Evaluating the use of fish oil microcapsules as omega-3 vehicle in cooked and dry-cured sausages as affected by their processing, storage and cooking

Micro/nano-encapsulation of marine dietary oils: A review on biomacromolecule-based delivery systems and their role in preventing cardiovascular diseases

Marine-based dietary oils (MDOs), which are naturally obtained from different sources, have been scientifically recommended as potent functional bioactives owing to their therapeutic biological activities; however, they have exhibited plenty of health benefits. Though they are very sensitive to light, temperature, moisture, and oxygen, as well as being chemically unstable and merely oxidized, this may limit their utilization in food and pharmaceutical products. Miro- and nanoencapsulation techniques are considered to be the most promising tactics for enhancing the original characteristics, physiochemical properties, and therapeutic effects of entrapped MDOs. This review focuses on the biomacromolecule-stabilized micro/nanocarriers encompassing a wide range of MDOs. The novel-equipped polysaccharides and protein-based micro/nanocarriers cover microemulsions, microcapsules, nanoemulsions, and nanoliposomes, which have been proven to be encouraging candidates for the entrapment of diverse kinds of MDOs. In addition, the current state-of-the-art loading of various MDOs through polysaccharide and protein-based micro/nanocarriers has been comprehensively discussed and tabulated in detail. Biomacromolecule-stabilized nanocarriers, particularly nanoemulsions and nanoliposomes, are addressed as propitious nanocargos for protection of MDOs in response to thought-provoking features as well as delivering the successful, meticulous release to the desired sites. Gastrointestinal fate (GF) of biopolymeric micro/nanocarriers is fundamentally based on their centrifugation, dimension, interfacial, and physical properties. The external surface of epithelial cells in the lumen is the main site where the absorption of lipid-based nanoparticles takes place. MDO-loaded micro- and nanocarriers with biological origins or structural modifications have shown some novel applications that could be used as future therapies for cardiovascular disorders, thanks to today's cutting-edge medical technology. In the future, further investigations are highly needed to open new horizons regarding the application of polysaccharide and protein-based micro/nanocarriers in food and beverage products with the possibility of commercialization in the near future for industrial use.

Non-emulsion-based encapsulation of fish oil by coaxial electrospraying assisted by pressurized gas enhances the oxidative stability of a capsule-fortified salad dressing

The influence of the encapsulation technology (spray-drying, mono- or coaxial electrospraying assisted by pressurized gas, EAPG) and the oil load (13, 26 or 39 wt%) on the oxidative stability of: i) fish oil-loaded capsules, and ii) capsule-fortified salad dressings were investigated. The highest encapsulation efficiency (EE > 83%) was achieved by the emulsion-based encapsulation methods (e.g., spray-drying and monoaxial EAPG), irrespective of the oil load. Nonetheless, monoaxially EAPG capsules were the most oxidized during storage due to their increased surface-to-volume ratio. On the contrary, non-emulsion-based coaxial EAPG resulted in low lipid oxidation after processing and subsequent storage. The oxidative stability of the capsule-fortified salad dressings correlated well with that of the encapsulates, with the dressing fortified with the coaxially EAPG capsules showing significantly lower levels of oxidation. Our results show that the fortification approach (e.g., emulsion or non-emulsion-based delivery systems) significantly influenced the oxidative stability of the enriched food matrix.

Elevating meat products: Unleashing novel gel techniques for enhancing lipid profiles

Rising health concerns and the diet-health link drive demand for healthier foods, prompting meat manufacturers to reformulate traditional products. These manufacturers have reduced fat content to enhance nutritional quality, which is essential for maintaining desired product features. As a result, numerous strategies have emerged over recent decades to decrease fat and enhance the lipid profiles of meat products. Among these strategies, using hydrocolloids, emulsification, encapsulation, or gelation of oils to produce fat substitutes stands out. Using gels allows fat replacers with characteristics similar to animal fat (similar rheological, physical, or appearance properties) but with a much healthier lipid profile (by incorporating highly unsaturated oils). Therefore, this manuscript aims to comprehensively describe the main fat replacers used to prepare meat products. In addition, an in-depth review of the latest studies (2022-2023) that use novel gels to reform meat products has been made, indicating in each case the implications that the reformulation produces at a physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory level. Given the reported results, it seems clear that the strategy of using bigels or emulgels is very promising and allows obtaining nutritionally highly improved meat products without affecting their sensory or physicochemical properties. However, the best conditions to obtain a novel gel suitable for use as a fat substitute for each meat product still need to be studied and correctly defined. Moreover, these advancements can pave the way for more extensive studies on using novel gel techniques in other food industries, expanding their applicability and leading to healthier consumer options across various food categories.

Healthier Oils: A New Scope in the Development of Functional Meat and Dairy Products: A Review

In the present day, it has been widely established that a high intake of animal fat that contains a high content of saturated fatty acids may cause several life-threatening diseases, including obesity, diabetes-type 2, cardiovascular diseases, as well as several types of cancer. In this context, a great number of health organizations and government agencies have launched campaigns to reduce the saturated fat content in foods, which has prompted the food industry, which is no stranger to this problem, to start working to develop foods with a lower fat content or with a different fatty acid profile. Nevertheless, this is not an easy task due to the fact that saturated fat plays a very important role in food processing and in the sensorial perception of foods. Actually, the best way to replace saturated fat is with the use of structured vegetable or marine oils. The main strategies for structuring oils include pre-emulsification, microencapsulation, the development of gelled emulsions, and the development of oleogels. This review will examine the current literature on the different (i) healthier oils and (ii) strategies that will be potentially used by the food industry to reduce or replace the fat content in several food products.

Alginate Based Core-Shell Capsules Production through Coextrusion Methods: Recent Applications

Encapsulation is used in various industries to protect active molecules and control the release of the encapsulated materials. One of the structures that can be obtained using coextrusion encapsulation methods is the core-shell capsule. This review focuses on coextrusion encapsulation applications for the preservation of oils and essential oils, probiotics, and other bioactives. This technology isolates actives from the external environment, enhances their stability, and allows their controlled release. Coextrusion offers a valuable means of preserving active molecules by reducing oxidation processes, limiting the evaporation of volatile compounds, isolating some nutrients or drugs with undesired taste, or stabilizing probiotics to increase their shelf life. Being environmentally friendly, coextrusion offers significant application opportunities for the pharmaceutical, food, and agriculture sectors.

Plant Antioxidants in Dry Fermented Meat Products with a Healthier Lipid Profile

Consumers' perception of meat products has changed in recent years, which has led to an increased interest in healthier meat products. In response to this demand, academia and industry have made efforts to reformulate meat products, especially dry fermented meat products, which are known for their high fat contents, mainly saturated fat. The use of plant or marine oils stabilized in emulsion gels (EGs) or oil-bulking agents (OBAs) as animal fat replacers has been one of the most advantageous strategies to reformulate dry fermented meat products with a healthier lipid content (quality and quantity), but an increase in their polyunsaturated fatty acid content can trigger a significant increase in lipid oxidation, negatively affecting sensory and nutritional quality. The use of antioxidants is the main strategy to delay this deteriorative reaction, but the controversy around the safety and toxicity of synthetic antioxidants has driven consumers and industry toward the use of plant antioxidants, such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and some vitamins and minerals. This review provides information about the use of plant antioxidants to control lipid oxidation of dry fermented meat products with healthier lipids.

Gel-type emulsified muscle products: Mechanisms, affecting factors, and applications

The gel-type emulsified muscle products improve fatty acid composition, maintain the oxidative stability, and achieve a better sensory acceptability. This review emphasizes the stabilization mechanisms of these emulsified muscle products. In particular, factors associated with the stability of the emulsified muscle systems are outlined, including the processing conditions (pH and heating), lipids, and emulsifiers. Besides, some novel systems are further introduced, including the Pickering emulsions and organogels, due to their great potential in stabilizing emulsified gels. Moreover, the promising prospects of emulsion muscle products such as improved gel properties, oxidative stability, freeze-thaw stability, fat replacement, and nutraceutical encapsulation were elaborated. This review comprehensively illustrates the considerations on developing gel-type emulsified products and provides inspiration for the rational design of emulsified muscle formulations with both oxidatively stable and organoleptically acceptable performance.

The Effect of Packaging Methods, Storage Time and the Fortification of Poultry Sausages with Fish Oil and Microencapsulated Fish Oil on Their Rheological and Water-Binding Properties

The aim of the study was to investigate how liquid fish oil and microencapsulated oil additives influenced the rheological characteristics and the dynamics of water binding in vacuum-packed (VP) and modified-atmosphere-packed (MAP) poultry sausages during 21-day storage. In contrast to the control sample, the sausages enriched with microencapsulated fish oil (MC) were characterised by the greatest ability to accumulate deformation energy. The elastic properties of all sausage variants increased significantly in the subsequent storage periods, whereas the dynamic viscosity of the samples tended to decrease. This phenomenon was confirmed by the gradual reduction of water activity (Aw) in all sausages in the subsequent storage periods. The packaging method influenced the dynamics of water binding in an oil-additive-form-dependent manner. During the storage of the VP and MAP sausages, in samples with the fish oil additive the T1 value tended to increase while the Aw decreased. The T1 value in the MAP MC sample was similar. The FO additive resulted in greater mobility of both proton fractions in the MAP samples than in the VP samples. There were inverse relationships observed in the MC samples. The NMR tests showed that the VP samples with the MC additive were slightly better quality than the other samples.

Cod Liver Oil’s Encapsulation into Sodium Alginate/Lupin Protein Beads and Its Application in Functional Meatballs’ Preparation

Cod liver oil (CLO) is an essential source of healthy ω-3 fatty acids to be employed in functional meals. However, its autoxidation sensitivity, solubility, and odour present it as challenging to handle. Its encapsulation might mitigate these problems. This research studied using alginate/lupine protein as a wall material for CLO encapsulation as well as to characterise CLO microcapsules for their size, sphericity factor, encapsulation efficiency, morphology (scanning electron microscopy), in vitro release, and thermal stability. In this study, the oxidative stability, quality parameters, and sensory attributes of meatballs enriched with free CLOs and encapsulated CLOs throughout storage at 4 ± 1 °C for 16 days were assessed. The CLO microspheres had a homogeneous round shape, a diameter of 0.82 ± 0.06 mm, a sphericity factor of 0.092 ± 0.01, an encapsulation efficiency of 95.62% ± 1.13%, and an accumulative release rate of 87.10% after 270 min in the stimulated gastrointestinal conditions. Additionally, it was discovered that encapsulated oil was more stable than free CLOs to heat treatments (70–100 °C, 24 h). pH, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, peroxide value, conjugated dienes value, and carbonyl content of meatballs enriched with microencapsulated CLOs were significantly lower when compared to free CLOs and/or control samples. CLO microcapsules improved the sensory characteristics of meatballs throughout storage; however, meatballs directly containing CLOs were rejected. Thus, the viability of alginate/LPI complex microcapsules containing CLOs to enrich meat products subjected to storage with refrigeration could be indicated without any change in the characteristics.

Microencapsulation as a Noble Technique for the Application of Bioactive Compounds in the Food Industry: A Comprehensive Review

The use of natural food ingredients has been increased in recent years due to the negative health implications of synthetic ingredients. Natural bioactive compounds are important for the development of health-oriented functional food products with better quality attributes. The natural bioactive compounds possess different types of bioactivities, e.g., antioxidative, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and antiobesity activities. The most common method for the development of functional food is the fortification of these bioactive compounds during food product manufacturing. However, many of these natural bioactive compounds are heat-labile and less stable. Therefore, the industry and researchers proposed the microencapsulation of natural bioactive compounds, which may improve the stability of these compounds during processing and storage conditions. It may also help in controlling and sustaining the release of natural compounds in the food product matrices, thus, providing bioactivity for a longer duration. In this regard, several advanced techniques have been explored in recent years for microencapsulation of bioactive compounds, e.g., essential oils, healthy oils, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, flavoring compounds, enzymes, and vitamins. The efficiency of microencapsulation depends on various factors which are related to natural compounds, encapsulating materials, and encapsulation process. This review provides an in-depth discussion on recent advances in microencapsulation processes as well as their application in food systems.

Recent advances in the development of healthier meat products

Meat products are an excellent source of high biological value proteins, in addition to the high content of minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. However, meat products contain compounds that can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. In this sense, this chapter will address recent strategies to assist in the development of healthier meat products. The main advances about the reduction of sodium and animal fat in meat products will be presented. In addition, strategies to make the lipid profile of meat products more nutritionally advantageous for human health will also be discussed. Finally, the reduction of substances of safety concern in meat products will be addressed, including phosphates, nitrites, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic aromatic amines, as well as products from lipid and protein oxidation.

Improvements in the methodology for fatty acids analysis in meat products: One-stage transmethylation and fast-GC method

The quantification of fatty acids (FA) in meat products is frequently carried out by two-stage methylation procedures followed by long gas chromatography (GC) runs. This work aimed to simplify this methodology by means of a one-stage transmethylation method and a fast GC run, evaluating the influence of sample preparation, reagents and type of heating on the amount of FA in different meat products and optimizing a fast GC-FID (flame ionization detector) run. This allowed to establish the optimum combination of parameters (methanol + chlorotrimethylsilane, lyophilized samples and oven heating) to achieve the quantification of the highest possible amount of FA and to reduce the time of GC run from 60 to 10 min. The quality evaluation of this method obtained satisfactory results. Thus, the quantification of FA in meat products was achieved in a straightforwardly and quickly way by using a one-stage transmethylation procedure followed by a fast GC-FID run.

An Analysis of Oxidative Changes and the Fatty Acid Profile in Stored Poultry Sausages with Liquid and Microencapsulated Fish Oil Additives

This study deals with the fatty acid profile and oxidative changes (TBARS) in vacuum-packed (VP) or modified-atmosphere-packed (MAP) finely-comminuted poultry sausages with liquid fish oil and microencapsulated fish oil (MC) additives. An analysis of omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) showed that their content in the samples with the fish oil additive decreased from the initial value of 0.22 g∙100 g⁻¹ of the product to 0.18 g∙100 g⁻¹ (MAP) and 0.17 g∙100 g⁻¹ (VP), respectively. After in vitro digestion, the total EPA and DHA content in the sample with microencapsulated oil amounted to 0.17 g∙100 g⁻¹ of the product. The TBARS values showed the VP samples with both forms of the fish oil additive had the lowest values on the first day of storage. Storage of the samples for 21 days caused a slight increase in the degree of lipid oxidation. The research indicated that the forms of the oil additive did not have a negative influence on the sensory features or the physicochemical properties of the sausages. The EPA and DHA levels in samples with liquid fish oil and those with oil microcapsules were sufficient for the sausage producer to declare high content of these fatty acids in accordance with the current EC regulation.

Encapsulated Food Products as a Strategy to Strengthen Immunity Against COVID-19

In December 2019, the severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-a novel coronavirus was identified which was quickly distributed to more than 100 countries around the world. There are currently no approved treatments available but only a few preventive measures are available. Among them, maintaining strong immunity through the intake of functional foods is a sustainable solution to resist the virus attack. For this, bioactive compounds (BACs) are delivered safely inside the body through encapsulated food items. Encapsulated food products have benefits such as high stability and bioavailability, sustained release of functional compounds; inhibit the undesired interaction, and high antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Several BACs such as ω-3 fatty acid, curcumin, vitamins, essential oils, antimicrobials, and probiotic bacteria can be encapsulated which exhibit immunological activity through different mechanisms. These encapsulated compounds can be recommended for use by various researchers, scientists, and industrial peoples to develop functional foods that can improve immunity to withstand the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in the future. Encapsulated BACs, upon incorporation into food, offer increased functionality and facilitate their potential use as an immunity booster. This review paper aims to target various encapsulated food products and their role in improving the immunity system. The bioactive components like antioxidants, minerals, vitamins, polyphenols, omega (ω)-3 fatty acids, lycopene, probiotics, etc. which boost the immunity and may be a potential measure to prevent COVID-19 outbreak were comprehensively discussed. This article also highlights the potential mechanisms; a BAC undergoes, to improve the immune system.

Omega-3-Rich Oils from Marine Side Streams and Their Potential Application in Food

Rapid population growth and increasing food demand have impacts on the environment due to the generation of residues, which could be managed using sustainable solutions such as the circular economy strategy (waste generated during food processing must be kept within the food chain). Reusing discarded fish remains is part of this management strategy, since they contain high-value ingredients and bioactive compounds that can be used for the development of nutraceuticals and functional foods. Fish side streams such as the head, liver, or skin or the cephalothorax, carapace, and tail from shellfish are important sources of oils rich in omega-3. In order to resolve the disadvantages associated with conventional methods, novel extraction techniques are being optimized to improve the quality and the oxidative stability of these high-value oils. Positive effects on cardiovascular and vision health, diabetes, cancer, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties, and immune system improvement are among their recognized properties. Their incorporation into different model systems could contribute to the development of functional foods, with market benefits for consumers. These products improve the nutritional needs of specific population groups in a scenario where noncommunicable diseases and pandemic crises are responsible for several deaths worldwide.

The Influence of Packing Methods and Storage Time of Poultry Sausages with Liquid and Microencapsulated Fish Oil Additives on Their Physicochemical, Microbial and Sensory Properties

The aim of the study was to evaluate the influence of refined fish oil additives in liquid and microencapsulated forms, packing method (VP—vacuum packing, MAP—modified atmosphere packing) and storage time (1, 7, 14, 21 days) on selected physicochemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of minced poultry sausage. Principle component analysis (PCA) showed that the fish oil additive, packing method and storage time significantly influenced some of the physicochemical characteristics of the sausages. The pH value was negatively correlated with the type of sample and packing method. The water activity decreased along with the storage time. The sausages with microcapsules had distinguishable hardness, gumminess and chewiness than the other samples. This tendency increased in the subsequent storage periods. The packing method and storage time of the samples had a statistically significant influence on the growth of the total colony count and count of lactic acid bacteria (p < 0.05). The most aerobic bacteria were found in the control sample, and the least in the sample with microcapsules, regardless of the packing method. The use of MAP and the addition of microcapsules resulted in the lowest microbiological contamination of the sausages. The sensory analysis made by a trained panel did not show any significant differences between the samples. After 21-day storage of the sausages there was a slight decrease in some of the sensory parameters, e.g., color, smell, taste. The liquid oil and microencapsulated oil additives in the meat filling did not negatively affect the taste or any physicochemical characteristics of the meat products. From the microbiological perspective, there were better effects from the MAP method.

Fish Oil Microcapsules as Omega-3 Enrichment Strategy: Changes in Volatile Compounds of Meat Products during Storage and Cooking

This work aims to analyze the effects of processing and storage on the volatile compound profile of different meat products enriched in ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Monolayered (Mo) and multilayered (Mu) microcapsules of fish oil were tested. The profiles of volatile compounds were analyzed by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The enrichment with Mo significantly increases the abundance of volatile compounds from lipid oxidation and markers of ω-3 PUFA oxidation, which may be related to the multilayer structure of chitosan–maltodextrin in Mu that achieves greater fish oil protection than the simple coating of maltodextrin in Mo. Besides, the changes in volatile compounds during storage depends on the type of fish oil microcapsules and the meat products, having an increased abundance of ω-3 PUFA oxidation markers in dry-cured sausages added with Mo. However, the enrichment of these meat products with Mo and Mu does not modify the usual variations in the volatile compound profile during culinary cooking. Thus, the addition of multilayer fish oil microcapsules may be a suitable option for enrichment of meat products in ω-3 PUFA without modifying the abundance of volatile compounds, including oxidation markers.

Influence of fish oil and microencapsulated fish oil additives on water binding and the rheological properties of poultry sausage batters

BACKGROUND

The composition of meat batters can be modified by the addition of fish oil or microencapsulation of oil. Such modifications affect the water binding and the rheological properties of the resulting systems. There is little information available on the behaviour of water molecules in model meat batter systems with microcapsules. The main goal of the study was to assess the degree of water binding by the meat batter system and to carry out a rheological analysis during heating and cooling.

RESULTS

The sample with the microcapsules was characterized by a slightly elevated level of total protein. The encapsulated oil additive reduced the pH and water activity value in the meat batter, compared with the control sample. There was one relaxation time T₁ and two time components T₂ in the control batter and the batter containing encapsulated oil. The sample with the oil additive was characterized by two components of relaxation time T₁ and three components of relaxation time T₂ . There was an inverse correlation between the dynamic viscosity of the batters and the spin-spin relaxation times T₂₁ and T₂₂ . The temperature courses of the modulus of elasticity in all the systems exhibited three areas of change (20-43 °C, 43-60 °C, and >60 °C). The highest dynamics of change in the modulus of elasticity was observed for the initial and final temperature range (60-85 °C).

CONCLUSIONS

The samples with the oil and microcapsule additives exhibited higher elastic energy accumulation capacity and dynamic viscosity than the control batter within the whole heating range. The fish oil microcapsules improved the mechanical properties of poultry sausage batters and their water-binding properties. This may increase the juiciness and microbiological stability of the finished products. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of Omega-3 Microcapsules Addition on the Profile of Volatile Compounds in Enriched Dry-Cured and Cooked Sausages

The main goal of the present study was evaluating the effect of enriching meat products (cooked (C-SAU) and dry-cured sausages (D-SAU)) with monolayered (Mo) and multilayered (Mu) fish oil microcapsules on the profile of volatile compounds, with special interest in lipid oxidation markers. For that, Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were used. Significant differences were found in the volatile compound profile between Mo and Mu, which was been reflected in the meat samples. Thus, in general, volatile compounds from lipid oxidation have shown higher abundance in Mo and C-SAU and D-SAU enriched with this type of microcapsule, indicating that the wall of Mu (chitosan-maltodextrine) might protect the encapsulated bioactive compounds more effectively than that of Mo (maltodextrine). However, this finding is not reflected in the results of previous studies evaluating the sensory perception and oxidation stability of C-SAU and D-SAU, but it should be considered since unhealthy oxidation products can be formed in the enriched meat products with Mo. Thus, the addition of Mu as an omega-3 vehicle for enriching meat products may be indicated.

Spray Drying for the Encapsulation of Oils-A Review

The application of the spray drying technique in the food industry for the production of a broad range of ingredients has become highly desirable compared to other drying techniques. Recently, the spray drying technique has been applied extensively for the production of functional foods, pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Encapsulation using spray drying is highly preferred due to economic advantages compared to other encapsulation methods. Encapsulation of oils using the spray drying technique is carried out in order to enhance the handling properties of the products and to improve oxidation stability by protecting the bioactive compounds. Encapsulation of oils involves several parameters-including inlet and outlet temperatures, total solids, and the type of wall materials-that significantly affect the quality of final product. Therefore, this review highlights the application and optimization of the spray drying process for the encapsulation of oils used as food ingredients.