Effects of parsley extract powder as an alternative for the direct addition of sodium nitrite in the production of mortadella-type sausages - Impact on microbiological, physicochemical and sensory aspects

Replacing the animal fat in Bologna sausages using high internal phase emulsion stabilized with lentil protein isolate (Lens culinaris)

High internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) are promising techniques that can replace saturated fat in food without reducing the product's texture, sensory attributes, water-holding capacity, and cooking loss. In the current investigation, 100% pork back fat was replaced by HIPEs formed with lentil protein isolate (LPI) in Bologna sausages. HIPEs were prepared by 25% LPI dispersion (2, 4, 6, and 8%, w/w) and 75% (w/w) soybean oil. HIPEs with higher LPI concentration (4, 6, and 8%, w/w) showed lower droplet size, firmer appearance, and better rheology behavior than 2% LPI. The concentrations LPI (2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%, w/w) led to increased moisture in sausages (FH2, FH4, FH6, and FH8, respectively) compared to the FC. These LPI levels resulted in sausage values for pressed juice similar to the FC and lower energy values than sausages with soybean oil (FO) and pork back fat (FC). Besides, these LPI concentrations (4%, 6%, and 8%, w/w) resulted in a lower oil oxidation level in sausages with HIPEs (FH4, FH6, and FH8, respectively) compared to the control sausage formulation with pork back fat (FC). Bologna sausages elaborated with HIPEs showed emulsion stability values higher than 97%, without significance difference between them. The texture and sensory properties of sausages made with HIPEs were comparable to those made with pork back fat. HIPEs may improve the oxidation stability of the Bologna sausages. These results highlight the effectiveness of HIPEs structured with lentil protein in successfully substituting pork back fat in Bologna sausages with a better nutritional appeal.

Clean labelling sodium nitrite at pilot scale: In-situ reduction of nitrate from plant sources and its effects on the overall quality and safety of restructured cooked ham

Growing health and environmental concerns have increased demand for all-natural products, with a focus on clean labelling. Sodium nitrite is the most widely used additive in the meat industry because it imparts the typical cured flavour and colour to meat products and, most importantly, their microbiological safety. However, due to health concerns, the European Commission is proposing revised regulations to reduce nitrate and nitrite levels in meat products. As a result, the meat industry is actively seeking alternatives. This study explored the production of four cooked hams utilising nitrate-rich vegetable sources combined with two different nitrate-reducing commercial food cultures, alongside a control ham prepared with sodium nitrite (150 ppm). Microbiological, physico-chemical (pH, water activity, nitrate and nitrite concentration, lipid profile, lipid oxidation) and sensory (texture and colour profile) characterisation of the products was carried out. Challenge tests for Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium sporogenes and Clostridium perfringens have been performed to assess the growth of pathogens, if present in the products. Results revealed comparable microbiological and physico-chemical profiles across ham formulations, with minor differences observed in colour parameters for sample C. The sensory analysis showed that for the pilot ham formulations A and D, there were no significant differences in consumer perception compared to the control ham. In the challenge tests, L. monocytogenes levels were similar in both control and tested hams. There were no significant differences in C. sporogenes and C. perfringens counts at any temperature or between test and control samples. These results indicate that this technology has a potential future in the cured meat sector, as regulators mandate the reduction of added synthetic chemicals and consumers seek healthier and more natural ingredients in their daily diets.

Application of bacterial nanocellulose film loaded with sodium nitrite, sumac, and black carrot extracts to reduce sodium nitrite, extend shelf life, and inhibit Clostridium perfringens in cooked beef ham

This study aimed to develop innovative bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) films incorporated with sodium nitrite (SN), sumac extract (SE), and black carrot extract (BCE) to reduce sodium nitrite, extend shelf life, and inhibit Clostridium perfringens in cooked beef ham. The ham covered with BNC film immersed in SE (10 % w/v) + BCE (5 % w/v) + SN (125 ppm) (SE10BCE5SN125) exhibited the lowest microbial load (4.39, 4.32, 3.83, and 4.6 log cycles reductions in total viable count, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, and C. perfringens, respectively) and the lowest oxidation rate (70 % reduction compared to control) on day 28 of storage. The samples covered with SE10BCE5SN125 film had also the lowest level of residual nitrite (64 % lower compered to positive control). Positive control (ham containing 120 ppm SN) and ham covered with SE10BCE5SN125 film had the highest redness. It was concluded that the films developed in this study have the potential to reduce the use of sodium nitrite in beef ham production.

Toward "clean label" processed meat using starter culture and beetroot powder: A case-study in restructured cooked ham

This study evaluated the effects of the combination of beet powder, starter culture, and sodium erythorbate as a curing agent on the chemical and microbiological characteristics of restructured cooked ham during cold storage. Five treatments were developed: the positive control group (COP) with the addition of nitrite and sodium erythorbate, negative control treatment (CON) with the addition of sodium erythorbate; ham added with beet powder (AP), ham added with beet powder and starter culture (APC), ham added with beet powder, starter culture, and sodium erythorbate (APCE). The ham's curing properties and oxidative stability were analyzed for 30 days under refrigeration. The APCE treatment showed better conversion of nitrate to nitrite at time 0 (46.6 mg/kg). The COP sample showed higher residual nitrite content at time 0 (73.1 mg/kg) and nitrosohemochrome pigment (35.67 ppm). Combining beet powder with the commercial starter culture and sodium erythorbate in the formulation of restructured cooked hams positively affected the control of lipid and protein oxidation, making it an alternative to commercial sodium nitrite. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Beetroot and arugula powders are added to the restructured cooked ham to prepare a clean-label meat product without sodium nitrite. The effects of starter culture and sodium erythorbate are also evaluated. .

Investigating the Effects of Pink-Generating Ligands on Enhancing Color Stability and Pigment Properties in Pork Sausage Model Systems Cured with Sodium Nitrite or White Kimchi Powder

In this study, we investigated the effects of different nitrite sources (sodium nitrite or white kimchi powder) and pink-generating ligands (cysteine, histidine, or nicotinamide) on the development and stability of cured meat color in pork sausage model systems over 30 d of refrigerated storage. The samples were prepared in a 2 × 3 factorial design with two nitrite sources and three ligands, and their physicochemical properties were evaluated on days 0, 15, and 30. Although white kimchi powder induced cured color development similar to that of synthetic sodium nitrite, it resulted in higher cooking loss and lower residual nitrite content in cured pork sausages (p < 0.05). The addition of cysteine resulted in significantly higher CIE a* values, cured meat pigment, and curing efficiency than histidine and nicotinamide (p < 0.05), while yielding lower pH values, residual nitrite content, and total pigment content (p < 0.05). The storage duration significantly reduced the residual nitrite and total pigment contents of the products. These findings suggest that white kimchi powder can serve as a natural alternative to sodium nitrite in pork sausage models and that the incorporation of cysteine has a favorable impact on the development and enhancement of cured meat color.

Development of semi-dried goat meat jerky using tenderizers considering the preferences of the elderly

Elderly people avoid eating red meat and dried meat product due to its texture and stiffness; they deprive them of rich sources of nutrients. In addition, food-related diseases are exponentially increasing due to using synthetic additives in food products. Therefore, this research aimed to develop semi-dried goat meat jerky considering geriatric preferences by using natural tenderizers and nitrate. Four treatments were formulated negative control (NC [synthetic nitrite without tenderizers]), positive control (PC [Swiss chard without tenderizers]), T1 (Swiss chard with pineapple powder), and T2 (Swiss chard with pineapple and tomato powder). T1 and T2 had higher processing yield, and rehydration capacity compared with NC and PC. The fat content of T1 and T2 was lower than the control groups. Moisture was significantly higher in T1, NC, and T2 than in PC (p < 0.05). T2 showed the lowest water activity (0.87), lowest shear force (4.82 kgf), and lowest total plate count (TPC). The lowest pH and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were observed in T1 and T2. T1 showed the lowest lightness and the maximum redness (p < 0.05) while PC showed the lowest yellowness. During the storage period, moisture and pH decreased, and TPC and TBARS significantly increased whereas water activity is stable regardless of the treatment. The results of the myofibrillar fragmentation index (MFI) and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel revealed that T1 and T2 more effectively converted protein to polypeptides. In addition, tenderizers positively affected thrombogenicity, atherogenicity, and hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic indices. T2 observed the highest overall sensory acceptance by reducing goaty flavor. Overall, jerky treated with tenderizers is easily chewable and digestible for the elderly due to its tenderness and essential fatty acids that would be senior-friendly food.

The Potential Substitution of Oyster Shell Powder for Phosphate in Pork Patties Cured with Chinese Cabbage and Radish Powder

The use of natural ingredients in meat processing has recently gained considerable interest, as consumers are increasingly attracted to clean-label meat products. However, limited research has been conducted on the use of natural substitutes for synthetic phosphates in the production of clean-label meat products. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential of oyster shell powder as a substitute for synthetic phosphates in pork patties cured with Chinese cabbage or radish powders. Four different groups of patties were prepared using a combination of 0.3% or 0.6% oyster shell powder and 0.4% Chinese cabbage or radish powder, respectively. These were compared with a positive control group that contained added nitrite, phosphate, and ascorbate and a negative control group without these synthetic ingredients. The results showed that patties treated with oyster shell powder had lower (p<0.05) cooking loss, thickness and diameter shrinkage, and lipid oxidation than the negative control but had lower (p<0.05) residual nitrite content and curing efficiency than the positive control. However, the use of 0.6% oyster shell powder adversely affected the curing process, resulting in a decreased curing efficiency. The impact of the vegetable powder types tested in this study on the quality attributes of the cured pork patties was negligible. Consequently, this study suggests that 0.3% oyster shell powder could serve as a suitable replacement for synthetic phosphate in pork patties cured with Chinese cabbage or radish powders. Further research on the microbiological safety and sensory evaluation of clean-label patties during storage is required for practical applications.

A Comprehensive Review of Cured Meat Products in the Irish Market: Opportunities for Reformulation and Processing

Cured meat products constitute one of the meat categories commonly consumed in Ireland and has been part of the Irish cuisine and diet for many years. Ham, gammon, and bacon are some of the products that involve curing as part of the traditional processing methods. Common among these products are high levels of salt and the addition of nitrites. These products undergo processing treatments to create variety, preserve shelf-life, and develop their unique quality and safety characteristics. However, consumers are becoming more conscious of the level of processing involved in these products, and the effects of some components and ingredients might be perceived as unhealthy. Meat product developers have been exploring ways to reduce the amount of ingredients such as salt, saturated fat, and chemical preservatives (e.g., nitrites), which are linked to health concerns. This is a challenging task as these ingredients play an important techno-functional role in the products' quality, safety, and identity. While innovative processing techniques are being introduced and progress has been made in reformulation and packaging technologies, much is still unknown, especially regarding the applicability of many of the proposed interventions to a wide range of meat products and their sustainability at the industrial scale.

Antioxidant potential of coffee husks in fresh pork sausage

Coffee husks, a by-product of dry coffee processing, present a disposal problem in coffee-producing countries. Valorization of this residue is necessary to reduce its environmental impact and improve benefits to the producer. This study evaluated the antioxidant effect of coffee husks on physicochemical properties and sensory liking of fresh sausages packaged in aerobic (AEP) or modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (20% CO2 + 80%N2). Fresh sausages were prepared with different antioxidants: no addition (control C), sodium nitrite (T2), sodium nitrite + sodium erythorbate + BHA/BHT blend (T3), sodium nitrite + coffee husk 1% (T4), sodium nitrite + coffee husk 2% (T5). Physicochemical properties (TBARs, carbonyl content, pH and instrumental color) were analyzed to evaluate the effect of added synthetic and natural antioxidants on fresh sausages. A sensory test (n = 100) was conducted to assess consumer liking of fresh sausages stored in AEP and MAP. The addition of coffee husks reduced lipid oxidation in fresh sausages, especially under MAP packaging, but did not affect carbonyl content. Consumers reported lower liking scores for products packed in MAP. The addition of coffee husks did not affect the degree of liking. Valorization of coffee husks as an antioxidant in fresh meat products is a viable natural option for the meat industry.

Novel Approaches to Improve Meat Products' Healthy Characteristics: A Review on Lipids, Salts, and Nitrites

Meat products are a staple of many diets around the world, but they have been subject to criticism due to their potential negative impact on human health. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in developing novel approaches to improve the healthy characteristics of meat products, with a particular focus on reducing the levels of harmful salts, lipids, and nitrites. This review aims to provide an overview of the latest research on the various methods being developed to address these issues, including the use of alternative salts, lipid-reducing techniques, and natural nitrite alternatives. By exploring these innovative approaches, we can gain a better understanding of the potential for improving the nutritional value of meat products, while also meeting the demands of consumers who are increasingly concerned about their health and well-being.

Effects of nitrite-rich and pigment-rich substitutes for sodium nitrite on the quality characteristics of emulsion-type pork sausages during cold storage

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of nitrite-rich (celery powder; CP) and pigment-rich (purple sweet potato powder, PSP; red beet powder, RB) substitutes for synthetic sodium nitrite (CON) on the quality characteristics of emulsion-type pork sausages during four weeks of cold storage. Natural substitutes decreased the pH, lightness, and textural properties of pork sausages during storage (P < 0.05). Pigment-rich substitutes showed a decreased antioxidant effect after two weeks of storage when compared to the nitrite-rich groups (CON and CP; P < 0.05). Pigment-rich substitutes also accelerated the discoloration of pork sausages by increasing yellowness (RB and PSP) and decreasing redness (PSP) during storage (P < 0.05). However, these two pigment-rich substitutes showed different trends in redness (higher in PSP and lower in RB) and yellowness (higher in RB and lower in PSP) when compared to the nitrite-rich groups (CON and CP). Different types (nitrite-rich and pigment-rich) of natural substitutes for sodium nitrite had different effects on the quality characteristics of emulsion-type pork sausages throughout the four weeks of storage evaluated in this study.

Effects of natural nitrite sources from arugula and barberry extract on quality characteristic of heat-treated fermented sausages

This study was designed to compare the effects of natural nitrite sources from the arugula leaves (arugula extract and pre-converted arugula extract) and the use of barberry extract (BE) in heat-treated fermented sausage formulations. Eight different sausages were manufactured as follows: pre-converted arugula extract (PA), arugula extract (A), pre-converted arugula extract + BE (PAB), arugula extract + BE (AB), nitrite +BE (POB), no nitrite+ BE (NEB), also positive and negative control groups were prepared with (POC) or without nitrite (NEC). The addition of arugula and barberry extracts reduced the residual nitrite content, in fact PAB had the lowest value with a reduction ratio of 47%. The addition of BE lowered the lipid oxidation compared to other counterparts. The use of arugula extract or pre-converted arugula extract resulted in a lower carbonylation than nitrite free samples. The use of natural extracts lowered the a* and b* values compared to control. At the end of the storage, no differences were observed on the overall acceptability of all samples. Combined use of barberry extract with arugula and pre-converted arugula extracts could be used as alternative novel curing agent in heat-treated fermented sausages.

Effects of Nitrite and Phosphate Replacements for Clean-Label Ground Pork Products

We investigated the effects of different phosphate replacements on the quality of ground pork products cured with sodium nitrite or radish powder to determine their potential for achieving clean-label pork products. The experimental design was a 2×5 factorial design. For this purpose, the ground meat mixture was assigned into two groups, depending on nitrite source. Each group was mixed with 0.01% sodium nitrite or 0.4% radish powder together with 0.04% starter culture, and then processed depending on phosphate replacement [with or without 0.5% sodium tripolyphosphate; STPP (+), STPP (-), 0.5% oyster shell calcium (OSC), 0.5% citrus fiber (CF), or 0.5% dried plum powder (DPP)]. All samples were cooked, cooled, and stored until analysis within two days. The nitrite source had no effect on all dependent variables of ground pork products. However, in phosphate replacement treatments, the STPP (+) and OSC treatments had a higher cooking yield than the STPP (-), CF, or DPP treatments. OSC treatment was more effective for lowering total fluid separation compared to STPP (-), CF, or DPP treatments, but had a higher percentage than STPP (+). The STPP (+) treatment did not differ from the OSC or CF treatments for CIE L* and CIE a*. Moreover, no differences were observed in nitrosyl hemochrome content, lipid oxidation, hardness, gumminess, and chewiness between the OSC and STPP (+) treatments. In conclusion, among the phosphate replacements, OSC addition was the most suitable to provide clean-label pork products cured with radish powder as a synthetic nitrite replacer.

Effect of rosemary essential oil as nitrite substitute on quality of sausage produced using chicken fed by thymus essential oil and rapeseed oil

The objective was to determine the effect of rosemary essential oil (REO) as nitrite substitute on the physicochemical, microbiological and sensory quality of sausage from broilers fed different levels of thymus essential oil (TEO) and rapeseed oil (RO). Broiler chicks fed TEO (0, 300 and 500 ppm) and RO (1, 3 and 5%) in a 3 × 3 factorial design. Sausages were made from meat of chicken fed TEO (0 and 500 ppm) treated with REO (120 ppm), REO:nitrite (60:60 ppm), nitrite (120 ppm) or without REO and nitrite in a 2 × 4 factorial design. Results showed that TEO increased water holding capacity and pH value and decreased malondialdehyde concentration. RO (1 and 3%) × TEO (500 ppm) group had higher unsaturated to saturated fatty acids ratio in the meat. Results showed that treatments of REO (120 ppm) decreased lipid oxidation and increased pH value of meat. Sausage produced by nitrite (120 ppm) or REO:nitrite (60:60 ppm) had lower total microbial count, lightness but higher redness and yellowness. Based on the results, TEO in chicken feed decreased lipid oxidation of sausages. Furthermore, substitution at least 60 ppm nitrite with REO had more preserving effect on quality of produced sausages.

Japanese grape (Hovenia dulcis) powder as an antioxidant agent in Bologna sausages

BACKGROUND

The Japanese grape (Hovenia dulcis Thunberg) has potential as an antioxidant due to its high content of phenolic compounds in the early maturation stages. In this study, the antioxidant sodium erythorbate (CONTROL) was replaced by Japanese grape pseudofruits dehydrated by freeze-drying (FDP) and oven drying (OP), in Bologna sausages. The commercial natural antioxidant licresse (LS), based on licorice, has also been studied.

RESULTS

No significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed for the proximate composition and the texture profile of the Bologna sausages. An increase in pH was observed during storage for all formulations. At 28 days, the treatments FDP and OP were darker (lower L* values) and less red (lower a* values), possibly due to the presence of tannins in these samples, which may have bound with the iron present in myoglobin and minimized the oxidation reactions. The use of different antioxidants affected the nitrite contents of the Bologna sausages during storage. Regarding the lipid oxidation, the Japanese grape powder was more effective in delaying the oxidation reactions in Bologna sausages after 14 and 21 days of storage when compared to LS and the CONTROL, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The Japanese grape powders were effective in retarding the lipid oxidation of Bologna sausages, possibly due to the presence of bioactive compounds, such as phenolic compounds, tannins, and ascorbic acid, showing the potential of these pseudofruits as antioxidants for use in meat products. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Nitrites in Cured Meats, Health Risk Issues, Alternatives to Nitrites: A Review

Nitrite is one of the most widely used curing ingredients in meat industries. Nitrites have numerous useful applications in cured meats and a vital component in giving cured meats their unique characteristics, such as their pink color and savory flavor. Nitrites are used to suppress the oxidation of lipid and protein in meat products and to limit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms such as Clostridium botulinum. Synthetic nitrite is frequently utilized for curing due to its low expenses and easier applications to meat. However, it is linked to the production of nitrosamines, which has raised several health concerns among consumers regarding its usage in meat products. Consumer desire for healthier meat products prepared with natural nitrite sources has increased due to a rising awareness regarding the application of synthetic nitrites. However, it is important to understand the various activities of nitrite in meat curing for developing novel substitutes of nitrites. This review emphasizes on the effects of nitrite usage in meat and highlights the role of nitrite in the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines as well as possible nitrite substitutes from natural resources explored also.

Effects of nitrite concentrations on the quality and protein oxidation of salted meat

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of different concentrations of sodium nitrite on the quality and protein oxidation of salted meat during 21 days of curing. The salted meat was treated with sodium nitrite at 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg for curing, and salted meat without sodium nitrite was used as a control. The results showed that in salted meat added with sodium nitrite, the carbonyl group, disulfide bond, dityrosine, surface hydrophobicity, and the transformation rate from α-helix to β-sheet were all significantly reduced, whereas the sulfhydryl group content of myofibrillar proteins was significantly increased compared to the control. Meanwhile, the total volatile basic nitrogen and aerobic plate content were significantly decreased, while both the pH and a* value were significantly increased with an increase in nitrite concentration compared to the control group. Importantly, this phenomenon was also observed in salted meat treated with low doses of sodium nitrite (50 mg/kg). In conclusion, the quality of salted beef can be improved by adding low-dose sodium nitrite to inhibit protein oxidation during the curing process. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: A low dose of sodium nitrite inhibited the rate of α-helix to β-sheet transformation of myofibrillar proteins in salted meat, reducing the exposure of hydrophobic groups and decreasing the production of protein oxidation products and TVB-N to improve the quality of salted meat. These results provided a theoretical basis and technical guidance for the application of low-dose sodium nitrite in meat processing enterprises.

Assessment of Japanese radish derivatives as nitrite substitute on the physicochemical properties, sensorial profile, and consumer acceptability of restructured cooked hams

This study aimed to evaluate the technological and sensory properties of restructured cooked hams prepared with natural curing agents (0.5% radish powder, HRP; 3% radish juice, HRJ; and 0.5% radish pulp powder, HRPP) and with 40 and 150 mg/kg sodium nitrite (HN40 and HN150, respectively). No difference was observed for pH, proximate composition, or cooking loss. Higher residual nitrite contents were observed in the HN150, followed by the radish derivatives hams and HN40. All radish derivatives hams had a similar hue (h) color to HN40, but the h values of HRJ also did not differ from the HN150 ones. The stability of the cured color was not affected. Consumers perceived a non-characteristic aroma and flavor in the radish derivatives hams, but the HRJ had the best acceptance scores. The HRJ appearance was similar to the HN150, and the other sensory attributes were like the HN40. The potential use of radish derivatives, especially radish juice, as natural curing agents was confirmed.

Effects of Pleurotus ostreatus on Physicochemical Properties and Residual Nitrite of the Pork Sausage

In this work, a novel sausage incorporated with the Pleurotus ostreatus (PO) puree was successfully developed to reduce the residual nitrite and lipid oxidation during refrigerated storage (4 ± 1 °C) for 20 days. Five recipes with the supplement proportion of 0 wt.%, 10 wt.%, 20 wt.%, 30 wt.%, and 40 wt.% PO were produced and their physicochemical properties, nitrite residue, and sensory characteristics were measured. The results show that the content of moisture and all the essential amino acids (especially lysine and leucine) and the non-essential amino acids (especially aspartic and glutamic), lightness, springiness, and water holding capacity of the sausages were increased. However, the content of protein, fat, ash, pH, redness, hardness, gumminess, and chewiness of the sausages was decreased. For the sensory evaluation, the sausage with 20 wt.% PO had better sensory performance including flavor, aroma, and acceptability compared with other experimental groups and the control group. Moreover, the sausages with PO reduced the residual nitrite and inhibited lipid oxidation during storage. All of these results indicate that adding PO puree into pork sausage is a realizable and effective way to obtain nutritional and healthy pork sausages.

Spicy and Aromatic Plants for Meat and Meat Analogues Applications

Aromatic and spicy plants are an important factor that contributes not only to improving the taste of meat, meat products, and meat analogues, but also to increasing the nutritional value of the products to which they are added. The aim of this paper is to present the latest information on the bioactive antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of the most commonly used herbs and spices (parsley, dill, basil, oregano, sage, coriander, rosemary, marjoram, tarragon, bay, thyme, and mint) used in the meat and meat analogues industry, or proposed to be used for meat analogues.

Nitrite-Free Implications on Consumer Acceptance and the Behavior of Pathogens in Cured Pork Loins

Cured pork loins are valued products due to their particular sensory characteristics. These products are usually prepared with nitrite to guarantee adequate color and pathogen control. The use of nitrite in meat products has been criticized due to its potential contribution to carcinogenic N-nitroso-compound formation. The present work aimed to evaluate the effect of eliminating nitrite from the manufacturing of cured loins made with wine- and water-based marinades on the color evaluation of consumers and on the behavior of Clostridium sporogenes, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella. The use of nitrite in processing cured loins resulted in a color considered adequate by more than 50% of the consumers. When nitrite was not used, the color was described mainly as weak. The hedonic evaluation of cured loins did not reflect the color evaluation. The samples with a weak and an adequate color had similar hedonic evaluations. The present work did not allow us to infer the potential interest in injecting S. xylosus into meat to prepare cured loins. The use of nitrite did not affect the survival of Cl. sporogenes, L. monocytogenes, or Salmonella. The reduction in the aw was the primary determinant influencing pathogen survival. The production of nitrite-free cured loins seems possible once the control of pathogens can be achieved. However, the product will have a weaker color. Consumers appreciate sensory aspects other than color, which, combined with the positive impact of the “additive-free” claim, can support the possibility of producing cured loins without nitrite.

The Influence of Acid Whey on the Lipid Composition and Oxidative Stability of Organic Uncured Fermented Bacon after Production and during Chilling Storage

The aim of this research was to evaluate the effect of acid whey on changes in the fatty acid profile, oxidative stability, physico-chemical parameters, and microbiological and sensory quality of traditional organic uncured fermented Polish bacon after production and during chilling storage. Three different treatments of fermented bacon were produced: C—control bacon with a nitrite curing mixture; T—bacon with a nitrate curing mixture; and AW—bacon with acid whey and NaCl. The acid whey used in the production of uncured fermented pork bacon positively changed the sensorial characteristics, directly after the ripening process, and had a positive effect in terms of a decrease in the pH of the product. All of the fermented bacon treatments in general were of good microbiological quality. A higher lactic acid bacteria (LAB) level was observed in the AW treatment after the fermentation process, and the bacteria number did not change during storage, whereas in the C and T treatments, the LAB level increased during storage (p < 0.05). The application of acid whey did not limit the formation of secondary oxidation products (TBARS) during bacon ripening (1.68 mg MDA kg⁻¹), but had a reduced value during storage time (0.73 mg MDA kg⁻¹). The highest polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels, after ripening and after four weeks of refrigerated storage, were found in the C treatment. In the AW treatment, it was found that the PUFA level increased; likewise, the content of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids increased, while saturated fatty acids (SFAs) decreased during storage (p < 0.05). The opposite tendency was observed in the C treatment. After four weeks of storage, the PUFA/SFA ratio was the lowest in the nitrate treatment, and higher values of the PUFA/SFA ratio were obtained in the acid whey and nitrite treatment (p < 0.05).

Use of Green Tea Extract and Rosemary Extract in Naturally Cured Pork Sausages with White Kimchi Powder

The impact of green tea extract powder and rosemary extract powder, alone or in combination, on the quality characteristics of naturally cured pork sausages produced with white kimchi powder as a nitrate source was evaluated. Ground pork sausages were assigned to one of seven treatments: control (0.01% sodium nitrite and 0.05% sodium ascorbate), treatment 1 (0.3% white kimchi powder and 0.05% green tea extract powder), treatment 2 (0.3% white kimchi powder and 0.1% green tea extract powder), treatment 3 (0.3% white kimchi powder and 0.05% rosemary extract powder), treatment 4 (0.3% white kimchi powder and 0.1% rosemary extract powder), treatment 5 (0.3% white kimchi powder, 0.05% green tea extract powder, and 0.05% rosemary extract powder), and treatment 6 (0.3% celery juice powder, 0.05% green tea extract powder, and 0.05% rosemary extract powder). Naturally cured products had lower (p<0.05) cooking yield and residual nitrite content than control sausages. However, compared to the control, naturally cured products with white kimchi powder (treatments 1 to 5) showed similar the pH, oxidation-reduction potential, CIE L* values, CIE a* values, nitrosyl hemochrome content, total pigment content, and curing efficiency to the control. When the amount of green tea extract powder or rosemary extract powder was increased to 0.1% (treatments 2 and 4), lipid oxidation was reduced (p<0.05). These results indicate that green tea extract powder, rosemary extract powder, and white kimchi powder may provide an effective solution to replace synthetic nitrite and ascorbate used in traditionally cured products.

Potential Alternative to Nitrite in Roasted Lamb for Sensory Attributes: Atmospheric Nonthermal Plasma Treatment

Reducing or replacing sodium nitrite without compromising the sensory attributes of meat products has always been a focus of the meat industry. In this study, five treatments, CT (without nitrite and plasma treatment), NT (with nitrite treatment), PT15, PT30, and PT45 (without nitrite and with plasma treatment for 15, 30, and 45 min, respectively), were designed to investigate the effect of atmospheric nonthermal plasma treatment replacing nitrite on the sensory attributes of roasted lamb. Results showed that PT45 decreased the residual nitrite of roasted lamb by 30% compared with NT, and nitrite was not detected in the PT15 and PT30 samples. The inhibition effect of plasma treatment on the lipid oxidation reached values from 86.69% to 89.89% compared with NT. Compared with CT, the redness of plasma-treated samples was increased by 9.30% to 31.40%, and the redness of NT samples was increased by 30.87%. In addition, the volatile compounds (OAVs > 1) of the PT30 sample were higher than those of the NT sample. The overall sensory score of the PT30 sample was higher than that of the CT sample and was similar to that of the NT samples. In conclusion, the sensory attributes of roasted lamb were enhanced by plasma treatment, and the 30 min plasma treatment is recommended.

Effect of Adding Guava (Psidium guajava) Epicarp Extract Flour on the Physicochemical, Textural, Colour and Sensory Properties of Frankfurters

Research background

The industrial transformation of tropical fruits, and in particular guava, generates a large quantity of by-products that are generally disposed of as organic waste. In these by-products a large quantity of bioactive substances is concentrated, such as carotenoids, which can be used for the partial substitution of nitrites in meat sausages without affecting their physicochemical, colour and conservation characteristics. Although there are some studies in this regard, there is still a lack of research, especially on guava residues, to verify this hypothesis. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the influence of the components of the guava epicarp extract on the physicochemical, textural, colour and sensory properties of frankfurters.

Experimental approach

There treatments were investigated (25, 50 and 75% nitrite replacement with guava epicarp flour extract), along with a control treatment without the extract. The physicochemical properties, colour coordinates, and texture parameters were analysed, and a sensory evaluation was also carried out. The treatment that gave the best results was subjected to stability analysis over 30 days.

Results and conclusions

The addition of 25% guava epicarp flour extract gave the best results, since it did not affect the colouration of the sausages or their physicochemical and textural properties. Likewise, during the stability analysis over time, the parameters related to fat oxidation were not affected, and final products had a residual nitrite load of (23.6±0.2) mg/kg, lower than the maximum allowed (150 mg/kg).

Novelty and scientific contribution

The partial substitution of the nitrites in frankfurters with the carotenoids from the guava epicarp flour added in a mass fraction up to 25% can be a viable alternative to produce sausages with lower content of nitrites, without affecting their colouration or shelf life. This is important for the meat industry, which favours the development of new products using substances of natural origin.

Alternative Curing Methods

Purpose of Review

Curing—the treatment of meat products with nitrite and nitrate—is controversially discussed by consumers, as increased consumption of cured foods might negatively influence human health.

Recent Findings

However, omitting of curing chemicals might reduce microbiological safety, thereby increasing the risk to consumer health. Also, besides the addition of nitrate/nitrite, meat products are additionally preserved within the hurdle principle by other methods such as chilling, ripening, or heating.

Summary

The present article focuses on the addition of plants/plant extracts or plasma-treated water as nitrate sources and the direct treatment of meat products with plasma for nitrate generation. With regard to color and microbial safety of cured meat products, which are relevant to the consumers, promising results were also obtained with the alternative curing methods. Nonetheless, it is doubtful to what extent these methods are viable alternatives, as the curing chemicals themselves and not their origin are problematic for consumer health.

Clean Label Meat Technology: Pre-Converted Nitrite as a Natural Curing

Clean labeling is emerging as an important issue in the food industry, particularly for meat products that contain many food additives. Among synthetic additives, nitrite is the most important additive in the meat processing industry and is related to the development of cured color and flavor, inhibition of oxidation, and control of microbial growth in processed meat products. As an alternative to synthetic nitrite, pre-converted nitrite from natural microorganisms has been investigated, and the applications of pre-converted nitrite have been reported. Natural nitrate sources mainly include fruits and vegetables with high nitrate content. Celery juice or powder form have been used widely in various studies. Many types of commercial starter cultures have been developed. S. carnosus is used as a critical nitrate reducing microorganism and lactic acid bacteria or other Staphylococcus species also were used. Pre-converted nitrite has also been compared with synthetic nitrite and studies have been aimed at improving utilization by exploiting the strengths (positive consumer attitude and decreased residual nitrite content) and limiting the weaknesses (remained carcinogenic risk) of pre-converted nitrite. Moreover, as concerns regarding the use of synthetic nitrites increased, research was conducted to meet consumer demands for the use of natural nitrite from raw materials. In this report, we review and discuss various studies in which synthetic nitrite was replaced with natural materials and evaluate pre-converted nitrite technology as a natural curing approach from a clean label perspective in the manufacturing of processed meat products.

Screening and optimization of a nitrate reductase-producing Staphylococcus simulans UV-11 and its application

A strain of Staphylococcus simulans D14 (S. simulans D14) showed the highest nitrate reductase activity (NRA) of 4.52 mM NO₂⁻/mg dry weight by the spectrophotometric method, which was screened from traditional Chinese sausage. When the UV mutagenesis time was 25 s, the positive mutation rate was the highest at 26.60%. The NRA of the obtained positive mutant UV-11 was 9.21 mM NO₂⁻/mg dry weight, and the activity was found to be 1.04-fold higher than that of the original strain S. simulans D14. A Plackett–Burman design (PBD) was employed to screen the significant variables pH, KNO₃ (%) and incubation time (h), and response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the significant variables using a Box–Behnken design (BBD). The results showed that the NRA of S. simulans UV-11 was 15.22 mM NO₂⁻/mg dry weight under optimum conditions of 37 °C, pH 6.5, incubation time 15 h, KNO₃ 0.045%, NaCl 5%, NaNO₂ 0.015%, peptone 1%, and D–mannitol 1%, which increased by 65.2% compared with the unoptimized medium. Natural curing agents (containing 10⁷ CFU/g S. simulans UV-11 under optimal conditions and 1.40% celery powder, T2) were added to the cured meat model. T2 produced significantly lighter and redder signals than the control group (C) and the addition of 150 ppm NaNO₂ group (T1). The thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) of T2 was 2.30 mg malonaldehyde/kg product and residual nitrite of T2 was 7.1 ppm after 14 days of storage,which were lower than those groups of C and T1. Taking into account the results of cured meat models, S. simulans UV-11 could be selected as a potential starter culture for the processing of natural meat products.

Combination of Flos Sophorae and chili pepper as a nitrite alternative improves the antioxidant, microbial communities and quality traits in Chinese sausages

The main issue remains finding a nitrite alternative able to provide its multiple functions. Flos Sophorae exerts antioxidant and prebiotic actions, chili pepper has potent coloring capacity, thus this study investigated whether combination of Flos Sophorae and chili pepper could address the multiple activities of nitrite in Chinese sausages. Dry-fermented sausages were prepared: control and four treatments added with 150 mg/kg sodium nitrite (Nit), 0.2% Flos Sophorae (FS), 1% chili pepper (CP), and combination of 0.2% Flos Sophorae and 1% chili pepper (FS + CP). Results indicated that FS, CP and FS + CP had higher moisture, antioxidant activity and numbers of beneficial Staphylococcus and yeasts Candida, and lower numbers of Escherichia coli and harmful fungi, while FS had lower redness and harder texture than control. Their combination inhibited the declines of capsanthin and antioxidant capacity with ripening time, further improved microbiological communities compared with CP, and resulted in higher redness, similar color score and bacterial community, less lipid oxidation and softer texture compared with Nit. These results suggested that Flos Sophorae in combination with chili pepper could replace the nitrite's contribution to red curing color and microbiological communities, and effectively hinder lipid oxidation in Chinese sausages.

Investigating the Effects of Chinese Cabbage Powder as an Alternative Nitrate Source on Cured Color Development of Ground Pork Sausages

This study investigated the effects of Chinese cabbage powder as a natural replacement for sodium nitrite on the qualities of alternatively cured pork products. Chinese cabbages grown in Korea were collected and used for preparing hot air dried powder. Different levels of Chinese cabbage powder were added to pork products and evaluated by comparing these products to those with sodium nitrite or a commercially available celery juice powder. The experimental groups included control (100 ppm sodium nitrite added), treatment 1 (0.15% Chinese cabbage powder added), treatment 2 (0.25% Chinese cabbage powder added), treatment 3 (0.35% Chinese cabbage powder added), and treatment 4 (0.4% celery juice powder added). The cooking yields and pH values of treatments 1 to 3 were significantly lower (p<0.05) than the control. However, all of the alternatively cured products were redder (higher CIE a* values; p<0.05) than the control and this result was supported from higher nitrosyl hemochrome, total pigment, and curing efficiency. Furthermore, the inclusion of vegetable powders to these products resulted in considerably less residual nitrite content. However, Chinese cabbage powder (0.25% and 0.35%) was effective in producing alternatively cured meat products with a higher curing efficiency comparable to those of the traditionally cured control or the products with celery juice powder. Therefore, Chinese cabbage powder exhibited the efficacy for use as a natural replacer for alternatively cured meat products.

Effects of radish powder concentration and incubation time on the physicochemical characteristics of alternatively cured pork products

Previous research has indicated that radish powder could be a suitable replacement for chemical nitrite sources in alternatively cured meat products. However, the effects of radish powder level on the physicochemical properties of cured meat have not been systematically studied. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of varying concentrations of radish powder and incubation time on the physicochemical properties and cured meat pigments of alternatively cured meat products. We divided our experimental setup into seven groups with different radish powder concentrations and incubation times: control (0.01% sodium nitrite), treatment 1 (0.15% radish powder and 2 h incubation), treatment 2 (0.15% radish powder and 4 h incubation), treatment 3 (0.30% radish powder and 2 h incubation), treatment 4 (0.30% radish powder and 4 h incubation), treatment 5 (0.30% celery powder and 2 h incubation), and treatment 6 (0.30% celery powder and 4 h incubation). The cooking yield, CIE a* values (redness), and total pigment levels were not significantly different (p > 0.05) between any of the alternatively cured treatments and the control. However, when 0.30% radish powder or celery powder was added to the products, the CIE b* values increased significantly (p < 0.05) with incubation time. At the same vegetable concentration, the nitrite content, nitrosyl hemochrome, and curing efficiency also increased significantly (p < 0.05) as the incubation time increased from 2 to 4 h, regardless of the types of vegetable powder. Among the meat products cured with radish powder, treatment 4 showed the highest increase in residual nitrite content, nitrosyl hemochrome content, and curing efficiency, but showed decreased lipid oxidation. Our results suggest that increased concentrations of radish powder and longer incubation times would be more suitable for producing alternatively cured meat products comparable to traditionally cured products treated with synthetic nitrite.

Effect of Using Vegetable Powders as Nitrite/Nitrate Sources on the Physicochemical Characteristics of Cooked Pork Products

This study investigated the potential for using vegetable powders as a natural replacement for sodium nitrite and their effects on the physicochemical characteristics of alternatively cured pork products. We analyzed pork products subjected to four treatments: control (0.015% sodium nitrite), Chinese cabbabe powder (CCP) treatment (0.4% Chinese cabbage powder), radish powder (RP) treatment (0.4% radish powder), and spinach powder (SP) treatment (0.4% spinach powder). Among the vegetable powders prepared in this study, SP had the highest (p<0.05) nitrate content, while CCP had the lowest (p<0.05). The cooking yields from these treatments were not significantly different from each other. However, the products with vegetable powders had higher (p<0.05) pH and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances values than the control. Pork products with vegetable powders also showed lower CIE L* values and higher CIE b* values than the nitrite-added control. RP treatment had similar (p>0.05) CIE a* values to the control, while SP treatment had the lowest (p<0.05) CIE a* values. The residual nitrite content was lower (p<0.05) in the vegetable powder added pork products than in the control, although nitrosyl hemochrome and total pigment contents in the CCP and RP treatments were similar (p>0.05) to those in the control. The control, CCP, and RP treatments showed curing efficiencies greater than 80%, indicating that CCP and RP would be promising potential replacements for sodium nitrite. The results of this study suggest that RP may be a suitable natural replacement for sodium nitrite to produce alternatively cured meat products, compared to other leafy vegetable powders.

Effects of vegetable powders as nitrite alternative in Italian dry fermented sausage

The aim of this work was to study the effects of reformulation of an Italian dry fermented sausage by replacing nitrite with celery or spinach powder alone or in combination with beet powder on some quality characteristics of the product. Five different sausage formulations were produced: i) Control negative (CN): no nitrate added; ii) Control positive (CP) 150 mg/kg potassium nitrate; Group with celery powder (GSe): 3 g/kg celery powder; iii) Group with celery powder and beet powder (GSeB): 3 g/kg of celery and beet powder, respectively; iv) Group with spinach powder and beet powder (GSpB): 3 g/kg of spinach and beet powder, respectively. There was no significant difference between the residual nitrite contents of the samples at the end of the storage period. From microbiological analysis no target pathogenic bacterium has been isolated and the lactic bacteria microflora showed a similar trend in all of the lots.

Suggested storage periods for CP, GSe and GSeB were over 60 days by taking into consideration the microbiology and sensory evaluation. Sensory evaluation scores of samples with celery powder, in fact, were comparable to those of CP during storage. The GSpB samples showed similar and higher values regarding the structural attributes, the related attribute to colour showed decidedly lower values due to a greenish coloration of the slice to the presence of spinach.

Spoilage of Chilled Fresh Meat Products during Storage: A Quantitative Analysis of Literature Data

A literature search was performed on spoilage of fresh meat products by combining keyword query, text mining and expert elicitation. From the 258 collected studies, a quantitative analysis was first performed to identify the methods which are the most used to evaluate spoilage beside the preservation strategies suggested. In a second step focusing on a subset of 24 publications providing quantitative data on spoilage occurrence time, associations between spoilage occurrence time of meat products and specific spoilage indicators were investigated. The analysis especially focused on factors well represented in the 24 publications, i.e., gas packaging (O2 and CO2) and storage temperature. Relationships between spoilage occurrence and several microbiological indicators were also sought. The results point out possible advantages of removing dioxygen in packaging to delay spoilage occurrence, whereas, in the presence of dioxygen, the carbon dioxide proportion in the gas mixtures was shown to influence spoilage occurrence. The collected data clearly reveal a potentially protective role of lactic acid bacteria. Besides, while a spoilage role could be attributed to Pseudomonas spp., the growth of mesophilic aerobic microbes, Brochothrix spp. and Enterobacteriaceae seemed independent of spoilage occurrence time.

Reduction of Nitrite in Meat Products through the Application of Various Plant-Based Ingredients

Nitrite is the most commonly applied curing agent in the meat industry, and is known to affect human health. Nitrites impart a better flavor, taste and aroma; preserve the red-pinkish color of the meat; and prevent the risk of bacterial contamination of the cured meat, especially from Clostridium botulinum. Unfortunately, recent research has demonstrated some negative effects of this technique. Certain N-nitroso compounds have been shown to stimulate gastric cancer; therefore, most of the research groups are studying the effects of nitrates and nitrites. In this review, we discuss the various food sources of nitrites and nitrates and their current legal requirements for use in meat products. We also discuss the possible changes that might come up in the regulations, the concerns associated with nitrates and nitrites in meat products, and the use of plant-based nitrite and nitrate substitutes. All these topics will be considered with respect to ensuring a high level of microbiological protection, oxidative stability and acceptable sensory quality (color, taste and smell) in meat products.

Selection and Characterization of Staphylococcus hominis subsp. hominis WiKim0113 Isolated from Kimchi as a Starter Culture for the Production of Natural Pre-converted Nitrite

Synthetic nitrite is considered an undesirable preservative for meat products; thus, controlling synthetic nitrite concentrations is important from the standpoint of food safety. We investigated 1,000 species of microorganisms from various kimchi preparations for their potential use as a starter culture for the production of nitrites. We used 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis to select a starter culture with excellent nitrite and nitric oxide productivity, which we subsequently identified as Staphylococcus hominis subspecies hominis WiKim0113. That starter culture was grown in NaCl (up to 9%; w/v) at 10°C–40°C; its optimum growth was observed at 30°C at pH 4.0–10.0. It exhibited nonproteolytic activity and antibacterial activity against Clostridium perfringens, a bacterium that causes food poisoning symptoms. Analysis of Staphylococcus hominis subspecies hominis WiKim0113 with an API ZYM system did not reveal the presence of β-glucuronidase, and tests of the starter culture on 5% (v/v) sheep blood agar showed no hemolytic activity. Our results demonstrated the remarkable stability of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus hominis subspecies hominis WiKim0113, especially in strain negative for staphylococcal enterotoxins and sensitive to clinically relevant antibiotics. Moreover, Staphylococcus hominis subspecies hominis WiKim0113 exhibited a 45.5% conversion rate of nitrate to nitrite, with nitrate levels reduced to 25% after 36 h of culturing in the minimal medium supplemented with nitrate (200 ppm). The results clearly demonstrated the safety and utility of Staphylococcus hominis subspecies hominis WiKim0113, and therefore its suitability as a starter culture.