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Velásquez-Orta SB, Yáñez-Noguez I, Ramírez IM, Ledesma MTO. Pilot-scale microalgae cultivation and wastewater treatment using high-rate ponds: a meta-analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-34000-7. [PMID: 38985422 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34000-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Microalgae cultivation in wastewater has been widely researched under laboratory conditions as per its potential to couple treatment with biomass production. Currently, only a limited number of published articles consider outdoor and long-term microalgae-bacteria cultivations in real wastewater environmental systems. The scope of this work is to describe microalgal cultivation steps towards high-rate algal pond (HRAP) scalability and identify key parameters that play a major role for biomass productivity under outdoor conditions and long-term cultivations. Reviewed pilot-scale HRAP literature is analysed using multivariate analysis to highlight key productivity parameters within environmental and operational factors. Wastewater treatment analysis indicated that HRAP can effectively remove 90% of NH4+, 70% of COD, and 50% of PO43-. Mean reference values of 210 W m-2 for irradiation, 18 °C for temperature, pH of 8.2, and HRT of 7.7 are derived from pilot-scale cultivations. Microalgae biomass productivity at a large scale is governed by solar radiation and NH4+ concentration, which are more important than retention time variations within investigated studies. Hence, selecting the correct type of location and a minimum of 70 mg L-1 of NH4+ in wastewater will have the greatest effect in microalgae productivity. A high nutrient wastewater content increases final biomass concentrations but not necessarily biomass productivity. Pilot-scale growth rates (~ 0.54 day-1) are half those observed in lab experiments, indicating a scaling-up bottleneck. Microalgae cultivation in wastewater enables a circular bioeconomy framework by unlocking microalgal biomass for the delivery of an array of products.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isaura Yáñez-Noguez
- Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3000, C.P. 04510, Ciudad de México, Alcaldía Coyoacán, México
| | - Ignacio Monje Ramírez
- Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3000, C.P. 04510, Ciudad de México, Alcaldía Coyoacán, México
| | - María Teresa Orta Ledesma
- Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3000, C.P. 04510, Ciudad de México, Alcaldía Coyoacán, México
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2
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Ennaceri H, Mkpuma VO, Moheimani NR. Nano-clay modified membranes: A promising green strategy for microalgal antifouling filtration. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 902:166479. [PMID: 37611702 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Membrane fouling is a major challenge which limits the sustainable application of membrane filtration-based microalgal harvesting at industrial level. Membrane fouling leads to increased operational and maintenance costs and represents a major obstacle to microalgal downstream processing. Nano-clays are promising naturally occurring nanoparticles in membrane fabrication due to their low-cost, facile preparation, and their superior properties in terms of surface hydrophilicity, mechanical stability, and resistance against chemicals. The membrane surface modification using nano-clays is a sustainable promising approach to improve membranes mechanical properties and their fouling resistance. However, the positive effects of nano-clay particles on membrane fouling are often limited by aggregation and poor adhesion to the base polymeric matrix. This review surveys the recent efforts to achieve anti-fouling behavior using membrane surface modification with nano-clay fillers. Further, strategies to achieve a better incorporation of nano-clay in the polymer matrix of the membrane are summarised, and the factors that govern the membrane fouling, stability, adhesion, agglomeration and leaching are discussed in depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houda Ennaceri
- Algae R&D Centre, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia; Centre for Water Energy and Waste, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia.
| | - Victor Okorie Mkpuma
- Algae R&D Centre, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia
| | - Navid Reza Moheimani
- Algae R&D Centre, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia; Centre for Water Energy and Waste, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia
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3
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Microalgae enrichment for biomass harvesting and water reuse by ceramic microfiltration membranes. J Memb Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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4
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Deng E, Chen X, Rub D, Lin H. Modeling and Mitigating Fouling of Microfiltration Membranes for Microalgae Dewatering. Sep Purif Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
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5
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Sun J, Yu Z, Yang L, Chu H, Jiang S, Zhang Y, Zhou X. New insight in algal cell adhesion and cake layer evolution in algal-related membrane processes: Size-fractioned particles, initial foulant seeds and EDEM simulation. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 220:115162. [PMID: 36580982 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.115162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
A clear understanding of algal cell adhesion and cake layer evolution in algal-related membrane processes (ARMPs) is urgently required to mitigate the membrane fouling. In this study, the effect of microparticles (10 μm-30 μm), subvisible particles (0.45 μm-10 μm), and ultrafine particles (50 kDa-0.45 μm) on the membrane fouling were explored based on the filtration performance through Hermia models, thermodynamic analysis, and simulation of extended discrete element method (EDEM). The results illustrated that microparticles played an important role in algal cell aggregation and the formation of initial clusters. Intermediate blocking fouling occurred when filtrating the subvisible particle, which facilitated internal adhesion and enhanced biofilm formation. In addition, the interfacial attractive force for the initial algal adhesion was obviously increased when the membrane surfaces were in high concentration of protein and polysaccharide. Moreover, the EDEM simulation demonstrated that subsequent particles, particularly the particles with small sizes, preferred to occupy the spaces among the previously deposited particles. This study provided new insights into the contributions of size-fractioned particles to initial fouling and their influence on the successive adhesion of other contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Sun
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Zhenjiang Yu
- Rural Technology Development Center, Guangdong Academy of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510000, China
| | - Libin Yang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Safe Discharge and Resource Utilization of Urban Water, Hunan University of Technology, Zhuzhou, 412007, China.
| | - Huaqiang Chu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shuhong Jiang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yalei Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xuefei Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
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Lina R, Lepine O, Jaouen P, Masse A. Recovery of Water-Soluble Compounds from Tisochrysis lutea. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:766. [PMID: 36005681 PMCID: PMC9416754 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12080766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This work aims at studying the techno-economic feasibility to produce an extract, at a small industrial-production scale, from a Tisochrysis lutea's paste, in view of cosmetic applications. The paste was first thawed, diluted and centrifuged to get a crude water extract. Then, two successive stages of membrane filtration were carried out: the first one to essentially remove/retain the particles (cellular debris) by microfiltration and the second one to concentrate (ultrafiltration) the soluble compounds of the permeate from the previous step. The robustness of the processing chain has been demonstrated following the production of three similar extracts with more than 30 L input material each. Around 54% of the final extract was composed of proteins and carbohydrates. The final ingredient was assessed for genomic activity and showed multiple positive responses. Finally, an economic analysis was performed, which demonstrated that the major cost is linked to centrifugation step. The total manpower represents the highest cost of the OPEX categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Lina
- AlgoSource, 7 rue Eugene Cornet, F-44600 Saint-Nazaire, France
| | - Olivier Lepine
- AlgoSource, 7 rue Eugene Cornet, F-44600 Saint-Nazaire, France
| | - Pascal Jaouen
- Nantes Université, Oniris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, GEPEA, UMR 6144, F-44600 Saint-Nazaire, France
| | - Anthony Masse
- Nantes Université, Oniris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, GEPEA, UMR 6144, F-44600 Saint-Nazaire, France
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Kumar R, Hegde AS, Sharma K, Parmar P, Srivatsan V. Microalgae as a sustainable source of edible proteins and bioactive peptides – Current trends and future prospects. Food Res Int 2022; 157:111338. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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8
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Energy-efficient Membranes for Microalgae Dewatering: Fouling Challenges and Mitigation Strategies. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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9
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Lu Z, Beal CM, Johnson ZI. Comparative performance and technoeconomic analyses of two microalgae harvesting systems evaluated at a commercially relevant scale. ALGAL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2022.102667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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10
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Ribeiro C, Santos ET, Costa L, Brazinha C, Saraiva P, Crespo JG. Nannochloropsis sp. Biorefinery: Recovery of Soluble Protein by Membrane Ultrafiltration/Diafiltration. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:membranes12040401. [PMID: 35448371 PMCID: PMC9032216 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12040401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This work proposes a way to maximize the potential of a Nannochloropsis sp. biorefinery process, through membrane technology, producing an extract enriched in soluble proteins, free from the insoluble protein fraction, with a low lipid content and eliminating the colored chlorophyll-a. This procedure, following the principles of a circular economy approach, allows for the valorization of a stream from the biorefining of Nannochloropsis sp. that, otherwise, would be considered a residue without commercial value. The process proposed minimizes fouling phenomena at the membrane surface, making it possible to achieve high permeate fluxes, thus reducing the need for membrane cleaning and, therefore, contributing to an extended membrane lifetime. Supernatant obtained after centrifugation of a suspension of ruptured Nannochloropsis sp. cells was processed by ultrafiltration using a membrane with a cut-off of 100 kDa MWCO. Two different operating approaches were evaluated—controlled transmembrane pressure and controlled permeate flux—under concentration and diafiltration modes. Ultrafiltration operated in a diafiltration mode, under controlled permeate flux conditions, led to the highest soluble protein recovery (78%) with the highest constant permeate flux (12 L·m−2·h−1) and low membrane fouling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Ribeiro
- LAQV/Requimte, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, FCT NOVA, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (C.R.); (J.G.C.)
- A4F—Algae for Future, Campus do Lumiar, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Edif. E, R/C, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Edgar T. Santos
- A4F—Algae for Future, Campus do Lumiar, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Edif. E, R/C, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal;
- Correspondence: (E.T.S.); (C.B.); Tel.: +351-21-807-24-99 (E.T.S.); +351-21-294-83-85 (C.B.)
| | - Luís Costa
- A4F—Algae for Future, Campus do Lumiar, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Edif. E, R/C, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Carla Brazinha
- LAQV/Requimte, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, FCT NOVA, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (C.R.); (J.G.C.)
- Correspondence: (E.T.S.); (C.B.); Tel.: +351-21-807-24-99 (E.T.S.); +351-21-294-83-85 (C.B.)
| | - Pedro Saraiva
- CIEPQPF, Chemical Engineering Department, FCT, University of Coimbra, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal;
- Dean of NOVA IMS, NOVA University of Lisbon, 1070-312 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - João G. Crespo
- LAQV/Requimte, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, FCT NOVA, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (C.R.); (J.G.C.)
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11
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Jiang S, Xiao S, Chu H, Sun J, Yu Z, Zhang W, Chen Y, Zhou X, Zhang Y. Performance enhancement and fouling alleviation by controlling transmembrane pressure in a vibration membrane system for algae separation. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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12
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NaCl precleaning of microfiltration membranes fouled with oil-in-water emulsions: Impact on fouling dislodgment. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.120353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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13
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Hidane T, Demura M, Morisada S, Ohto K, Kawakita H. Mathematical analysis of cake layer formation in an ultrafiltration membrane of a phycobiliprotein-containing solution extracted from Nostoc commune. Biochem Eng J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2022.108333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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14
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Su G, Ong HC, Gan YY, Chen WH, Chong CT, Ok YS. Co-pyrolysis of microalgae and other biomass wastes for the production of high-quality bio-oil: Progress and prospective. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 344:126096. [PMID: 34626763 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Microalgae are the most prospective raw materials for the production of biofuels, pyrolysis is an effective method to convert biomass into bioenergy. However, biofuels derived from the pyrolysis of microalgae exhibit poor fuel properties due to high content of moisture and protein. Co-pyrolysis is a simple and efficient method to produce high-quality bio-oil from two or more materials. Tires, plastics, and bamboo waste are the optimal co-feedstocks based on the improvement of yield and quality of bio-oil. Moreover, adding catalysts, especially CaO and Cu/HZSM-5, can enhance the quality of bio-oil by increasing aromatics content and decreasing oxygenated and nitrogenous compounds. Consequently, this paper provides a critical review of the production of bio-oil from co-pyrolysis of microalgae with other biomass wastes. Meanwhile, the underlying mechanism of synergistic effects and the catalytic effect on co-pyrolysis are discussed. Finally, the economic viability and prospects of microalgae co-pyrolysis are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangcan Su
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hwai Chyuan Ong
- Centre for Green Technology, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; Future Technology Research Center, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, 123 University Road, Section 3, Douliou, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan.
| | - Yong Yang Gan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Wei-Hsin Chen
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Cheng Tung Chong
- China-UK Low Carbon College, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Lingang, Shanghai 201306, PR China
| | - Yong Sik Ok
- Korea Biochar Research Center, APRU Sustainable Waste Management Program & Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
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15
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Zhao F, Han X, Shao Z, Li Z, Li Z, Chen D. Effects of different pore sizes on membrane fouling and their performance in algae harvesting. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.119916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Castro-Muñoz R, García-Depraect O. Membrane-Based Harvesting Processes for Microalgae and Their Valuable-Related Molecules: A Review. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11080585. [PMID: 34436347 PMCID: PMC8400455 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11080585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The interest in microalgae production deals with its role as the third generation of feedstock to recover renewable energy. Today, there is a need to analyze the ultimate research and advances in recovering the microalgae biomass from the culture medium. Therefore, this review brings the current research developments (over the last three years) in the field of harvesting microalgae using membrane-based technologies (including microfiltration, ultrafiltration and forward osmosis). Initially, the principles of membrane technologies are given to outline the main parameters influencing their operation. The main strategies adopted by the research community for the harvesting of microalgae using membranes are subsequently addressed, paying particular attention to the novel achievements made for improving filtration performance and alleviating fouling. Moreover, this contribution also gives an overview of the advantages of applying membrane technologies for the efficient extraction of the high added-value compounds in microalgae cells, such as lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, which together with the production of renewable biofuels could boost the development of more sustainable and cost-effective microalgae biorefineries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Castro-Muñoz
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Campus Toluca, Avenida Eduardo Monroy Cárdenas 2000 San Antonio Buenavista, Toluca de Lerdo 50110, Mexico
- Department of Process Engineering and Chemical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza St., 80-233 Gdansk, Poland
- Correspondence: (R.C.-M.); (O.G.-D.)
| | - Octavio García-Depraect
- Institute of Sustainable Processes, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina, s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
- Correspondence: (R.C.-M.); (O.G.-D.)
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Aslam A, Bahadar A, Liaquat R, Saleem M, Waqas A, Zwawi M. Algae as an attractive source for cosmetics to counter environmental stress. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 772:144905. [PMID: 33770892 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In recent times, a considerable amount of evidence has come to light regarding the effect that air pollution has on skin conditions. The human skin is the chief protection we have against environmental harm, whether biological, chemical, or physical. The stress from these environmental factors, along with internal influences, can be a cause of skin aging and enlarged pores, thinner skin, skin laxity, wrinkles, fine lines, dryness, and a more fragile dermal layer. This knowledge has led to greater demand for skin cosmetics and a requirement for natural raw ingredients with a high degree of safety and efficiency in combating skin complications. Recent developments in green technology have made the employment of naturally occurring bioactive compounds more popular, and novel extraction methods have ensured that the use of these compounds has greater compatibility with sustainable development principles. Thus, there is a demand for investigations into efficient non-harmful naturally occurring raw ingredients; compounds derived from algae could be beneficial in this area. Algae, both macroalgae and microalgae, consists of waterborne photosynthetic organisms that are potentially valuable as they have a range of bioactive compounds in their composition. Several beneficial metabolites can be obtained from algae, such as antioxidants, carotenoids, mycosporine-like amino acids (MAA), pigments, polysaccharides, and scytonemin. Various algae strains are now widely employed in skincare products for various purposes, such as a moisturizer, anti-wrinkle agent, texture-enhancing agents, or sunscreen. This research considers the environmental stresses on human skin and how they may be mitigated using cosmetics created using algae; special attention will be paid to external factors, both generally and specifically (amongst them light exposure and pollutants).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayesha Aslam
- US Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Ali Bahadar
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh 21911, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Rabia Liaquat
- US Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Saleem
- Department of Industrial Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh 21911, Saudi Arabia
| | - Adeel Waqas
- US Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Mohammed Zwawi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh 21911, Saudi Arabia
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18
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Performance of Single and Two-Stage Cross-Flow Ultrafiltration Membrane in Fractionation of Peptide from Microalgae Protein Hydrolysate (Nannochloropsis gaditana). Processes (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/pr9040610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cross-flow ultrafiltration (UF) membrane with two different configurations; single (10 kDa and 5 kDa) and two-stage (10/5 kDa) in fractionating microalgae protein hydrolysate (MPH) were studied to obtain a low molecular weight of peptide. The effect of flow rate, trans-membrane pressure (TMP), and pH in fractionating MPH were evaluated based on permeate flux and peptide transmission. The results showed that, for single UF membrane, optimum operating parameters were at a flow rate of 23 mL/min, TMP of 1.5 bar, and pH of 9, with permeate flux of 43.65 L/m2 h (10 kDa) and 55.42 L/m2 h (5 kDa) and peptide transmission of 58.20% (10 kDa) and 67.34% (5 kDa). Meanwhile, for two-stage (10/5 kDa) UF membrane, the best parameters were observed at a flow rate of 23 mL/min, TMP of 1.5 bar, and pH of 2, with permeate flux of 69.85 L/m2 h and peptide transmission of 79.13%. Fractionation of MPH with two-stage UF membrane was observed to be better at producing a low molecular weight of peptide compared to single UF membrane. In conclusion, it was possible to produce permeate flux with a high amount of low molecular weight of peptide by controlling the operating parameters with the suitable configuration membrane.
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Yu Z, Chu H, Xiao S, Jiang S, Yang L, Zhang Y, Zhou X. Simulation of cake layer topography in heterotrophic microalgae harvesting based on interface modified diffusion-limited-aggregation (IMDLA) and its implications for membrane fouling control. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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20
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Fuentes-Grünewald C, Ignacio Gayo-Peláez J, Ndovela V, Wood E, Vijay Kapoore R, Anne Llewellyn C. Towards a circular economy: A novel microalgal two-step growth approach to treat excess nutrients from digestate and to produce biomass for animal feed. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 320:124349. [PMID: 33181476 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Implementing a circular economy aimed at reusing resources is becoming increasingly important for industry. Microalgae fit within a circular economy by being able to bioremediate nutrient waste and as a source of biomass for several commercial applications. Here, we report a novel validation of a circular economy concept using microalgae at a relevant industrial scale with a new two-phase process. During the first phase biomass was grown autotrophically, biomass was then concentrated using membrane technology for the second phase where mixotrophic conditions were applied to boost growth further. Microalgae cultures were able to grow (13.8 g/L), uptake and bioremediate nutrients (Nitrogen > 134 mg/L/day) from an anaerobic digestion side-stream (digestate), obtaining high quality microalgae biomass (>45% protein content) suitable for use as animal feed, closing the circular economy loop for industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Fuentes-Grünewald
- College of Science, Bioscience Department, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, United Kingdom.
| | - José Ignacio Gayo-Peláez
- College of Science, Bioscience Department, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Vanessa Ndovela
- College of Science, Bioscience Department, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Eleanor Wood
- College of Science, Bioscience Department, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Rahul Vijay Kapoore
- College of Science, Bioscience Department, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Carole Anne Llewellyn
- College of Science, Bioscience Department, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, United Kingdom
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Huang R, Liu Z, Yan B, Li Y, Li H, Liu D, Wang P, Cui F, Shi W. Interfacial catalytic oxidation for membrane fouling mitigation during algae-laden water filtration: Higher efficiency without algae integrity loss. Sep Purif Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Lu W, Asraful Alam M, Liu S, Xu J, Parra Saldivar R. Critical processes and variables in microalgae biomass production coupled with bioremediation of nutrients and CO 2 from livestock farms: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 716:135247. [PMID: 31839294 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Development of renewable and clean energy as well as bio-based fine chemicals technologies are the keys to overcome the problems such as fossil depletion, global warming, and environment pollution. To date, cultivation of microalgae using wastewater is regarded as a promising approach for simultaneous nutrients bioremediation and biofuels production due to their high photosynthesis efficiency and environmental benefits. However, the efficiency of nutrients removal and biomass production strongly depends on wastewater properties and microalgae species. Moreover, the high production cost is still the largest limitation to the commercialization of microalgae biofuels. In this review paper, the state-of-the-art algae species employed in livestock farm wastes have been summarized. Further, microalgae cultivation systems and impact factors in livestock wastewater to microalgae growth have been thoroughly discussed. In addition, technologies reported for microalgal biomass harvesting and CO2 mass transfer enhancement in the coupling process were presented and discussed. Finally, this article discusses the potential benefits and challenges of coupling nutrient bioremediation, CO2 capture, and microalgal production. Possible engineering measures for cost-effective nutrients removal, carbon fixation, microalgal biofuels and bioproducts production are also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Lu
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shaoguan University, Shaoguan 512005, China; Department of Paper and Bioprocess Engineering, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Md Asraful Alam
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
| | - Shijie Liu
- Department of Paper and Bioprocess Engineering, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Jinliang Xu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Roberto Parra Saldivar
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, CP 64849, Monterrey, NL., Mexico
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Fabris M, Abbriano RM, Pernice M, Sutherland DL, Commault AS, Hall CC, Labeeuw L, McCauley JI, Kuzhiuparambil U, Ray P, Kahlke T, Ralph PJ. Emerging Technologies in Algal Biotechnology: Toward the Establishment of a Sustainable, Algae-Based Bioeconomy. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:279. [PMID: 32256509 PMCID: PMC7090149 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Mankind has recognized the value of land plants as renewable sources of food, medicine, and materials for millennia. Throughout human history, agricultural methods were continuously modified and improved to meet the changing needs of civilization. Today, our rapidly growing population requires further innovation to address the practical limitations and serious environmental concerns associated with current industrial and agricultural practices. Microalgae are a diverse group of unicellular photosynthetic organisms that are emerging as next-generation resources with the potential to address urgent industrial and agricultural demands. The extensive biological diversity of algae can be leveraged to produce a wealth of valuable bioproducts, either naturally or via genetic manipulation. Microalgae additionally possess a set of intrinsic advantages, such as low production costs, no requirement for arable land, and the capacity to grow rapidly in both large-scale outdoor systems and scalable, fully contained photobioreactors. Here, we review technical advancements, novel fields of application, and products in the field of algal biotechnology to illustrate how algae could present high-tech, low-cost, and environmentally friendly solutions to many current and future needs of our society. We discuss how emerging technologies such as synthetic biology, high-throughput phenomics, and the application of internet of things (IoT) automation to algal manufacturing technology can advance the understanding of algal biology and, ultimately, drive the establishment of an algal-based bioeconomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Fabris
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
- CSIRO Synthetic Biology Future Science Platform, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Raffaela M. Abbriano
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Mathieu Pernice
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Donna L. Sutherland
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Audrey S. Commault
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Christopher C. Hall
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Leen Labeeuw
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Janice I. McCauley
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Parijat Ray
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Tim Kahlke
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Peter J. Ralph
- Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
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Hua L, Cao H, Ma Q, Shi X, Zhang X, Zhang W. Microalgae Filtration Using an Electrochemically Reactive Ceramic Membrane: Filtration Performances, Fouling Kinetics, and Foulant Layer Characteristics. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:2012-2021. [PMID: 31916753 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical membrane filtration has proven to be successful for microbial removal and separation from water. In addition, membrane fouling could be mitigated by electrochemical reactions and electrostatic repulsion on a reactive membrane surface. This study assessed the filtration performances and fouling characteristics of electrochemically reactive ceramic membranes (a Magneli phase suboxide of TiO2) when filtering algal suspension under different dc currents to achieve anodic or cathodic polarization. The critical flux results indicate that when applying positive or negative dc currents (e.g., 1.25-2.5 mA·cm-2) to the membrane, both significantly mitigated membrane fouling and thus maintained higher critical fluxes (up to 14.6 × 10-5·m3·m-2·s-1 or 526 LMH) compared to the critical flux without dc currents. Moreover, applying dc currents also enhanced membrane defouling processes and recovered high permeate flux better than hydraulic and chemical backwash methods. Moreover, fouling kinetics and the cake layer formation were further analyzed with a resistance-in-series model that revealed many important but underexamined parameters (e.g., cake layer resistance and cake layer thickness). The cake layer structures (e.g., compressibility) were shown to vary with the electrochemical activity, which provide new insight into the biofouling mechanisms. Finally, the algogenic odor, geosmin, was shown to be effectively removed by this reactive membrane under positive dc currents (2.5 mA·cm-2), which highlights the multifunctional capabilities of electrochemically reactive membrane filtration in biomass separation, fouling prevention, and pollutant degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Likun Hua
- John A. Reif, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Han Cao
- John A. Reif, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Qingquan Ma
- John A. Reif, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Xiaonan Shi
- John A. Reif, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Xuezhi Zhang
- Center for Algal Biology and Applied Research, Institute of Hydrobiology , Chinese Academy of Sciences , South Donghu Road , Wuchang District, Wuhan , Hubei 430072 , China
| | - Wen Zhang
- John A. Reif, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
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Cross-flow filtration for the recovery of lipids from microalgae aqueous extracts: Membrane selection and performances. Process Biochem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2019.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Monte J, Ribeiro C, Parreira C, Costa L, Brive L, Casal S, Brazinha C, Crespo JG. Biorefinery of Dunaliella salina: Sustainable recovery of carotenoids, polar lipids and glycerol. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 297:122509. [PMID: 31812914 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Dunaliella salina is well-known for its high content in carotenoids and glycerol. Nevertheless, Dunaliella salina has also a high content in lipids, including polar lipids, which are suitable for nutraceutical/cosmeceutical applications. This work proposes a sustainable process to maximise the potential of Dunaliella salina for the production of distinct fractions of carotenoids, glycerol, polar lipids and proteins, which may contribute to improve the revenues of the microalgae industry. In this work, extraction with non-hazardous solvents and organic solvent nanofiltration are integrated, in order to obtain added-value products and glycerol. Also, aiming to separate carotenoids from glycerides, a saponification process is proposed. High overall recoveries were obtained for carotenoids (85%), glycerol (86%), polar lipids (94%) and proteins (95%). In order to evaluate the profitability of the proposed biorefinery, an economic assessment was accomplished. Both CAPEX and OPEX (Capital and Operating expenditure) were calculated, likewise the Return of Investment (ROI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Monte
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829 516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Ribeiro
- A4F Algae for Future, Campus do Lumiar, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Edif. E, R/C, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Celina Parreira
- A4F Algae for Future, Campus do Lumiar, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Edif. E, R/C, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Luís Costa
- A4F Algae for Future, Campus do Lumiar, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Edif. E, R/C, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lena Brive
- RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Box 857, SE 402 29, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Susana Casal
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carla Brazinha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829 516 Caparica, Portugal.
| | - João G Crespo
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829 516 Caparica, Portugal
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Roy M, Mohanty K. A comprehensive review on microalgal harvesting strategies: Current status and future prospects. ALGAL RES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2019.101683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Devasya R, Bassi A. Investigation of phyco-remediation of road salt run-off with marine microalgae Nannochloropsis gaditana. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2019; 40:553-563. [PMID: 29072117 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2017.1397768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Phyco-remediation is an environmental-friendly method, which involves the application of beneficial microalgae to treat wastewater-containing pollutants for a diverse range of conditions. Several industrial processes generate hyper saline wastewater, which is a significant challenge for conventional wastewater treatment, and the disposal of saline waters also has a negative impact on the environment. Road salt run-off is one such saline wastewater stream not currently treated and one that contributes significantly to negatively impacting receiving bodies of water. In this study, Nannochloropsis microalgae were able to assimilate >95% of the nitrates within 8 days in road salt concentrations ranging from 2.6% to 4.4% under phototrophic cultivation mode. Biomass yields of 1-2 g/l of culture were obtained with the maximum lipid of 22% (g/g) biomass in the road salt media. The crude road salt media provided all the essential micronutrients needed for algal cultivation. The fatty acid composition analysis of the obtained lipid composed of C16 and C18 over 45% of FAME are suitable for biofuel. This study has established that the use of road salt containing nitrate and phosphate nutrients will support the growth of marine micro algae for remediation of a waste water system that are the concern at winter-prevalent regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roopa Devasya
- a Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering , Western University , London , Ontario , Canada
| | - Amarjeet Bassi
- a Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering , Western University , London , Ontario , Canada
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30
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Deriving Economic Value from Metabolites in Cyanobacteria. GRAND CHALLENGES IN ALGAE BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-25233-5_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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31
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Concentration and purification of Porphyridium cruentum exopolysaccharides by membrane filtration at various cross-flow velocities. Process Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2018.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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32
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Stiles WAV, Styles D, Chapman SP, Esteves S, Bywater A, Melville L, Silkina A, Lupatsch I, Fuentes Grünewald C, Lovitt R, Chaloner T, Bull A, Morris C, Llewellyn CA. Using microalgae in the circular economy to valorise anaerobic digestate: challenges and opportunities. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 267:732-742. [PMID: 30076074 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.07.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Managing organic waste streams is a major challenge for the agricultural industry. Anaerobic digestion (AD) of organicwastes is a preferred option in the waste management hierarchy, as this processcangenerate renewableenergy, reduce emissions from wastestorage, andproduce fertiliser material.However, Nitrate Vulnerable Zone legislation and seasonal restrictions can limit the use of digestate on agricultural land. In this paper we demonstrate the potential of cultivating microalgae on digestate as a feedstock, either directlyafter dilution, or indirectlyfromeffluent remaining after biofertiliser extraction. Resultant microalgal biomass can then be used to produce livestock feed, biofuel or for higher value bio-products. The approach could mitigate for possible regional excesses, and substitute conventional high-impactproducts with bio-resources, enhancing sustainability withinacircular economy. Recycling nutrients from digestate with algal technology is at an early stage. We present and discuss challenges and opportunities associated with developing this new technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A V Stiles
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Gogerddan Campus, Aberystwyth, UK.
| | - David Styles
- School of Environment, Natural Resources & Geography, Bangor University, Bangor, UK
| | - Stephen P Chapman
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Gogerddan Campus, Aberystwyth, UK
| | - Sandra Esteves
- Wales Centre of Excellence for Anaerobic Digestion, Sustainable Environment Research Centre, Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Science, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, UK
| | - Angela Bywater
- University of Southampton, University Road, Southampton, UK
| | - Lynsey Melville
- Centre for Low Carbon Research, Faculty of Computing, Engineering and the Built Environment, Birmingham City University, City Centre Campus, Millennium Point, Birmingham, UK
| | - Alla Silkina
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, UK
| | - Ingrid Lupatsch
- AB Agri Ltd, 64 Innovation Way, Peterborough Business Park, Lynchwood, Peterborough, UK
| | | | - Robert Lovitt
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, UK
| | | | - Andy Bull
- Severn Wye Energy Agency, Unit 15, Highnam Business Centre, Highnam, Gloucester, UK
| | - Chris Morris
- Fre-energy Ltd, Lodge Farm, Commonwood, Holt, Wrexham, UK
| | - Carole A Llewellyn
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, UK
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33
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Microwell-assisted filtration with anodic aluminum oxide membrane for Raman analysis of algal cells. ALGAL RES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Using agro-industrial wastes for the cultivation of microalgae and duckweeds: Contamination risks and biomass safety concerns. Biotechnol Adv 2018; 36:1238-1254. [PMID: 29673973 PMCID: PMC7125918 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Aquatic organisms, such as microalgae (Chlorella, Arthrospira (Spirulina), Tetrasselmis, Dunalliela etc.) and duckweed (Lemna spp., Wolffia spp. etc.) are a potential source for the production of protein-rich biomass and for numerous other high-value compounds (fatty acids, pigments, vitamins etc.). Their cultivation using agro-industrial wastes and wastewater (WaW) is of particular interest in the context of a circular economy, not only for recycling valuable nutrients but also for reducing the requirements for fresh water for the production of biomass. Recovery and recycling of nutrients is an unavoidable long-term approach for securing future food and feed production. Agro-industrial WaW are rich in nutrients and have been widely considered as a potential nutrient source for the cultivation of microalgae/duckweed. However, they commonly contain various hazardous contaminants, which could potentially taint the produced biomass, raising various concerns about the safety of their consumption. Herein, an overview of the most important contaminants, including heavy metals and metalloids, pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites etc.), and xenobiotics (hormones, antibiotics, parasiticides etc.) is given. It is concluded that pretreatment and processing of WaW is a requisite step for the removal of several contaminants. Among the various technologies, anaerobic digestion (AD) is widely used in practice and offers a technologically mature approach for WaW treatment. During AD, various organic and biological contaminants are significantly removed. Further removal of contaminants could be achieved by post-treatment and processing of digestates (solid/liquid separation, dilution etc.) to further decrease the concentration of contaminants. Moreover, during cultivation an additional removal may occur through various mechanisms, such as precipitation, degradation, and biotransformation. Since many jurisdictions regulate the presence of various contaminants in feed or food setting strict safety monitoring processes, it would be of particular interest to initiate a multi-disciplinary discussion whether agro-industrial WaW ought to be used to cultivate microalgae/duckweed for feed or food production and identify most feasible options for doing this safely. Based on the current body of knowledge it is estimated that AD and post-treatment of WaW can lower significantly the risks associated with heavy metals and pathogens, but it is yet unclear to what extent this is the case for certain persistent xenobiotics.
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Membrane fouling of forward osmosis in dewatering of soluble algal products: Comparison of TFC and CTA membranes. J Memb Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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37
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Gorry PL, Sánchez L, Morales M. Microalgae Biorefineries for Energy and Coproduct Production. ENERGY FROM MICROALGAE 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-69093-3_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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38
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Grossmann L, Ebert S, Hinrichs J, Weiss J. Effect of precipitation, lyophilization, and organic solvent extraction on preparation of protein-rich powders from the microalgae Chlorella protothecoides. ALGAL RES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2017.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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39
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Jung JY, Kim K, Choi SA, Shin H, Kim D, Bai SC, Chang YK, Han JI. Dynamic filtration with a perforated disk for dewatering of Tetraselmis suecica. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2017; 38:3102-3108. [PMID: 28142501 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2017.1290145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic filtration equipped with a perforated disk was adopted for the first time to dewater and concentrate Tetraselmis suecica, from a typical solution of 2-100 g/L of dense biomass suited for the downstream process. An ultrafiltration membrane, polyethersulfone 150 kDa, was found to best perform in terms of high biomass retention and filtration rate. At 1600 rpm, the highest rotation speed of the disk we tested, plateau permeate flux increased up to 20.2 times higher than those with no rotation; this improvement was attributed to fouling reduction (up to 98%) via distinctively high-shear stress on the membrane surface. Even at a high biomass concentration (100 g/L) where fouling formation was very serious, the heightened shear stress caused high flux to be maintained and fouling resistance to be reduced in an effective way. When trans-membrane pressure was increased in a stepwise manner, flux continuously rose at high rotation speed; at low speed, on the other hand, the limiting flux was observed. The dynamic filtration with the perforated disk, which was an effective high-shear stress generator, was proven to be a promising dewatering means of T. suecica, and especially so for the production of highly concentrated biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Young Jung
- a Advanced Biomass R&D Center , KAIST , Daejeon , Republic of Korea
- b Department of Marine Bio-materials and Aquaculture/Feeds & Foods Nutrition Research Center , Pukyong National University , Busan , Republic of Korea
| | - Kyochan Kim
- c Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , KAIST , Daejeon , Republic of Korea
| | - Sun-A Choi
- d Biomass and Waste Energy Laboratory , Korea Institute of Energy Research , Daejeon , Republic of Korea
- e Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering , Korea University , Seoul , Republic of Korea
| | - Heewon Shin
- c Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , KAIST , Daejeon , Republic of Korea
| | - Donghyun Kim
- c Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , KAIST , Daejeon , Republic of Korea
| | - Sungchul C Bai
- b Department of Marine Bio-materials and Aquaculture/Feeds & Foods Nutrition Research Center , Pukyong National University , Busan , Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Keun Chang
- a Advanced Biomass R&D Center , KAIST , Daejeon , Republic of Korea
- c Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , KAIST , Daejeon , Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-In Han
- f Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , KAIST, Daejeon , Republic of Korea
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40
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Lorente E, Hapońska M, Clavero E, Torras C, Salvadó J. Microalgae fractionation using steam explosion, dynamic and tangential cross-flow membrane filtration. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 237:3-10. [PMID: 28395932 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.03.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the microalga Nannochloropsis gaditana was subjected to acid catalysed steam explosion treatment and the resulting exploded material was subsequently fractionated to separate the different fractions (lipids, sugars and solids). Conventional and vibrational membrane setups were used with several polymeric commercial membranes. Two different routes were followed: 1) filtration+lipid solvent extraction and 2) lipid solvent extraction+filtration. Route 1 revealed to be much better since the used membrane for filtration was able to permeate the sugar aqueous phase and retained the fraction containing lipids; after this, an extraction required a much lower amount of solvent and a better recovering yield. Filtration allowed complete lipid rejection. Dynamic filtration improved permeability compared to the tangential cross-flow filtration. Best membrane performance was achieved using a 5000Da membrane with the dynamic system, obtaining a permeability of 6L/h/m2/bar.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Lorente
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, IREC, Marcel·lí Domingo 2, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - M Hapońska
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - E Clavero
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, IREC, Marcel·lí Domingo 2, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - C Torras
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, IREC, Marcel·lí Domingo 2, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - J Salvadó
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, IREC, Marcel·lí Domingo 2, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain; Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
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Peddie WL, van Rensburg JN, Vosloo HC, van der Gryp P. Technological evaluation of organic solvent nanofiltration for the recovery of homogeneous hydroformylation catalysts. Chem Eng Res Des 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2017.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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42
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Shekhar M, Shriwastav A, Bose P, Hameed S. Microfiltration of algae: Impact of algal species, backwashing mode and duration of filtration cycle. ALGAL RES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2017.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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43
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Safi C, Olivieri G, Campos RP, Engelen-Smit N, Mulder WJ, van den Broek LAM, Sijtsma L. Biorefinery of microalgal soluble proteins by sequential processing and membrane filtration. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 225:151-158. [PMID: 27888732 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.11.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A mild biorefinery process was investigated on the microalga Nannochloropsis gaditana, to obtain an enriched fraction of water soluble proteins free from chlorophyll. After harvesting, a 100g.L-1 solution of cells was first subjected to cell disruption by either high-pressure homogenization (HPH) or enzymatic treatment (ENZ). HPH resulted in a larger release of proteins (49%) in the aqueous phase compared to the Alcalase incubation (35%). In both cases, an ultrafiltration/diafiltration (UF/DF) was then performed on the supernatant obtained from cell disruption by testing different membrane cut-off (1000kDa, 500kDa and 300kDa). After optimising the process conditions, the combination of ENZ→UF/DF ended in a larger overall yield of water soluble proteins (24.8%) in the permeate compared to the combination of HPH→UF/DF (17.4%). A gel polarization model was implemented to assess the maximum achievable concentration factor during ultrafiltration and the mass transfer coefficient related to the theoretical permeation flux rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Safi
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, AlgaePARC, PO Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - G Olivieri
- Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, dei Materiali e della Produzione Industriale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Piazzale V. Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy
| | - R P Campos
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, AlgaePARC, PO Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - N Engelen-Smit
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, AlgaePARC, PO Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - W J Mulder
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, AlgaePARC, PO Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - L A M van den Broek
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, AlgaePARC, PO Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - L Sijtsma
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, AlgaePARC, PO Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Eppink MHM, Olivieri G, Reith H, van den Berg C, Barbosa MJ, Wijffels RH. From Current Algae Products to Future Biorefinery Practices: A Review. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 166:99-123. [PMID: 28265702 DOI: 10.1007/10_2016_64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microalgae are considered to be one of the most promising next generation bio-based/food feedstocks with a unique lipid composition, high protein content, and an almost unlimited amount of other bio-active molecules. High-value components such as the soluble proteins, (poly) unsaturated fatty acids, pigments, and carbohydrates can be used as an important ingredient for several markets, such as the food/feed/chemical/cosmetics and health industries. Although cultivation costs have decreased significantly in the last few decades, large microalgae production processes become economically viable if all complex compounds are optimally valorized in their functional state. To isolate these functional compounds from the biomass, cost-effective, mild, and energy-efficient biorefinery techniques need to be developed and applied. In this review we describe current microalgae biorefinery strategies and the derived products, followed by new technological developments and an outlook toward future products and the biorefinery philosophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel H M Eppink
- Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, PO Box. 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Giuseppe Olivieri
- Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, PO Box. 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Reith
- Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, PO Box. 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Corjan van den Berg
- Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, PO Box. 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maria J Barbosa
- Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, PO Box. 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rene H Wijffels
- Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, PO Box. 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,University of Nordland, 8049, Bodø, Norway
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Venkata Mohan S, Nikhil GN, Chiranjeevi P, Nagendranatha Reddy C, Rohit MV, Kumar AN, Sarkar O. Waste biorefinery models towards sustainable circular bioeconomy: Critical review and future perspectives. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 215:2-12. [PMID: 27068056 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.03.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Increased urbanization worldwide has resulted in a substantial increase in energy and material consumption as well as anthropogenic waste generation. The main source for our current needs is petroleum refinery, which have grave impact over energy-environment nexus. Therefore, production of bioenergy and biomaterials have significant potential to contribute and need to meet the ever increasing demand. In this perspective, a biorefinery concept visualizes negative-valued waste as a potential renewable feedstock. This review illustrates different bioprocess based technological models that will pave sustainable avenues for the development of biobased society. The proposed models hypothesize closed loop approach wherein waste is valorised through a cascade of various biotechnological processes addressing circular economy. Biorefinery offers a sustainable green option to utilize waste and to produce a gamut of marketable bioproducts and bioenergy on par to petro-chemical refinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Venkata Mohan
- Bioengineering and Environmental Sciences (BEES), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad 500 007, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India.
| | - G N Nikhil
- Bioengineering and Environmental Sciences (BEES), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad 500 007, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India
| | - P Chiranjeevi
- Bioengineering and Environmental Sciences (BEES), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad 500 007, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India
| | - C Nagendranatha Reddy
- Bioengineering and Environmental Sciences (BEES), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad 500 007, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India
| | - M V Rohit
- Bioengineering and Environmental Sciences (BEES), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad 500 007, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India
| | - A Naresh Kumar
- Bioengineering and Environmental Sciences (BEES), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad 500 007, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India
| | - Omprakash Sarkar
- Bioengineering and Environmental Sciences (BEES), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad 500 007, India, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India
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Mayers JJ, Ekman Nilsson A, Svensson E, Albers E. Integrating Microalgal Production with Industrial Outputs—Reducing Process Inputs and Quantifying the Benefits. Ind Biotechnol (New Rochelle N Y) 2016. [DOI: 10.1089/ind.2016.0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J. Mayers
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Division of Industrial Biotechnology, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Anna Ekman Nilsson
- SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Food and Bioscience, Ideon, Lund, Sweden
| | - Elin Svensson
- Chalmers University of Technology, Division of Industrial Energy Systems and Technologies, Department of Energy and Environment, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Eva Albers
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Division of Industrial Biotechnology, Göteborg, Sweden
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Zhao F, Chu H, Su Y, Tan X, Zhang Y, Yang L, Zhou X. Microalgae harvesting by an axial vibration membrane: The mechanism of mitigating membrane fouling. J Memb Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Gerardo ML, Aljohani NHM, Oatley-Radcliffe DL, Lovitt RW. Moving towards sustainable resources: Recovery and fractionation of nutrients from dairy manure digestate using membranes. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 80:80-89. [PMID: 25996755 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The fractionation of nitrogen (as ammonia/ammonium) and phosphorus (as phosphate ions) present in the dairy manure digestate was investigated using a nanofiltration membrane NF270. The filtration and separation efficiencies were correlated to pH across the range 3 < pH < 11. Filtration at pH 11 enabled higher permeate flux of 125-150 LMH at 20 bar, however rejection of ammonia was high at 30-36% and phosphate was 96.4-97.2%. At pH 3 and pH 7, electrostatic charge effects led to higher permeation of ammonium and thus more efficient separation of nitrogen. The rejection of phosphorus was relatively constant at any given pH and determined as 83% at pH 3, 97% at pH 7 and 95% at pH 11. The fractionation of nitrogen and phosphorus from complex aqueous solutions was demonstrated to be highly dependent on the charge of the membrane and ionic speciation. Solutions rich in nitrogen (as ammonia/ammonium) were obtained with almost no phosphorus present (<1 ppm) whilst the purification of the PO4-P was achieved by series of diafiltration (DF) operations which further separated the nitrogen. The separation of nutrients benefited from an advantageous membrane process with potential added value for a wide range of industries. The analysis of the process economics for a membrane based plant illustrates that the recovery of nutrients, particularly NH3-N, may be commercially feasible when compared to manufactured anhydrous NH3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Gerardo
- Centre for Complex Fluid Processing (CCFP), Systems and Process Engineering Centre, College of Engineering (SPEC), Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK.
| | - Nasser H M Aljohani
- Centre for Water Advanced Technologies and Environmental Research (CWATER), College of Engineering, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Darren L Oatley-Radcliffe
- Centre for Complex Fluid Processing (CCFP), Systems and Process Engineering Centre, College of Engineering (SPEC), Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK; Centre for Water Advanced Technologies and Environmental Research (CWATER), College of Engineering, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Robert W Lovitt
- Centre for Complex Fluid Processing (CCFP), Systems and Process Engineering Centre, College of Engineering (SPEC), Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK; Centre for Water Advanced Technologies and Environmental Research (CWATER), College of Engineering, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
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Mo W, Soh L, Werber JR, Elimelech M, Zimmerman JB. Application of membrane dewatering for algal biofuel. ALGAL RES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2015.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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50
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Gerardo ML, Van Den Hende S, Vervaeren H, Coward T, Skill SC. Harvesting of microalgae within a biorefinery approach: A review of the developments and case studies from pilot-plants. ALGAL RES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2015.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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