-y. and Zhou, Z.-q. 2014. The effects of ovariectomy on meat performance and expression of GH/IGF-I in young goats. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 94: 619–626. Experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of ovariectomy on meat production efficiency and to explore the expression of GH/IGF-I in young goats. Animal performance, meat quality, levels of serum growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I), and mRNA levels of three key genes [GH Receptor (GHR), IGF-I and IGF-I Receptor (IGF-IR)] in longissimus dorsi and biceps femoris muscles were measured. The results show that carcass weight, net meat mass, fat weight and loin eye area of ovariectomized goats were higher than those of the controls, and ovariectomized goats lost 0.40 kg of bone weight (P<0.05). There was no statistically valid difference for the color, pH, water-holding capacity, or cooking rate of meat (P>0.05) between the two groups, except for the shear value, which was significantly lower in the Ovx group than in the control group (P<0.05). The results of this research show for the first time a significant trend (P<0.05) for serum GH and IGF-I in the direction of increasing in ovariectomized goats. Furthermore, the mRNA levels of GHR, IGF-I and IGF-IR in muscle were all up-regulated, except for the IGF-I gene in biceps femoris, by ovariectomy. In summary, ovariectomy showed a beneficial promotion in animal performance, but did not reduce meat quality, and increased serum GH and IGF-I and mRNA expression levels of GHR, IGF-I and IGF-IR in young female goats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yan-yan Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Ming-zhe Fu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Guang Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Ning An
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Si-yao Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Zhan-qin Zhou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
ZhiQing Z, XinXing W, Jingbo G, Rui Z, Xiujie G, Yun Z, Lei W, Xue L, LingJia Q. Effects of HIP in protection of HSP70 for stress-induced cardiomyocytes injury and its glucorticoid receptor pathway. Cell Stress Chaperones 2014; 19:865-75. [PMID: 24789270 PMCID: PMC4389846 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-014-0510-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Moderate levels of stress can be beneficial to health, while stress overload can cause injury or contribute to diseases. Despite a number of studies of adaptation or stress damage, the mechanisms of adaptation and stress damage remain far from clear. The effect and mechanisms of adaptation on cardiomyocytes damage caused by stress overload are discussed in this study. Data showed that mild repeated stress mitigated stress overload-induced cardiomyocyte injury both in an animal model of restraint stress and in H9C2 cells with GC (glucocorticoid) treatment. HSP70, HIP expression and interaction between HSP70 and HIP increased during adaptation induced by mild stress both in animals and H9C2 cells. Overexpression or inhibition of HSP70 in H9C2 cells with pCDNA-3.1-Hsp70 or KNK437 (HSP70 inhibitor) showed that HSP70 can protect H9C2 cells from GC-induced cell damage. A luciferase assay showed that Hsp70 plays its protective role through inhibition of GR transcription activity dependent on the interaction with HIP. These results indicated that HSP70 may promote adaptation with its interacting protein HIP, and increased levels of HSP70 and its interacting protein HIP during adaptation may play a protective role on stress-overload-induced cardiomyocyte injury.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adaptation, Physiological
- Animals
- Benzhydryl Compounds/pharmacology
- Cell Line
- Disease Models, Animal
- Glucocorticoids/toxicity
- HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins/genetics
- HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins/metabolism
- Heart Diseases/genetics
- Heart Diseases/metabolism
- Heart Diseases/pathology
- Heart Diseases/prevention & control
- Hydrocortisone/blood
- Male
- Molecular Chaperones/genetics
- Molecular Chaperones/metabolism
- Myocytes, Cardiac/drug effects
- Myocytes, Cardiac/metabolism
- Myocytes, Cardiac/pathology
- Pyrrolidinones/pharmacology
- RNA Interference
- Rats, Wistar
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/agonists
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/metabolism
- Restraint, Physical
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Stress, Psychological/complications
- Stress, Psychological/genetics
- Stress, Psychological/metabolism
- Stress, Psychological/pathology
- Time Factors
- Transfection
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhang ZhiQing
- />Institute of Health & Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, 300050 People’s Republic of China
| | - Wang XinXing
- />Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Gong Jingbo
- />Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhan Rui
- />Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Gao Xiujie
- />Institute of Health & Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, 300050 People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhao Yun
- />Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| | - Wu Lei
- />Institute of Health & Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, 300050 People’s Republic of China
| | - Leng Xue
- />Institute of Medical Equipment, Tianjin, 300161 People’s Republic of China
| | - Qian LingJia
- />Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850 People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Giustina A, Mazziotti G. Impaired growth hormone secretion associated with low glucocorticoid levels: an experimental model for the Giustina effect. Endocrine 2014; 47:354-6. [PMID: 24798449 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-014-0278-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Giustina
- University of Brescia, Poliambulatori di Via Biseo,Via Biseo 17, 25123, Brescia, Italy,
| | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Alatzoglou KS, Webb EA, Le Tissier P, Dattani MT. Isolated growth hormone deficiency (GHD) in childhood and adolescence: recent advances. Endocr Rev 2014; 35:376-432. [PMID: 24450934 DOI: 10.1210/er.2013-1067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The diagnosis of GH deficiency (GHD) in childhood is a multistep process involving clinical history, examination with detailed auxology, biochemical testing, and pituitary imaging, with an increasing contribution from genetics in patients with congenital GHD. Our increasing understanding of the factors involved in the development of somatotropes and the dynamic function of the somatotrope network may explain, at least in part, the development and progression of childhood GHD in different age groups. With respect to the genetic etiology of isolated GHD (IGHD), mutations in known genes such as those encoding GH (GH1), GHRH receptor (GHRHR), or transcription factors involved in pituitary development, are identified in a relatively small percentage of patients suggesting the involvement of other, yet unidentified, factors. Genome-wide association studies point toward an increasing number of genes involved in the control of growth, but their role in the etiology of IGHD remains unknown. Despite the many years of research in the area of GHD, there are still controversies on the etiology, diagnosis, and management of IGHD in children. Recent data suggest that childhood IGHD may have a wider impact on the health and neurodevelopment of children, but it is yet unknown to what extent treatment with recombinant human GH can reverse this effect. Finally, the safety of recombinant human GH is currently the subject of much debate and research, and it is clear that long-term controlled studies are needed to clarify the consequences of childhood IGHD and the long-term safety of its treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyriaki S Alatzoglou
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group (K.S.A., E.A.W., M.T.D.), Clinical and Molecular Genetics Unit, and Birth Defects Research Centre (P.L.T.), UCL Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, United Kingdom; and Faculty of Life Sciences (P.L.T.), University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
Glucocorticoids modulate the secretion of growth hormone (GH) by various and competing effects on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The final effects of this modulation depend on hormone concentrations and the duration of exposure. The traditional hypothesis is that chronically raised levels of glucocorticoids suppress the secretion of GH. However, a functional impairment of the GH reserve might also be observed in patients with low levels of glucocorticoids, such as those with secondary hypoadrenalism, which is consistent with the model of biphasic dose-dependent effects of glucocorticoids on the somatotropic axis. This Review updates our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying the effects of glucocorticoids on the secretion of GH and the clinical implications of the dual action of glucocorticoids on the GH reserve in humans. This Review will also address the potential diagnostic and therapeutic implications of GH for patients with a deficiency or excess of glucocorticoids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gherardo Mazziotti
- Department of Medicine, Endocrine and Bone Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera Carlo Poma of Mantua, 46100 Mantua, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Davis SW, Ellsworth BS, Peréz Millan MI, Gergics P, Schade V, Foyouzi N, Brinkmeier ML, Mortensen AH, Camper SA. Pituitary gland development and disease: from stem cell to hormone production. Curr Top Dev Biol 2013; 106:1-47. [PMID: 24290346 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-416021-7.00001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Many aspects of pituitary development have become better understood in the past two decades. The signaling pathways regulating pituitary growth and shape have emerged, and the balancing interactions between the pathways are now appreciated. Markers for multipotent progenitor cells are being identified, and signature transcription factors have been discovered for most hormone-producing cell types. We now realize that pulsatile hormone secretion involves a 3D integration of cellular networks. About a dozen genes are known to cause pituitary hypoplasia when mutated due to their essential roles in pituitary development. Similarly, a few genes are known that predispose to familial endocrine neoplasia, and several genes mutated in sporadic pituitary adenomas are documented. In the next decade, we anticipate gleaning a deeper appreciation of these processes at the molecular level, insight into the development of the hypophyseal portal blood system, and evolution of better therapeutics for congenital and acquired hormone deficiencies and for common craniopharyngiomas and pituitary adenomas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shannon W Davis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|