Dietary nitrate and nitrite: Benefits, risks, and evolving perceptions

Novel design of simplified β-hairpin antimicrobial peptide as a potential food preservative based on Trp-pocket backbone

Food contamination from microbial deterioration requires the development of potent antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). The deployment of approved AMPs as dietary preservatives is limited due to barriers such as instability, toxicity, and high synthetic costs. This exploration utilizes the primary structural elements of the Trp-pocket backbone to engineer a series of β-hairpin AMPs (XWRWRPGXKXXR-NH2, X representing I, V, F, and/or L). Peptides WpLF, with Phe as X and Leu arranged at the 11th position, demonstrated exceptional selectivity index (SI = 123.08) and sterilization effects both in vitro and in vivo. WpLF consistently exhibited stable bacteriostasis, regardless of physiological salts, serum, and extreme pH. Mechanistic analysis indicated that the peptide penetrates microbial cell membranes, inducing membrane disruption, thereby impeding drug resistance evolution. Conclusively, AMPs engineered by the Trp-pocket skeleton hold substantial potential as innovative biological preservatives in food preservation, providing valuable insights for sustainable and safe peptide-based food preservatives.

Myoglobin as a molecular biomarker for meat authentication and traceability

The global incidence of economically motivated meat adulteration represents a crucial issue for the food industry. Undeclared addition of cheaper or low-quality species to meat products of high commercial value has become a common practice that needs to be countered with specific measures. In this framework, myoglobin (Mb) is a sarcoplasmic haemoprotein, primarily responsible for meat colour and has been successfully used in meat fraud authentication. Mb is highly soluble in water, easily monitored at 409 nm and species-specific. Knowing that various analytical DNA-based and protein-based methods, as well as spectroscopic techniques have been developed over the years for the detection of meat fraud, the aim of the present review is to take stock of the situation regarding the possible use of Mb as a molecular biomarker for the easy and rapid detection of undeclared species in meat products, avoiding the need of sophisticated or expensive equipment and specialised operators.

The potential of glycinin basic peptide derived from soybean as a promising candidate for the natural food additive and preservative: A review

Glycinin basic peptide (GBP) is the basic polypeptide of soybean glycinin that is isolated using cheap and readily available raw materials (soybean meals). GBP can bear high-temperature processing and has good functional properties, such as emulsification and adhesion properties et al. GBP exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi. Beyond that, GBP shows enormous application potential to improve the quality and extend the shelf life of food products. This review will systematically provide information on the purification, physicochemical and functional properties of GBP. Moreover, the antimicrobial activities and multi-target antimicrobial mechanism of GBP as well as the applications of GBP in different food products are also reviewed and discussed in detail. This review aims to offer valuable insights for the applications of GBP in the food industry as a promising natural food additive and preservative.

Research progress of microfluidics-based food safety detection

High demands for food safety detection and analysis have been advocated with people's increasing living standards. Even though numerous analytical testing techniques have been proposed, their widespread adoption is still constrained by the high limit of detection, narrow detection ranges, and high implementation costs. Due to their advantages, such as reduced sample and reagent consumption, high sensitivity, automation, low cost, and portability, using microfluidic devices for food safety monitoring has generated significant interest. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest microfluidic detection platforms (published in recent 4 years) and their applications in food safety, aiming to provide references for developing efficient research strategies for food contaminant detection and facilitating the transition of these platforms from laboratory research to practical field use.

Method Validation Study of Dipstick Urinalysis as a Screening Tool for Sodium Nitrite Toxicity

ABSTRACT

The incidence of suicide by intentional nitrite ingestion has increased since 2017. Limited options exist for commercial laboratory analysis for nitrite/nitrate. This study investigates the use of urine dipsticks for screening at autopsy for potential toxicity with sodium nitrite and, less commonly, alkyl nitrite. Archived samples of blood, urine, vitreous fluid, and gastric contents from 4 sodium nitrite/nitrate cases, 3 alkyl nitrite cases, and 4 control cases were tested using dipsticks. A rapid, strong positive result for nitrite was in the vitreous fluid of all 4-sodium nitrite/nitrate cases, along with 2 positive urine and 1 positive gastric. The 2 alkyl nitrite inhalation toxicity cases had no positive results. One alkyl nitrite ingestion case had a positive urine. The 4 controls had negative urine: equivocal results in 2 vitreous, and 1 positive gastric. Urine dipsticks are a useful adjunct to laboratory testing for nitrite toxicity and provide a rapid, cost-effective tableside result that may guide the need for further testing. Vitreous fluid and urine appear to be the most reliable specimens, although testing of gastric liquid may be useful to corroborate oral ingestion. Dipsticks may not be a reliable adjunct for testing for alkyl nitrite toxicity via inhalation route, likely due to the much lower nitrite concentration compared to nitrite ingestion cases.

Emulsified and Nanoemulsified Essential Oils in the Control of Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium sporogenes in Mortadella

Clostridium botulinum is a foodborne pathogen responsible for severe neuroparalytic disease associated with the ingestion of pre-formed toxin in food, with processed meats and canned foods being the most affected. Control of this pathogen in meat products is carried out using the preservative sodium nitrite (NaNO2), which in food, under certain conditions, such as thermal processing and storage, can form carcinogenic compounds. Therefore, the objective was to use nanoemulsified essential oils (EOs) as natural antimicrobial agents, with the aim of reducing the dose of NaNO2 applied in mortadella. The antimicrobial activity of nanoemulsions prepared with mixtures of EOs of garlic, clove, pink pepper, and black pepper was evaluated on endospores and vegetative cells of C. botulinum and Clostridium sporogenes (surrogate model) inoculated in mortadella prepared with 50 parts per million NaNO2. The effects on the technological (pH, water activity, and color) and sensory characteristics of the product were also evaluated. The combinations of EOs and their nanoemulsions showed sporicidal effects on the endospores of both tested microorganisms, with no counts observed from the 10th day of analysis. Furthermore, bacteriostatic effects on the studied microorganisms were observed. Regarding the technological and sensorial characteristics of the product, the addition of the combined EOs had a negative impact on the color of the mortadella and on the flavor/aroma. Despite the strong commercial appeal of adding natural preservatives to foods, the effects on flavor and color must be considered. Given the importance of controlling C. botulinum in this type of product, as well as the reduction in the amount of NaNO2 used, this combination of EOs represents a promising antimicrobial alternative to this preservative, encouraging further research in this direction.

Oral nitrate-reducing bacteria as potential probiotics for blood pressure homeostasis

Hypertension is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and poses a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney disease. Research has shown that nitric oxide (NO) is a vasodilator that regulates vascular tension and the decrease of NO bioactivity is considered one of the potential pathogenesis of essential hypertension. The L-arginine-nitric oxide synthase (NOS) pathway is the main source of endogenous NO production. However, with aging or the onset of diseases, the function of the NOS system becomes impaired, leading to insufficient NO production. The nitrate-nitrite-NO pathway allows for the generation of biologically active NO independent of the NOS system, by utilizing endogenous or dietary inorganic nitrate and nitrite through a series of reduction cycles. The oral cavity serves as an important interface between the body and the environment, and dysbiosis or disruption of the oral microbiota has negative effects on blood pressure regulation. In this review, we explore the role of oral microbiota in maintaining blood pressure homeostasis, particularly the connection between nitrate-reducing bacteria and the bioavailability of NO in the bloodstream and blood pressure changes. This review aims to elucidate the potential mechanisms by which oral nitrate-reducing bacteria contribute to blood pressure homeostasis and to highlight the use of oral nitrate-reducing bacteria as probiotics for oral microbiota intervention to prevent hypertension.

N-Nitrosamines: a potential hazard in processed meat products

Nitrite, nitrate, and their salts are added to processed meat products to improve color, flavor, and shelf life and to lower the microbial burden. N-Nitrosamine compounds are formed when nitrosing agents (such as secondary nitrosamines) in meat products interact with nitrites and nitrates that have been added to the meat. With the consumption of such meat products, nitrosation reactions occur in the human body and N-nitrosamine formation occurs in the gastrointestinal tract. Despite the benefits nitrites and nitrates have on food, their tendency to create nitrosamines and an increase in the body's nitrous amine load presents health risks. The inclusion of nitrosamine compounds in possible and probable carcinogen classes according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer requires a re-examination of the literature review on processed meat products. This article evaluates the connections between various cancer types and nitrosamines found in processed meat products. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The effects of nitrate on the oral microbiome: a systematic review investigating prebiotic potential

Background

Nitrate (NO3-) has been suggested as a prebiotic for oral health. Evidence indicates dietary nitrate and nitrate supplements can increase the proportion of bacterial genera associated with positive oral health whilst reducing bacteria implicated in oral disease(s). In contrast, chlorhexidine-containing mouthwashes, which are commonly used to treat oral infections, promote dysbiosis of the natural microflora and may induce antimicrobial resistance.

Methods

A systematic review of the literature was undertaken, surrounding the effects of nitrate on the oral microbiota.

Results

Overall, n = 12 in vivo and in vitro studies found acute and chronic nitrate exposure increased (representatives of) health-associated Neisseria and Rothia (67% and 58% of studies, respectively) whilst reducing periodontal disease-associated Prevotella (33%). Additionally, caries-associated Veillonella and Streptococcus decreased (25% for both genera). Nitrate also altered oral microbiome metabolism, causing an increase in pH levels (n = 5), which is beneficial to limit caries development. Secondary findings highlighted the benefits of nitrate for systemic health (n = 5).

Conclusions

More clinical trials are required to confirm the impact of nitrate on oral communities. However, these findings support the hypothesis that nitrate could be used as an oral health prebiotic. Future studies should investigate whether chlorhexidine-containing mouthwashes could be replaced or complemented by a nitrate-rich diet or nitrate supplementation.

Genetic Variability Impacts Genotoxic and Transcriptome Responses in the Human Colon after the Consumption of Processed Red Meat Products and Those with Added Phytochemical Extracts

The PHYTOME study investigated the effect of consuming processed meat products on outcomes related to colorectal cancer risk without testing the impact of genetic variability on these responses. This research aims to elucidate the genetic impact on apparent total N-nitroso compound (ATNC) excretion, colonic DNA adduct formation, ex vivo-induced DNA damage, and gene expression changes in colon biopsies of healthy participants. Through a systematic literature review, candidate polymorphisms were selected and then detected using TaqMan and PCR analysis. The effect of genotype on study outcomes was determined via a linear mixed model and analysis of variance. Machine learning was used to evaluate relative allele importance concerning genotoxic responses, which established a ranking of the most protective alleles and a combination of genotypes (gene scores). Participants were grouped by GSTM1 genotype and differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and overrepresented biological pathways were compared between groups. Stratifying participants by ten relevant genes revealed significant variations in outcome responses. After consumption of processed red meat, variations in NQO1 and COMT impacted responses in ATNC levels (µmol/L) (+9.56 for wildtype vs. heterozygous) and DNA adduct levels (pg/µg DNA) (+1.26 for variant vs. wildtype and +0.43 for variant vs. heterozygous), respectively. After phytochemicals were added to the meat, GSTM1 variation impacted changes in DNA adduct levels (-6.12 for deletion vs. wildtype). The gene scores correlated with these responses and DEGs were identified by GSTM1 genotype. The altered pathways specific to the GSTM1 wildtype group included 'metabolism', 'cell cycle', 'vitamin D receptor', and 'metabolism of water-soluble vitamins and co-factors'. Genotype impacted both the potential genotoxicity of processed red meat and the efficacy of protective phytochemical extracts.

A review on nitrates' health benefits and disease prevention

Dietary nitrates (NO3-) are naturally occurring compounds in various vegetables, especially beetroot, which is mainly supplemented in the form of BRJ. Dietary nitrates (NO3-) play a crucial function in human physiology. On consumption, nitrates (NO3-) undergo a conversion process, producing nitric oxide (NO) via a complex metabolic pathway. Nitric oxide (NO) is associated with many physiological processes, entailing immune modulation, neurotransmission, and vasodilation, enabling blood vessel dilation and relaxation, which boosts blood flow and oxygen delivery to tissues, positively influencing cardiovascular health, exercise performance, and cognitive function. There are various analytical processes to determine the level of nitrate (NO3-) present in dietary sources. The impact of dietary nitrates (NO3-) can differ among individuals. Thus, the review revisits the dietary source of nitrates (NO3-), its metabolism, absorption, excretion, analytical techniques to assess nitrates (NO3-) content in various dietary sources, and discusses health effects.

Study of the Oxidative and Microbiological Stability of Nitrite-Reduced, Vacuum-Packed, Refrigerated Lamb Sausages Supplemented with Red Propolis Extract

Vacuum-packed lamb sausages with or without red propolis extract and a reduced sodium nitrite content were evaluated for oxidative and microbiological stability during storage for 21 days at 2 °C. The following treatments were evaluated: EN150 (control, base formulation (BF) + 500 mg/kg sodium erythorbate and 150 mg/kg sodium nitrite); EN75 (BF + 500 mg/kg sodium erythorbate and 75 mg/kg sodium nitrite); P1N75 (without the addition of erythorbate, BF + 1800 mg/kg propolis extract and 75 mg/kg sodium nitrite); and P2N75 (without the addition of erythorbate, BF + 3600 mg/kg propolis extract and 75 mg/kg sodium nitrite). Analyses were conducted to characterize the samples on day 0 with respect to the proximate composition (moisture, protein, fat, and ash) and sensory acceptance. Stability during refrigerated storage was evaluated on days 0, 7, 14 and 21 for the parameters pH, color profile (L*, a*, and b*), TBARs index (oxidative stability) and microbiological count of aerobic psychrotrophic microorganisms. Texture profile, cooking weight loss (WLC), peroxide index and free fatty acids were evaluated on days 0 and 21. The treatments with propolis and reduced nitrite (EN150 and P1N75) showed a red color intensity (a*) similar to the treatment with erythorbate and the same nitrite content (EN75) at the end of storage, maintaining the characteristic reddish color of the sausages. The extract slowed down lipid oxidation during storage, especially P2N75, which showed the lowest level of TBARS (0.39 mg MDA/kg) and the peroxide index (2.13 mEq g O2) on day 21. The residual nitrite value in EN75 was the lowest (p < 0.05) on day 21, showing that synthetic antioxidants are more efficient than the extract in nitrite reduction reactions. The results for the counts of psychrotrophic microorganisms showed that the extract did not have the expected antimicrobial effect on the growth of this microorganisms, and leveling the results revealed no differences (p < 0.05) between the treatments. Despite the red propolis extract not showing a significant antimicrobial improvement in lamb sausages, it can be considered a healthy option with good prospects for replacing synthetic antioxidants with a natural product.

Salt reduction behavior of adults in Anhui province in 2019: a cross-sectional survey of 3,378 participants

Objective

A high-sodium diet is an important risk factor for hypertension in the Chinese population, which can increase the risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Although a large number of related studies have been carried out in Anhui province, clear, effective salt reduction interventions and policies that can be widely promoted have not yet been formed. This study sought to understand the prevalence and precise measures of salt reduction behavior, the variables affecting salt reduction behavior, and the reasons why salt reduction behavior was not practiced in Anhui Province, China.

Methods

The total number of participants in the study was 3,378. Using a multi-stage stratified cluster random sampling method, residents between the ages of 18 and 69 years in 10 counties and districts were selected from March to October 2019. A survey questionnaire and physical measurements were given to each participant. The influencing factors of residents' salt reduction behavior were examined using a multi-factor unconditional logistic regression analysis. The chi-squared (χ2) test was used to analyze the implementation of salt reduction behaviors among different age groups and gender, the factors influencing the implementation of salt reduction measures, and the reasons for not implementing salt reduction measures.

Results

A history of hypertension was associated with salt reduction strategies (P = 0.014). Patients with hypertension were more likely to adopt salt reduction behaviors than those without hypertension (OR = 1.218, P = 0.040). The influence of eating out on the adoption of salt-reduction measures varied by age group (χ2 = 50.463, P < 0.001) and gender (χ2 = 81.348, P < 0.001).

Conclusion

In summary, residents of the Anhui Province are not very knowledgeable about salt reduction. Age, gender, education level, hypertension, and marital status are the main determinants. Our findings have significant implications for policymakers who want to devise salt reduction strategies.

Impact of Dietary Nitrate on the Recovery of Therapy-related Vascular Health Impairments Following Standard Periodontal Aftercare Therapy: a Hypothesis-generating Subanalysis

This follow-up study assessed the impact of a nitrate-rich diet on salivary nitrate/nitrite levels and the recovery of therapy-induced vascular impairments in a cohort of 39 periodontitis patients treated by standard subgingival mechanical plaque removal (PMPR). At baseline, saliva samples for nitrate/nitrite analysis were collected, and peripheral/central blood and augmentation pressure was documented using the Arteriograph recording system. Immediately after, PMPR vascular parameters were reassessed. All study patients received a randomly allocated supply of a lettuce beverage to be consumed for 14 days, containing either a daily dosage of 200 mg nitrate (test group, n = 20) or being void of nitrate (placebo group, n = 19). At day 14, salivary and vascular parameters were reassessed. Initial salivary and vascular parameters did not differ significantly between the groups. PMPR impaired all vascular parameters in both groups with no differences between the groups. At day 14, salivary nitrate/nitrite levels of the test group were significantly elevated compared to baseline. All vascular parameters had significantly recovered from the impairment inflicted by PMPR. In the placebo group, by contrast, salivary parameters did not differ significantly from baseline, and the recovery of impaired vascular parameters was restricted to a significant improvement of diastolic blood pressure. Correlation analysis identified a significant inverse correlation between salivary nitrate/nitrite sum and central/peripheral blood pressure and augmentation pressure. In conclusion, the data of this subanalysis suggest that increasing salivary nitrate/nitrite levels by a diet rich in nitrate may improve recovery of therapy-induced vascular impairments after PMPR.

New and efficient direct-SLM two-phase hollow fiber electromembrane extraction coupled to GC/MS for the analysis of nitrosamines in different types of sausage: Investigation of meat type, meat percent and cooking methods

The potent two-phase hollow fiber electromembrane extraction technique coupled to gas chromatography mass spectrometry (HF-EME/GC-MS) was proposed for the determination of six types of carcinogen nitrosamines in sausages samples. Two steps of sample digestion were accomplished for the complete removal of fat globules and efficient release of target analytes. The extraction principle was based on electro-migration of target analytes via specific fiber to extraction solvent. 2-Nitrophenyl octyl ether (NPOE) was dexterously employed as both supported liquid membrane and extraction solvent, which is compatible with GC-MS. After the extraction process, the NPOE containing nitrosamines was directly injected to GC-MS without extra steps requirement to reduce analysis time. The consequences revealed that N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) as the most potent carcinogen has the highest concentration in fried and oven-cooked sausages with 70% of red meat. The meat type and amount and also cooking process could significantly effect on nitrosamines formation.

Morphological Effects of Au Nanoparticles on Electrochemical Sensing Platforms for Nitrite Detection

Au nanoparticles were synthesized in a soft template of pseudo-polyanions composed of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) by the in situ reduction of chloroauric acid (HAuCl₄) with PVP. The particle sizes and morphologies of the Au nanoparticles were regulated with concentrations of PVP or SDS at room temperature. Distinguished from the Au nanoparticles with various shapes, Au nanoflowers (AuNFs) with rich protrusion on the surface were obtained at the low final concentration of SDS and PVP. The typical AuNF synthesized in the PVP (50 g·L^-1)-SDS (5 mmol·L^-1)-HAuCl₄ (0.25 mmol·L^-1) solution exhibited a face-centered cubic structure dominated by a {111} crystal plane with an average equivalent particle size of 197 nm and an average protrusion height of 19 nm. Au nanoparticles with four different shapes, nanodendritic, nanoflower, 2D nanoflower, and nanoplate, were synthesized and used to modify the bare glassy carbon electrode (GCE) to obtain Au/GCEs, which were assigned as AuND/GCE, AuNF/GCE, 2D-AuNF/GCE, and AuNP/GCE, respectively. Electrochemical sensing platforms for nitrite detection were constructed by these Au/GCEs, which presented different detection sensitivity for nitrites. The results of cyclic voltammetry (CV) demonstrated that the AuNF/GCE exhibited the best detection sensitivity for nitrites, and the surface area of the AuNF/GCE was 1.838 times of the bare GCE, providing a linear c(NO₂^-) detection range of 0.01-5.00 µmol·L^-1 with a limit of detection of 0.01 µmol·L^-1. In addition, the AuNF/GCE exhibited good reproducibility, stability, and high anti-interference, providing potential for application in electrochemical sensing platforms.

Addressing Clean Label Trends in Commercial Meat Processing: Strategies, Challenges and Insights from Consumer Perspectives

BACKGROUND

The concept of a clean label is difficult to define, even in common language, as the interpretation of what a "clean" food is differs from one person to another and from one organisation to another. The lack of a unique definition and regulations of what the term "clean" means, along with the growing consumer demand for more "natural" and healthier foods, is posing new challenges for manufacturers and ingredient producers. The meat industry, in particular, has been affected by this new movement owing to negative attitudes and feelings consumers associate with consuming processed meat products. Scope and approach: The review scope is to describe attributes and associations around the "clean" label term by analysing the most recent ingredients, additives and processing methods currently available for meat manufacturers. Their application in meat, plant-based alternatives and hybrid meat/plant products, current limitations and challenges presented in consumer perception, safety and potential impacts on product quality are also presented.

KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The availability of a growing number of "clean" label ingredients provides a new suite of approaches that are available for application by meat processors to help overcome some of the negative connotations associated with processed meat products and also support plant-based meat alternatives and hybrids.

Utilization of Porcine Livers through the Formation of Zn-Protoporphyrin Pigment Optimized by a Response Surface Methodology

There is a growing demand for clean-label products. This study aimed to obtain a food-grade coloring ingredient for meat products based on the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin from porcine livers, thus contributing to the development of nitrite-free products. First, the effects of sodium disulfite and acetic, ascorbic, and lactic acids on the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin and the total microbial count were studied. The combination of ascorbic and acetic acids resulted in a higher Zn-protoporphyrin content than acetic acid alone, and microbial levels were maintained (ca. 3 log CFU/mL). Second, a response surface methodology was used to maximize Zn-protoporphyrin while maintaining microbiological food standards. To that end, the effects of pH (4.2-5.4), incubation time (3-30 h), and temperature (25-50 °C) were studied. The selected conditions for Zn-protoporphyrin formation involved anaerobic incubation at pH 4.8 and 45 °C for 24 h. The safety was validated through challenge testing for relevant pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and Clostridium perfringens). A significant reduction (>6 log units) was observed in the selected conditions for L. monocytogenes and Salmonella, whereas C. perfringens spores remained at the inoculated levels. The optimized procedure is proven to be microbiologically safe, and may improve the color of nitrite-free meat products.

Nitrite and nitrate intake from processed meat is associated with elevated diastolic blood pressure (DBP)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Processed meat consumption has been linked to high blood pressure (BP), a key risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), but gaps remain with regards to the ingredients which contribute to this association. This study, therefore, aimed to examine the association between nitrite and nitrate intake from processed meat with diastolic (DBP) and systolic (SBP) blood pressure, while accounting for sodium intake.

METHODS

Dietary nitrite and nitrate intake from processed meat, assessed as total nitrite equivalent, was estimated for 1774 adult, processed meat consumers (≥18 years, 55.1% females) who had enrolled in the Hellenic National Nutrition and Health Survey (HNNHS). To avoid selection and reverse causality bias, associations with measured DBP and SBP were considered instead of self-reported data of hypertension presence. Participants were divided by tertile of dietary nitrite intake and by level of dietary guideline adherence for sodium (<1500; 1500-2300; ≥2300). Multiple regression models were used to examine associations with SBP and DBP, including an interaction term of nitrite with dietary sodium intake, for potential synergy.

RESULTS

Overall, DBP increased by 3.05 mmHg (95% CI: 0, 6.06), per tertile increase in nitrite intake and 4.41 mmHg (95% CI: 0.17, 8.64) per level increase in sodium intake, when the interaction effect between nitrite and total sodium intakes was accounted for. By considering the significant synergistic effect of the two factors, DBP finally increased by 0.94 mgHg overall and 2.24 mgHg for subjects in the third tertile compared to those in the first. Also, a rise in total sodium intake of approximately 800 mg, above 1500 mg, caused a 2.30 mgHg increase in DBP. No significant correlations were found with SBP.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher nitrite and nitrate intake from processed meats contributed to the increase of DBP, but the interaction effect with total sodium intake levels should be accounted for to properly interpret the findings.

Biogenic amines and volatile N-nitrosamines in Chinese smoked-cured bacon (Larou) from industrial and artisanal origins

This study aimed to compare biogenic amines (BAs), volatile N-nitrosamines (VNAs) and chemical properties of Chinese smoked-cured bacon (Larou) from industrial and artisanal sources. The results indicated that nitrite residues were low in artisanal Larou, whereas the salt content was relatively high in all samples. The family-made Larou accumulated high levels of BAs and probably present a health risk. Additionally, phenylethylamine exceeded 30 mg/kg in 4 out of 5 industrial Larou samples, whereas, 9 VNAs concentrations were low and unlikely to induce adverse health effects on consumers. Principal component analysis revealed that the industrial Larou products had similar safety properties in terms of BAs and VNAs content when compared to the family-made samples. Correlation analysis indicated that BAs and VNAs were significantly correlated with free amino acids, a_w, pH and NaCl, respectively. This study suggests that the quality of Larou needs to be further improved by reducing salt and BAs content.

Nitrite and nitrate in meat processing: Functions and alternatives

Meat and meat products are important foods in the human diet, but there are concerns about their quality and safety. The discovery of carcinogenic and genotoxic N-nitroso compounds (NOCs) in processed meat products has had serious negative impacts on the meat industry. In order to clarify the relationship between the use of nitrite or nitrate and the safety of meat or meat products, we reviewed NOCs in meat and meat products, the origin and safety implications of NOCs, effects of nitrite and nitrate on meat quality, national regulations, recent publications concerning the using of nitrite and nitrate in meat or meat products, and reduction methods. By comparing and analyzing references, (1) we found antioxidant, flavor improvement and shelf-life extension effects were recently proposed functions of nitrite and nitrate on meat quality, (2) the multiple functions of nitrite and nitrate in meat and meat products couldn't be fully replaced by other food additives at present, (3) we observed that the residual nitrite in raw meat and fried meat products was not well monitored, (4) alternative additives seem to be the most successful methods of replacing nitrite in meat processing, currently. The health risks of consuming processed meat products should be further evaluated, and more effective methods or additives for replacing nitrite or nitrate are needed.

Association of urinary nitrate with diabetes complication and disease-specific mortality among adults with hyperglycemia

BACKGROUND

The hyperglycemia condition disrupts the metabolism of nitrate/nitrite and nitric oxide, and dietary nitrate intake can restore nitric oxide homeostasis. This study aims to examine whether urinary nitrate is associated with diabetes complications and long-term survival among people with hyperglycemia.

METHODS

A total of 6208 people with hyperglycemia who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2005 to 2014 were enrolled. Diabetes complications included congestive heart failure, coronary heart disease, angina, stroke, myocardial infarction, diabetic retinopathy, and nephropathy. Mortality wasobtained from the National Death Index until 2015. Urinary nitrate was measured by ion chromatography coupled with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry, which was log-transformed and categized into tertiles. Logistic regression models and cox proportional hazards models were respectively performed to assess the association of urinary nitrate with the risk of diabetes complications and disease-specific mortalities.

RESULTS

After adjustment for potential confounders including urinary perchlorate and thiocyanate, compared with the participants in the lowest tertile of nitrate, the participants in the highest tertile had lower risks of congestive heart failure(odd-ratio[OR] = 0.41, 95%CI:0.27-0.60) and diabetic nephropathy(OR = 0.50, 95%CI: 0.41-0.62). Meanwhile, during a total follow-up of 41,463 person-year, the participants in the highest tertile had lower mortality risk of all-cause(hazard-ratio[HR] = 0.78, 95%CI:0.62-0.97), cardiovascular disease(CVD)(HR = 0.56, 95%CI:0.37-0.84) and diabetes(HR = 0.47, 95%CI:0.24-0.90), which showed dose-dependent linear relationships(P for non-linearity > 0.05). Moreover, no association between nitrate and cancer mortality was observed(HR = 1.13, 95%CI:0.71-1.80).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher urinary nitrate is associated with lower risk of congestive heart failure and diabetic nephropathy, and lower risk of all-cause, CVD, and diabetes mortalities. These findings indicated that inorganic nitrate supplementation can be considered as a supplementary treatment for people with hyperglycemia.

Accurate quantification, naked eyes detection and bioimaging of nitrite using a colorimetric and near-infrared fluorescent probe in food samples and Escherichia coli

Nitrite (NO₂^-) is an inorganic contaminant that exists widely in the environment including water and food products, excessive amounts of NO₂^- would threaten humans and aquatic life. Developing a rapid and convenient sensing method for NO₂^- remains a great challenge. Herein, a colorimetric and near-infrared fluorescent probe (TBM) was synthesized and applied for sensitively and selectively detecting NO₂^- in water, food samples and Escherichia coli (E. coli). With the addition of NO₂^-, the probe TBM solution has a distinct visual color changed from red to colorless and fluorescence intensity at 620 nm quickly decreased. The probe TBM could detect NO₂^- quantitatively with a detection limit of 85 nM based on a 3σ/slope. Under optimum conditions, TBM has been successfully used to detect NO₂^- in real-world environmental and dietary samples, with positive results. Besides, paper strips loaded with TBM have been used to visually determine NO₂^- levels. Most importantly, TBM has also been proven to be able to discriminate from different concentrations of NO₂^- in E. coli by fluorescence imaging. In summary, the probe TBM was successfully developed for the accurate quantification, naked eyes detection and bioimaging of NO₂^- in water, food samples and E. coli, which provides a useful tool to better guarantee the quality and safety of daily life and food industry.

Bacterial nitric oxide synthase in colorizing meat products: Current development and future directions

Nitrite has been widely used in meat products for its abilities including color formation, antimicrobial properties, flavor formation and preventing lipid oxidation. However, the possible generation of N-nitrosamines through reaction of nitrite with secondary amines arises many concerns in the usage of nitrite. For a long time, nitrite substitution is unsettled issue in the meat industry. Many attempts have been tried, however, the alternative solutions are often ephemeral and palliative. In recent years, bacterial nitric oxide synthase (bNOS) has received attention for its critical roles, especially in reddening meat products. This comprehensive background study summarizes the application of bNOS in colorizing meat products, its functions in bacteria, and methods of regulating the bNOS pathway. Based on this information, some strategies for promoting the nitric oxide yield for effectively substituting nitrite are presented, such as changing the environmental conditions for bacterial survival and adding substrate. Thus, bNOS is a promising nitrite substitute for color formation, and further research on its other roles in meat needs to be carried out to obtain the complete picture.

Nitrites in Cured Meats, Health Risk Issues, Alternatives to Nitrites: A Review

Nitrite is one of the most widely used curing ingredients in meat industries. Nitrites have numerous useful applications in cured meats and a vital component in giving cured meats their unique characteristics, such as their pink color and savory flavor. Nitrites are used to suppress the oxidation of lipid and protein in meat products and to limit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms such as Clostridium botulinum. Synthetic nitrite is frequently utilized for curing due to its low expenses and easier applications to meat. However, it is linked to the production of nitrosamines, which has raised several health concerns among consumers regarding its usage in meat products. Consumer desire for healthier meat products prepared with natural nitrite sources has increased due to a rising awareness regarding the application of synthetic nitrites. However, it is important to understand the various activities of nitrite in meat curing for developing novel substitutes of nitrites. This review emphasizes on the effects of nitrite usage in meat and highlights the role of nitrite in the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines as well as possible nitrite substitutes from natural resources explored also.

Cleaning the Label of Cured Meat; Effect of the Replacement of Nitrates/Nitrites on Nutrients Bioaccessibility, Peptides Formation, and Cellular Toxicity of In Vitro Digested Salami

Curing salts composed of mixtures of nitrates and nitrites are preservatives widely used in processed meats. Despite many desirable technological effects, their use in meat products has been linked to methemoglobinemia and the formation of nitrosamines. Therefore, an increasing “anti-nitrite feeling” has grown among meat consumers, who search for clean label products. In this view, the use of natural compounds as alternatives represents a challenge for the meat industry. Processing (including formulation and fermentation) induces chemical or physical changes of food matrix that can modify the bioaccessibility of nutrients and the formation of peptides, impacting on the real nutritional value of food. In this study we investigated the effect of nitrate/nitrite replacement with a combination of polyphenols, ascorbate, and nitrate-reducing microbial starter cultures on the bioaccessibility of fatty acids, the hydrolysis of proteins and the release of bioactive peptides after in vitro digestion. Moreover, digested salami formulations were investigated for their impacts on cell proliferation and genotoxicity in the human intestinal cellular model (HT-29 cell line). The results indicated that a replacement of synthetic nitrates/nitrites with natural additives can represent a promising strategy to develop innovative “clean label” salamis without negatively affecting their nutritional value.

A Comprehensive Review on the Processing of Dried Fish and the Associated Chemical and Nutritional Changes

Fish is a good source of nutrients, although it is easily spoiled. As such, drying is a common method of preserving fish to compensate for its perishability. Dried fish exists in different cultures with varying types of fish used and drying methods. These delicacies are not only consumed for their convenience and for their health benefits, as discussed in this review. Most commonly, salt and spices are added to dried fish to enhance the flavours and to decrease the water activity (aw) of the fish, which further aids the drying process. For fish to be dried effectively, the temperature, drying environment, and time need to be considered along with the butchering method used on the raw fish prior to drying. Considering the various contributing factors, several physicochemical and biochemical changes will certainly occur in the fish. In this review, the pH, water activity (aw), lipid oxidation, and colour changes in fish drying are discussed as well as the proximate composition of dried fish. With these characteristic changes in dried fish, the sensory, microbial and safety aspects of dried fish are also affected, revolving around the preferences of consumers and their health concerns, especially based on how drying is efficient in eliminating/reducing harmful microbes from the fish. Interestingly, several studies have focused on upscaling the efficiency of dried fish production to generate a safer line of dried fish products with less effort and time. An exploratory approach of the published literature was conducted to achieve the purpose of this review. This evaluation gathers important information from all available library databases from 1990 to 2022. In general, this review will benefit the fishery and food industry by enabling them to enhance the efficiency and safety of fish drying, hence minimising food waste without compromising the quality and nutritional values of dried fish.

An overview of the natural antimicrobial alternatives for sheep meat preservation

Sheep meat is consumed and appreciated all over the world for its nutritional value and flavor. However, this meat is very perishable and easily subjected to the action of both spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. For this reason, in combination with cold storage, effective preservation techniques are required. There is increasing interest in the application of natural antimicrobials, such as essential oils, extracts, spices, and by-products of the food industry. This review analyses the studies on natural antimicrobials in sheep meat and sheep meat products and gathers evidence about the encouraging results achieved on the reduction and/or elimination of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. The use of these natural antimicrobial alternatives might open up important perspectives for industrial application, considering that this specific meat is often traded over long distances. In fact, on the basis of scientific literature, natural antimicrobials can be considered a sustainable and affordable alternative to extend the shelf life of sheep meat and guarantee its safety, although many factors need to be further investigated, such as the sensory impact, potential toxicity, and economic aspects. For all these issues, investigated in some of the studies reviewed here, it is fundamental to obtain the antimicrobial effect with the minimum amount of effective substance to avoid sensory modifications, toxic effects, and unbearable costs. This study sets foundations for the possible direction of future studies, which will contribute to identify effective solutions for industrial applications of natural antimicrobials in the sheep meat industry.

M I. Warmed-over flavour profiles, microbial changes, shelf-life and check-all-that-apply sensory analysis of cooked minced pork treated with varying levels of Moringa oleifera leaf and root powder

This study investigated warmed-over flavour profiles, microbial changes, shelf-life and sensory characteristics of minced cooked pork treated with Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) root and leaf powder during refrigerated storage at 4 °C. A total of 8 treatments (control = no antioxidant; 0.5ML = 0.5% M. oleifera leaf; 1ML = 1% M. oleifera leaf; 0.5MR = 0.5 % M. oleifera root; 1MR = 1% M. oleifera root; 0.5MLR = 0.5% M. oleifera leaf and root mixed; 1MLR = 1% M. oleifera leaf and root mixed; BHT = 0.02% butylated hydroxytoluene) were evaluated. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the plant extracts against the test bacteria was determined using the serial dilution in 96 well microtiter plates technique. Warmed-over flavour profiles were determined using the test for carbonyls assay where hexanal was used as a marker for warmed-over flavour. The check-all-that-apply sensory tool was used to characterise minced cooked pork treated with different antioxidants according to warmed-over flavour taste and odour intensities. The results showed that the antibacterial assay of the extracts exhibited a broad-spectrum of activity against the tested bacteria. The leaf extracts demonstrated better activity against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, with most of the MICs at less than 1 mg/mL, while the root performed better against gram-negative bacteria compared to gram-positive bacteria. There was a significant rapid increase in the warmed-over flavour profiles of the control compared to the M. oleifera and BHT treated pork. The pork samples which had M. oleifera leaf, root, and their combination at inclusion levels of 1% and 0.5% displayed lower warmed-over flavour profiles that fell in the range (1.0–1.46 mg hexanal/100g fat) throughout the storage period. Consumer sensory evaluation revealed that pork samples treated with the highest inclusion level (1%) of the M. oleifera leaf powder received the lowest consumer rating scores for appearance. Based on these results, adding M. oleifera leaf and root powder can decrease warmed-over flavour development and improve the shelf-life of processed pork. Furthermore, the incorporation of M. oleifera root powder can potentially be more acceptable to consumers because of its colour compared to the leaf, which gives the product a green colour that may not be pleasant for some consumers. This suggests that the inclusion of the root powder at 1% may be well accepted for consumption by consumers.

The Preservative Action of Protein Hydrolysates from Legume Seed Waste on Fresh Meat Steak at 4 °C: Limiting Unwanted Microbial and Chemical Fluctuations

Valorizing agricultural wastes to preserve food or to produce functional food is a general trend regarding the global food shortage. Therefore, natural preservatives were developed from the seed waste of the cluster bean and the common bean to extend the shelf life of fresh buffalo meat steak and boost its quality via immersion in high-solubility peptides, cluster bean protein hydrolysate (CBH), and kidney bean protein hydrolysate (RCH). The CBH and the RCH were successfully obtained after 60 min of pepsin hydrolysis with a hydrolysis degree of 27−30%. The SDS-PAGE electropherogram showed that at 60 min of pepsin hydrolysis, the CBH bands disappeared, and RCH (11−48 kD bands) nearly disappeared, assuring the high solubility of the obtained hydrolysates. The CBH and the RCH have considerable antioxidant activity compared to ascorbic acid, antimicrobial activity against tested microorganisms compared to antibiotics, and significant functional properties. The CBH and the RCH (500 µg/mL) successfully scavenged 93 or 89% of DPPH radicals. During the 30-day cold storage (4 °C), the quality of treated and untreated fresh meat steaks was monitored. Protein hydrolysates (500 g/g) inhibited lipid oxidation by 130−153% compared to the control and nisin and eliminated 31−55% of the bacterial load. The CBH and the RCH (500 µg/g) significantly enhanced meat redness (a* values). The protein maintained 80−90% of the steak’s flavor and color (p < 0.05). In addition, it increased the juiciness of the steak. CBH and RCH are ways to valorize wastes that can be safely incorporated into novel foods.

Association and Interaction Effect of BHMT Gene Polymorphisms and Maternal Dietary Habits with Ventricular Septal Defect in Offspring

This study attempted to learn the association between maternal betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) gene polymorphisms, maternal dietary habits, and their interactions with the risk of ventricular septal defects (VSD) in offspring. A total of 426 mothers of VSD children and 740 control mothers were included in the study. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the level of associations and interaction effects. Our study suggested that mothers reporting excessive intake of smoked foods (aOR = 2.44, 95%CI: 1.89–3.13), barbecued foods (aOR = 1.86, 95%CI: 1.39–2.48), fried foods (aOR = 1.93, 95%CI: 1.51–2.46), and pickled vegetables (aOR = 2.50, 95%CI: 1.92–3.25) were at a significantly higher risk of VSD in offspring, instead, mothers reporting regular intake of fresh fruits (aOR = 0.47, 95%CI: 0.36–0.62), fish and shrimp (aOR = 0.35, 95%CI: 0.28–0.44), fresh eggs, (aOR = 0.56, 95%CI: 0.45–0.71), beans (aOR = 0.68, 95%CI: 0.56–0.83), and milk products (aOR = 0.67, 95%CI: 0.56–0.80) were at a lower risk of VSD in offspring. In addition, maternal BHMT gene polymorphisms at rs1316753 (CG vs. CC: aOR = 2.01, 95%CI: 1.43–2.83) and rs1915706 (CT vs. TT: (aOR = 1.81, 95%CI: 1.33–2.46) were significantly associated with increased risk of VSD in offspring. Furthermore, a significant interaction between BHMT polymorphisms and maternal bean intake was identified in the study. In conclusion, Maternal BHMT polymorphisms at rs1316753 and rs1915706, dietary habits as well as their interaction were observed to be significantly associated with the risk of VSD in offspring.

Food-inspired innovations to improve the stability of active pharmaceutical ingredients

Food-processing and pharmaceutical industries share a lot of stability issues against the same physical, chemical, and microbiological phenomena. They also share some solutions to improve the stability as the use of preservatives and packaging. Ecological concerns lead to the development of tremendous innovations in food. Some of these innovations could also be beneficial in the pharmaceutical domain. The objective of this review is to evaluate the potential application of these findings in the pharmaceutical field and the main limits in terms of toxicity, environmental, economic and regulatory issues. The principal factors influencing the shelf-life were highlighted through the description of the stability studies usually performed in the pharmaceutical industry (according to European guidelines). To counter those factors, different solutions are currently available as preservatives and specific packaging. They were described and debated with an overview of recent food innovations in each field. The limits of the current solutions in the pharmaceutical field and the innovation in the food field have inspired a critical pharmaceutical outlook. The active and intelligent packaging for active pharmaceutical ingredients of the future is imagined.

Natural alternatives for processed meat: Legislation, markets, consumers, opportunities and challenges

Consumers' interest in food with less and/or free from synthetic additives has increased considerably in recent years. In this context, researchers and industries have concentrated efforts on developing alternatives to these compounds. Replacing synthetic additives in meat products is a challenge, given their importance for sensory characteristics and food safety. Complementary technologies combined with the replacement and/or reduction of synthetic additives (hurdle technologies) has been studied focusing on the protection and extension of the shelf life of meat products. This review reports alternatives for replacing and/or reducing the use of synthetic additives in meat derivatives, aiming at the development of more natural and simpler meat products, familiar to consumers and considered clean labels.

The oral microbiome, nitric oxide and exercise performance

The human microbiome comprises ∼10¹³-10¹⁴ microbial cells which form a symbiotic relationship with the host and play a critical role in the regulation of human metabolism. In the oral cavity, several species of bacteria are capable of reducing nitrate to nitrite; a key precursor of the signaling molecule nitric oxide. Nitric oxide has myriad physiological functions, which include the maintenance of cardiovascular homeostasis and the regulation of acute and chronic responses to exercise. This article provides a brief narrative review of the research that has explored how diversity and plasticity of the oral microbiome influences nitric oxide bioavailability and related physiological outcomes. There is unequivocal evidence that dysbiosis (e.g. through disease) or disruption (e.g. by use of antiseptic mouthwash or antibiotics) of the oral microbiota will suppress nitric oxide production via the nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway and negatively impact blood pressure. Conversely, there is preliminary evidence to suggest that proliferation of nitrate-reducing bacteria via the diet or targeted probiotics can augment nitric oxide production and improve markers of oral health. Despite this, it is yet to be established whether purposefully altering the oral microbiome can have a meaningful impact on exercise performance. Future research should determine whether alterations to the composition and metabolic activity of bacteria in the mouth influence the acute responses to exercise and the physiological adaptations to exercise training.

Development of Healthier and Functional Dry Fermented Sausages: Present and Future

In recent years, consumer perception about the healthiness of meat products has changed. In this scenario, the meat industry and the scientific and technological areas have put their efforts into improving meat products and achieving healthier and functional formulations that meet the demands of today’s market and consumers. This article aims to review the current functional fermented meat products, especially on sausage development. Firstly, an emphasis is given to reducing and replacing traditional ingredients associated with increased risk to consumer’s health (sodium, fat, and nitrites), adding functional components (prebiotics, probiotics, symbiotics, and polyphenols), and inducing health benefits. Secondly, a look at future fermented sausages is provided by mentioning emerging strategies to produce innovative healthier and functional meat products. Additional recommendations were also included to assist researchers in further development of healthier and functional sausages.

Effect of detoxified Rhus verniciflua extract on oxidative stability and quality improvement of raw chicken breast during cold storage

This study investigated the utilization of detoxified Rhus verniciflua (RV) extract as a natural antioxidant to extend the shelf life of chicken breast meat during storage. Pre-heating at (35°C, 100°C, 120°C, and 140°C) was conducted on heartwood of RV prior to extraction to improve its antioxidant activity and remove the allergenic compound urushiol. The antioxidant activity was the highest when RV pre-heated at 120°C with the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) scavenging activity observed at 62.29 EC₅₀ µg/mL and 12.11 IC₅₀ mg/mL, respectively. Pre-heating also significantly increased the total phenolic content (TPC), with the highest improvement was seen at 120°C, 100°C, and 140°C respectively, wherein 35°C shared no difference with the raw RV (RRV). Urushiol content was vanished following pre-heating at 120°C and 140°C. With respect to these result, pre-heating treatment at 120°C was applied before the extraction of the heartwood of RV. Prepared breast meat sample was dipped into distilled water as a negative control, 0.02% butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) as positive control, and a solution containing detoxified RV extract (0.10%, 0.25%, 0.50%, 1.00%) at 4°C for 60 min. Treatment group with 0.50% and 1.00% addition increased the redness and yellowness value on day 6 and day 3 of storage respectively (p < 0.05). The pH value of breast meat was also increased in treatment of 0.50% and 1.00% on day 0, but subsequently lower until end of storge day compared to control negative (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 0.50% treatment exhibited a higher antioxidant activity, stronger inhibition of the microbial growth evaluated by total viable count and maintaining a lower total volatile basic nitrogen among treatments (p < 0.05), unless for BHT and 1.00% treatment groups (p > 0.05). It indicates a similar efficacy of detoxified RV extract with that of positive control treated with BHT. The results of this study suggested that dipping chicken breast meat into a solution containing 0.50% of previously pre-heated RV heartwood at 120°C could be a promising natural antioxidant for extending the shelf life, and at the same time improve its quality during storage.

Nitrate Metabolism and Ischemic Cerebrovascular Disease: A Narrative Review

Inorganic and organic nitrates are present in vivo and in vitro. Inorganic nitrate is considered a pool of nitric oxide (NO), but it can be converted into nitrite and NO through various mechanisms. It plays an important role in the regulation of complex physiological and biochemical reactions, such as anti-inflammatory processes and the inhibition of platelet aggregation, which are closely related to the pathology and treatment of cerebrovascular disease. Ischemic cerebrovascular disease is characterized by high incidence, recurrence, and disability rates. Nitrate, nitrite, and NO were recently found to be involved in cerebrovascular disease. In this review, we describe the relationship between cerebrovascular disease and nitrate metabolism to provide a basis for further advances in laboratory and clinical medicine.

Determination of dDietary exposure and extraction efficiency of nitrosamine from cooked meat

Meat products are claimed to be a source of carcinogenic nitrosamines (NAs) exposure in food. In this study, dietary exposure of six nitrosamines: N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), N-nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR), N-nitrosopiperidine (NPIP), N-nitrosodipropylamine (NDPA), N-nitrosodibutylamine (NDBA) were estimated by Gas chromatography method. Four types of processed beef products were collected from different restaurants of Dhaka city, Bangladesh and analyzed by Gas chromatography-Mass spectrometry (GC-MS) after extracting under different methods. Nitrosamines were extracted by three different methods: i) Ultrasonic, ii) Autoclave for 10 min, iii) Autoclave for 20 min, and mean recoveries were 73%, 85% and 62% respectively. The LOD (limit of detection) and the LOQ (limit of quantification) for the six nitrosamines were in the range of 0.05–0.3 μg/kg and 0.85–1.5 μg/kg, respectively. The total nitrosamine content in beef products were Shik kabab (20.87 μg/kg) > Burger patty (20.44 μg/kg) > Steak (15.84 μg/kg) >Chap (14.95 μg/kg). The daily dietary exposure for commonly consumed beef products ranged from 0.029 to 0.056 μg/kg body weight which was less than the limit set by World Health Organization (WHO). Simultaneous determination of six nitrosamines by Gas chromatography can be used for monitoring the content of nitrosamines in meat products to ensure food safety.

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Identifying the most effective extraction method of nitrosamines from cooked meat.

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Method validation for the analysis of Six nitrosamines (NAs) by GC-MS.

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Estimation of nitrosamines (NAs) in cooked meat.

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Determination of dietary exposure of NAs.

The Intake of Phosphorus and Nitrites through Meat Products: A Health Risk Assessment of Children Aged 1 to 9 Years Old in Serbia

This study provides the data on dietary exposure of Serbian children to nitrites and phosphorus from meat products by combining individual consumption data with available analytical data of meat products. A total of 2603 and 1900 commercially available meat products were categorized into seven groups and analysed for nitrite and phosphorous content. The highest mean levels of nitrite content, expressed as NaNO2, were found in finely minced cooked sausages (40.25 ± 20.37 mg/kg), followed by canned meat (34.95 ± 22.12 mg/kg) and coarsely minced cooked sausages (32.85 ± 23.25 mg/kg). The EDI (estimated daily intake) of nitrites from meat products, calculated from a National Food Consumption Survey in 576 children aged 1-9 years, indicated that the Serbian children population exceeded the nitrite ADI (acceptable daily intake) proposed by EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) in 6.4% of children, with a higher proportion in 1-3-year-old participants. The mean phosphorus concentration varied from 2.71 ± 1.05 g/kg to 6.12 ± 1.33 g/kg in liver sausage and pate and smoked meat products, respectively. The EDI of phosphorus from meat products was far below the ADI proposed by EFSA, indicating that the use of phosphorus additives in Serbian meat products is generally in line with legislation.

Dietary nitrate and nitrite and human health: a narrative review by intake source

Nitrate and nitrite are plant nutrients that, although ubiquitous in plant foods, are highly controversial substances in human nutrition because they are also used as additives in processed foods and may be found as contaminants in drinking water. The aim for this narrative review is to provide a thorough insight into the current literature on the relationship between dietary nitrate and nitrite and the health risks and benefits by source of intake. The results highlight beneficial effects of nitrate and nitrite consumption from plant origin on cardiovascular disease and, to date, no positive correlation has been reported with cancer. On the contrary, high intake of these compounds from processed animal-based foods is related to an increased risk of gastro-intestinal cancer. Nitrate in drinking water also raises some concern, because it appears to be related to adverse health effects. The up-to-date debate on the role of nitrate and nitrite in human nutrition seems to be justified and more research is required to verify safe consumption.