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Anisimova AS, Kolyupanova NM, Makarova NE, Egorov AA, Kulakovskiy IV, Dmitriev SE. Human Tissues Exhibit Diverse Composition of Translation Machinery. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:8361. [PMID: 37176068 PMCID: PMC10179197 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24098361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
While protein synthesis is vital for the majority of cell types of the human body, diversely differentiated cells require specific translation regulation. This suggests the specialization of translation machinery across tissues and organs. Using transcriptomic data from GTEx, FANTOM, and Gene Atlas, we systematically explored the abundance of transcripts encoding translation factors and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (ARSases) in human tissues. We revised a few known and identified several novel translation-related genes exhibiting strict tissue-specific expression. The proteins they encode include eEF1A1, eEF1A2, PABPC1L, PABPC3, eIF1B, eIF4E1B, eIF4ENIF1, and eIF5AL1. Furthermore, our analysis revealed a pervasive tissue-specific relative abundance of translation machinery components (e.g., PABP and eRF3 paralogs, eIF2B and eIF3 subunits, eIF5MPs, and some ARSases), suggesting presumptive variance in the composition of translation initiation, elongation, and termination complexes. These conclusions were largely confirmed by the analysis of proteomic data. Finally, we paid attention to sexual dimorphism in the repertoire of translation factors encoded in sex chromosomes (eIF1A, eIF2γ, and DDX3), and identified the testis and brain as organs with the most diverged expression of translation-associated genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra S. Anisimova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalia M. Kolyupanova
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Nadezhda E. Makarova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Artyom A. Egorov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ivan V. Kulakovskiy
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117971 Moscow, Russia;
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
- Laboratory of Regulatory Genomics, Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Sergey E. Dmitriev
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
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2
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Cabrera Zapata LE, Garcia-Segura LM, Cambiasso MJ, Arevalo MA. Genetics and Epigenetics of the X and Y Chromosomes in the Sexual Differentiation of the Brain. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012288. [PMID: 36293143 PMCID: PMC9603441 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
For many decades to date, neuroendocrinologists have delved into the key contribution of gonadal hormones to the generation of sex differences in the developing brain and the expression of sex-specific physiological and behavioral phenotypes in adulthood. However, it was not until recent years that the role of sex chromosomes in the matter started to be seriously explored and unveiled beyond gonadal determination. Now we know that the divergent evolutionary process suffered by X and Y chromosomes has determined that they now encode mostly dissimilar genetic information and are subject to different epigenetic regulations, characteristics that together contribute to generate sex differences between XX and XY cells/individuals from the zygote throughout life. Here we will review and discuss relevant data showing how particular X- and Y-linked genes and epigenetic mechanisms controlling their expression and inheritance are involved, along with or independently of gonadal hormones, in the generation of sex differences in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas E. Cabrera Zapata
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra (INIMEC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba 5016, Argentina
- Instituto Cajal (IC), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - María Julia Cambiasso
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra (INIMEC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba 5016, Argentina
- Cátedra de Biología Celular, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba 5000, Argentina
- Correspondence: (M.J.C.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Maria Angeles Arevalo
- Instituto Cajal (IC), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28002 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (M.J.C.); (M.A.A.)
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3
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Zhang M, Zhou Y, Jiang Y, Lu Z, Xiao X, Ning J, Sun H, Zhang X, Luo H, Can D, Lu J, Xu H, Zhang YW. Profiling of Sexually Dimorphic Genes in Neural Cells to Identify Eif2s3y, Whose Overexpression Causes Autism-Like Behaviors in Male Mice. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:669798. [PMID: 34307355 PMCID: PMC8292149 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.669798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Many neurological disorders exhibit sex differences and sex-specific therapeutic responses. Unfortunately, significant amounts of studies investigating molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying these neurological disorders use primary cell cultures with undetermined sexes; and this may be a source for contradictory results among different studies and impair the validity of study conclusion. Herein, we comprehensively compared sexual dimorphism of gene expression in primary neurons, astrocytes, and microglia derived from neonatal mouse brains. We found that overall sexually dimorphic gene numbers were relatively low in these primary cells, with microglia possessing the most (264 genes), neurons possessing the medium (69 genes), and astrocytes possessing the least (30 genes). KEGG analysis indicated that sexually dimorphic genes in these three cell types were strongly enriched for the immune system and immune-related diseases. Furthermore, we identified that sexually dimorphic genes shared by these primary cells dominantly located on the Y chromosome, including Ddx3y, Eif2s3y, Kdm5d, and Uty. Finally, we demonstrated that overexpression of Eif2s3y increased synaptic transmission specifically in male neurons and caused autism-like behaviors specifically in male mice. Together, our results demonstrate that the sex of primary cells should be considered when these cells are used for studying the molecular mechanism underlying neurological disorders with sex-biased susceptibility, especially those related to immune dysfunction. Moreover, our findings indicate that dysregulation of sexually dimorphic genes on the Y chromosome may also result in autism and possibly other neurological disorders, providing new insights into the genetic driver of sex differences in neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muxian Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yunqiang Zhou
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yiru Jiang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.,Emergency Department, Xiang'an Hospital, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Zhancheng Lu
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Xiaoxia Xiao
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jinhuan Ning
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Hao Sun
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xian Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Hong Luo
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Dan Can
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jinsheng Lu
- Emergency Department, Xiang'an Hospital, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Huaxi Xu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.,Xiamen Key Laboratory of Brain Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yun-Wu Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute for Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.,Xiamen Key Laboratory of Brain Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
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4
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Sánchez JM, Gómez-Redondo I, Browne JA, Planells B, Gutiérrez-Adán A, Lonergan P. MicroRNAs in amniotic fluid and maternal blood plasma associated with sex determination and early gonad differentiation in cattle†. Biol Reprod 2021; 105:345-358. [PMID: 33889937 PMCID: PMC8335352 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioab079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesized that sexually dimorphic differences exist in the expression of miRNAs in amniotic fluid (AF) and maternal blood plasma (MP) in association with the process of sex determination and gonad differentiation in cattle. Amniotic fluid and MP were collected from six pregnant heifers (three carrying a single male and three a single female embryo) following slaughter on Day 39 postinsemination, coinciding with the peak of SRY expression. Samples (six AF and six MP) were profiled using an miRNA Serum/Plasma Focus PCR Panel. Differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs were identified in AF (n = 5) and associated MP (n = 56) of male vs. female embryos (P < 0.05). Functional analysis showed that inflammatory and immune response were among the 13 biological processes enriched by miRNAs DE in MP in the male group (FDR < 0.05), suggesting that these sex-dependent DE miRNAs may be implicated in modulating the receptivity of the dam to a male embryo. Further, we compared the downstream targets of the sex-dependent DE miRNAs detected in MP with genes previously identified as DE in male vs. female genital ridges. The analyses revealed potential targets that might be important during this developmental stage such as SHROOM2, DDX3Y, SOX9, SRY, PPP1CB, JARID2, USP9X, KDM6A, and EIF2S3. Results from this study highlight novel aspects of sex determination and embryo–maternal communication in cattle such as the potential role of miRNAs in gonad development as well as in the modulation of the receptivity of the dam to a male embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- José María Sánchez
- Animal and Crops Sciences, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.,Departamento de Reproducción Animal, INIA, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - John A Browne
- Animal and Crops Sciences, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | | | | | - Pat Lonergan
- Animal and Crops Sciences, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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5
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Arnold AP. Four Core Genotypes and XY* mouse models: Update on impact on SABV research. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 119:1-8. [PMID: 32980399 PMCID: PMC7736196 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The impact of two mouse models is reviewed, the Four Core Genotypes and XY* models. The models are useful for determining if the causes of sex differences in phenotypes are either hormonal or sex chromosomal, or both. Used together, the models also can distinguish between the effects of X or Y chromosome genes that contribute to sex differences in phenotypes. To date, the models have been used to uncover sex chromosome contributions to sex differences in a wide variety of phenotypes, including brain and behavior, autoimmunity and immunity, cardiovascular disease, metabolism, and Alzheimer's Disease. In some cases, use of the models has been a strategy leading to discovery of specific X or Y genes that protect from or exacerbate disease. Sex chromosome and hormonal factors interact, in some cases to reduce the effects of each other. Future progress will come from more extensive application of these models, and development of similar models in other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, UCLA, 610 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-7239, United States.
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6
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Chucair-Elliott AJ, Ocanas SR, Stanford DR, Hadad N, Wronowski B, Otalora L, Stout MB, Freeman WM. Tamoxifen induction of Cre recombinase does not cause long-lasting or sexually divergent responses in the CNS epigenome or transcriptome: implications for the design of aging studies. GeroScience 2019; 41:691-708. [PMID: 31493147 PMCID: PMC6885072 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-019-00090-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The systemic delivery of tamoxifen (Tam) to activate inducible CreERT2-loxP transgenic mouse systems is now widely used in neuroscience studies. This critical technological advancement allows temporal control of DNA-cre recombination, avoidance of embryonically lethal phenotypes, and minimization of residual cell labeling encountered in constitutively active drivers. Despite its advantages, the use of Tam has the potential to cause long-lasting, uncharacterized side effects on the transcriptome and epigenome in the CNS, given its mixed estrogen receptor (ER) agonist/antagonist actions. With the welcome focus on including both sexes in biomedical studies and efforts to understand sex differences, Tam administration could also cause sexually divergent responses that would confound studies. To examine these issues, epigenetic and transcriptomic profiles were compared in C57BL/6 J female and male hippocampus, cortex, and retina 1 month after a 5-day Tam treatment typical for cre induction, or vehicle control (sunflower seed oil). Cytosine methylation and hydroxymethylation levels, in both CG and non-CG contexts, were unchanged as determined by oxidative bisulfite sequencing. Long-lasting Tam transcriptomic effects were also not evident/minimal. Furthermore, there is no evidence of sexually divergent responses with Tam administration and Tam did not alter sex differences evident in controls. Combined with recently reported data that Tam alone does not cause long-lasting changes in behavior and neurogenesis, our findings provide confidence that Tam can be used as a cre-recombinase inducer without introducing significant confounds in transcriptomic and epigenomic neuroscience studies, particularly those focused on genomic and transcriptomic aspects of the aging brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana J Chucair-Elliott
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 975 NE 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Sarah R Ocanas
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 975 NE 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - David R Stanford
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 975 NE 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Niran Hadad
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Nathan Shock Center for Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Benjamin Wronowski
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Laura Otalora
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 975 NE 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Michael B Stout
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Willard M Freeman
- Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 975 NE 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.
- Oklahoma Nathan Shock Center for Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Oklahoma Center for Neuroscience, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Oklahoma City Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
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7
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DeLeon-Pennell KY, Lindsey ML. Somewhere over the sex differences rainbow of myocardial infarction remodeling: hormones, chromosomes, inflammasome, oh my. Expert Rev Proteomics 2019; 16:933-940. [PMID: 31483157 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2019.1664293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Cardiovascular disease is a major cause of death in both men and women. While women are protected until the onset of menopause, after menopause women have increased risk of adverse cardiovascular disease events. Animal models of myocardial infarction recapitulate many of the sex differences observed in humans, and proteomics evaluations offer mechanistic insights to explain sex differences.Areas covered: In this review, we will discuss how proteomics has helped us understand the hormonal, chromosomal, and immune mechanisms behind sex differences in response to ischemic injury and the development of heart failure.Expert opinion: There are a number of ways in which proteomics has and will continue to facilitate our understanding of sex differences in cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Y DeLeon-Pennell
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Medical University of South Carolina, and Research Service, Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Merry L Lindsey
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, Center for Heart and Vascular Research, University of Nebraska Medical Center, and Research Service, Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE, USA
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8
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Duyck K, DuTell V, Ma L, Paulson A, Yu CR. Pronounced strain-specific chemosensory receptor gene expression in the mouse vomeronasal organ. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:965. [PMID: 29233099 PMCID: PMC5727874 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4364-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The chemosensory system plays an important role in orchestrating sexual behaviors in mammals. Pheromones trigger sexually dimorphic behaviors and different mouse strains exhibit differential responses to pheromone stimuli. It has been speculated that differential gene expression in the sensory organs that detect pheromones may underlie sexually-dimorphic and strain-specific responses to pheromone cues. Results We have performed transcriptome analyses of the mouse vomeronasal organ, a sensory organ recognizing pheromones and interspecies cues. We find little evidence of sexual dimorphism in gene expression except for Xist, an essential gene for X-linked gene inactivation. Variations in gene expression are found mainly among strains, with genes from immune response and chemosensory receptor classes dominating the list. Differentially expressed genes are concentrated in genomic hotspots enriched in these families of genes. Some chemosensory receptors show exclusive patterns of expression in different strains. We find high levels of single nucleotide polymorphism in chemosensory receptor pseudogenes, some of which lead to functionalized receptors. Moreover, we identify a number of differentially expressed long noncoding RNA species showing strong correlation or anti-correlation with chemoreceptor genes. Conclusions Our analyses provide little evidence supporting sexually dimorphic gene expression in the vomeronasal organ that may underlie dimorphic pheromone responses. In contrast, we find pronounced variations in the expression of immune response related genes, vomeronasal and G-protein coupled receptor genes among different mouse strains. These findings raised the possibility that diverse strains of mouse perceive pheromone cues differently and behavioral difference among strains in response to pheromone may first arise from differential detection of pheromones. On the other hand, sexually dimorphic responses to pheromones more likely originate from dimorphic neural circuits in the brain than from differential detection. Moreover, noncoding RNA may offer a potential regulatory mechanism controlling the differential expression patterns. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-017-4364-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle Duyck
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 East 50th Street, Kansas City, MO, 64110, USA
| | - Vasha DuTell
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 East 50th Street, Kansas City, MO, 64110, USA.,Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, University of California, 567 Evans Hall, Berkeley, 94720, USA
| | - Limei Ma
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 East 50th Street, Kansas City, MO, 64110, USA
| | - Ariel Paulson
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 East 50th Street, Kansas City, MO, 64110, USA
| | - C Ron Yu
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 East 50th Street, Kansas City, MO, 64110, USA. .,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA.
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9
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Nelson LH, Lenz KM. The immune system as a novel regulator of sex differences in brain and behavioral development. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:447-461. [PMID: 27870450 PMCID: PMC8008603 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Sexual differentiation of the brain occurs early in life as a result of sex-typical hormone action and sex chromosome effects. Immunocompetent cells are being recognized as underappreciated regulators of sex differences in brain and behavioral development, including microglia, astrocytes, and possibly other less well studied cell types, including T cells and mast cells. Immunocompetent cells in the brain are responsive to steroid hormones, but their role in sex-specific brain development is an emerging field of interest. This Review presents a summary of what is currently known about sex differences in the number, morphology, and signaling profile of immune cells in the developing brain and their role in the early-life programming of sex differences in brain and behavior. We review what is currently known about sex differences in the response to early-life perturbations, including stress, inflammation, diet, and environmental pollutants. We also discuss how and why understanding sex differences in the developing neuroimmune environment may provide insight into understanding the etiology of several neurodevelopmental disorders. This Review also highlights what remains to be discovered in this emerging field of developmental neuroimmunology and underscores the importance of filling in these knowledge gaps. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars H Nelson
- Program in Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
- Group in Behavioral Neuroendocrinology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Kathryn M Lenz
- Group in Behavioral Neuroendocrinology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
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10
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Burgoyne PS, Arnold AP. A primer on the use of mouse models for identifying direct sex chromosome effects that cause sex differences in non-gonadal tissues. Biol Sex Differ 2016; 7:68. [PMID: 27999654 PMCID: PMC5154145 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-016-0115-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In animals with heteromorphic sex chromosomes, all sex differences originate from the sex chromosomes, which are the only factors that are consistently different in male and female zygotes. In mammals, the imbalance in Y gene expression, specifically the presence vs. absence of Sry, initiates the differentiation of testes in males, setting up lifelong sex differences in the level of gonadal hormones, which in turn cause many sex differences in the phenotype of non-gonadal tissues. The inherent imbalance in the expression of X and Y genes, or in the epigenetic impact of X and Y chromosomes, also has the potential to contribute directly to the sexual differentiation of non-gonadal cells. Here, we review the research strategies to identify the X and Y genes or chromosomal regions that cause direct, sexually differentiating effects on non-gonadal cells. Some mouse models are useful for separating the effects of sex chromosomes from those of gonadal hormones. Once direct “sex chromosome effects” are detected in these models, further studies are required to narrow down the list of candidate X and/or Y genes and then to identify the sexually differentiating genes themselves. Logical approaches to the search for these genes are reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S Burgoyne
- Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Genetics, Mill Hill Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, The Ridgeway, London, NW7 1AA UK
| | - Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 610 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7239 USA
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11
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Sex-Specific Effects of Testosterone on the Sexually Dimorphic Transcriptome and Epigenome of Embryonic Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36916. [PMID: 27845378 PMCID: PMC5109279 DOI: 10.1038/srep36916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms by which sex differences in the mammalian brain arise are poorly understood, but are influenced by a combination of underlying genetic differences and gonadal hormone exposure. Using a mouse embryonic neural stem cell (eNSC) model to understand early events contributing to sexually dimorphic brain development, we identified novel interactions between chromosomal sex and hormonal exposure that are instrumental to early brain sex differences. RNA-sequencing identified 103 transcripts that were differentially expressed between XX and XY eNSCs at baseline (FDR = 0.10). Treatment with testosterone-propionate (TP) reveals sex-specific gene expression changes, causing 2854 and 792 transcripts to become differentially expressed on XX and XY genetic backgrounds respectively. Within the TP responsive transcripts, there was enrichment for genes which function as epigenetic regulators that affect both histone modifications and DNA methylation patterning. We observed that TP caused a global decrease in 5-methylcytosine abundance in both sexes, a transmissible effect that was maintained in cellular progeny. Additionally, we determined that TP was associated with residue-specific alterations in acetylation of histone tails. These findings highlight an unknown component of androgen action on cells within the developmental CNS, and contribute to a novel mechanism of action by which early hormonal organization is initiated and maintained.
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12
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Arnold AP, Reue K, Eghbali M, Vilain E, Chen X, Ghahramani N, Itoh Y, Li J, Link JC, Ngun T, Williams-Burris SM. The importance of having two X chromosomes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:20150113. [PMID: 26833834 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, it was thought that the number of X chromosomes plays little role in causing sex differences in traits. Recently, selected mouse models have been used increasingly to compare mice with the same type of gonad but with one versus two copies of the X chromosome. Study of these models demonstrates that mice with one X chromosome can be strikingly different from those with two X chromosomes, when the differences are not attributable to confounding group differences in gonadal hormones. The number of X chromosomes affects adiposity and metabolic disease, cardiovascular ischaemia/reperfusion injury and behaviour. The effects of X chromosome number are likely the result of inherent differences in expression of X genes that escape inactivation, and are therefore expressed from both X chromosomes in XX mice, resulting in a higher level of expression when two X chromosomes are present. The effects of X chromosome number contribute to sex differences in disease phenotypes, and may explain some features of X chromosome aneuploidies such as in Turner and Klinefelter syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Karen Reue
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mansoureh Eghbali
- Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Eric Vilain
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Xuqi Chen
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Negar Ghahramani
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Yuichiro Itoh
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jingyuan Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jenny C Link
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Tuck Ngun
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Shayna M Williams-Burris
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Interdepartmental Program for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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13
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Itoh Y, Mackie R, Kampf K, Domadia S, Brown JD, O’Neill R, Arnold AP. Four core genotypes mouse model: localization of the Sry transgene and bioassay for testicular hormone levels. BMC Res Notes 2015; 8:69. [PMID: 25870930 PMCID: PMC4354741 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-015-0986-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The "four core genotypes" (FCG) mouse model has emerged as a major model testing if sex differences in phenotypes are caused by sex chromosome complement (XX vs. XY) or gonadal hormones or both. The model involves deletion of the testis-determining gene Sry from the Y chromosome and insertion of an Sry transgene onto an autosome. It produces XX and XY mice with testes, and XX and XY mice with ovaries, so that XX and XY mice with the same type of gonad can be compared to assess phenotypic effects of sex chromosome complement in cells and tissues. FINDINGS We used PCR to amplify the Sry transgene and adjacent genomic sequences, to resolve the location of the Sry transgene to chromosome 3 and confirmed this location by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) of the Sry construct to metaphase chromosomes. Using quantitative PCR, we estimate that 12-14 copies of the transgene were inserted. The anogenital distance (AGD) of FCG pups at 27-29 days after birth was not different in XX vs. XY males, or XX vs. XY females, suggesting that differences between XX and XY mice with the same type of gonad are not caused by difference in prenatal androgen levels. CONCLUSION The Sry transgene in FCG mice is present in multiple copies at one locus on chromosome 3, which does not interrupt known genes. XX and XY mice with the same type of gonad do not show evidence of different androgen levels prenatally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichiro Itoh
- />Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Ryan Mackie
- />Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Kathy Kampf
- />Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Shelly Domadia
- />Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Judith D Brown
- />Institute for Systems Genomics and the Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of CT, Storrs, CT USA
| | - Rachel O’Neill
- />Institute for Systems Genomics and the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT USA
| | - Arthur P Arnold
- />Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA USA
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14
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The incidence of sexually dimorphic gene expression varies greatly between tissues in the rat. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115792. [PMID: 25548914 PMCID: PMC4280129 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The sexually dimorphic expression of genes across 26 somatic rat tissues was using Affymetrix RAE-230 genechips. We considered probesets to be sexually dimorphically expressed (SDE) if they were measurably expressed above background in at least one sex, there was at least a two-fold difference in expression (dimorphism) between the sexes, and the differences were statistically significant after correcting for false discovery. 14.5% of expressed probesets were SDE in at least one tissue, with higher expression nearly twice as prevalent in males compared to females. Most were SDE in a single tissue. Surprisingly, nearly half of the probesets that were (SDE) in multiple tissues were oppositely sex biased in different tissues, and most SDE probesets were also expressed without sex bias in other tissues. Two genes were widely SDE: Xist (female-only) and Eif2s3y (male-only). The frequency of SDE probesets varied widely between tissues, and was highest in the duodenum (6.2%), whilst less than 0.05% in over half of the surveyed tissues. The occurrence of SDE probesets was not strongly correlated between tissues. Within individual tissues, however, relational networks of SDE genes were identified. In the liver, networks relating to differential metabolism between the sexes were seen. The estrogen receptor was implicated in differential gene expression in the duodenum. To conclude, sexually dimorphic gene expression is common, but highly tissue-dependent. Sexually dimorphic gene expression may provide insights into mechanisms underlying phenotypic sex differences. Online data are provided as a resource for further analyses (GEO reference GSE63362).
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15
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Shen EY, Ahern TH, Cheung I, Straubhaar J, Dincer A, Houston I, de Vries GJ, Akbarian S, Forger NG. Epigenetics and sex differences in the brain: A genome-wide comparison of histone-3 lysine-4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) in male and female mice. Exp Neurol 2014; 268:21-9. [PMID: 25131640 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Many neurological and psychiatric disorders exhibit gender disparities, and sex differences in the brain likely explain some of these effects. Recent work in rodents points to a role for epigenetics in the development or maintenance of neural sex differences, although genome-wide studies have so far been lacking. Here we review the existing literature on epigenetics and brain sexual differentiation and present preliminary analyses on the genome-wide distribution of histone-3 lysine-4 trimethylation in a sexually dimorphic brain region in male and female mice. H3K4me3 is a histone mark primarily organized as 'peaks' surrounding the transcription start site of active genes. We microdissected the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and preoptic area (BNST/POA) in adult male and female mice and used ChIP-Seq to compare the distribution of H3K4me3 throughout the genome. We found 248 genes and loci with a significant sex difference in H3K4me3. Of these, the majority (71%) had larger H3K4me3 peaks in females. Comparisons with existing databases indicate that genes and loci with increased H3K4me3 in females are associated with synaptic function and with expression atlases from related brain areas. Based on RT-PCR, only a minority of genes with a sex difference in H3K4me3 has detectable sex differences in expression at baseline conditions. Together with previous findings, our data suggest that there may be sex biases in the use of epigenetic marks. Such biases could underlie sex differences in vulnerabilities to drugs or diseases that disrupt specific epigenetic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Y Shen
- Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Todd H Ahern
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT 06518, USA
| | - Iris Cheung
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01604, USA
| | - Juerg Straubhaar
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01604, USA
| | - Aslihan Dincer
- Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomics Science, Icahn Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Isaac Houston
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01604, USA
| | - Geert J de Vries
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA
| | - Schahram Akbarian
- Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Nancy G Forger
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
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16
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Identification of sexually dimorphic genes in the neonatal mouse cortex and hippocampus. Brain Res 2014; 1562:23-38. [PMID: 24661915 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 03/08/2014] [Accepted: 03/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The cerebral cortex and hippocampus are important for the control of cognitive functions and social behaviors, many of which are sexually dimorphic and tightly regulated by gonadal steroid hormones via activation of their respective nuclear receptors. As different levels of sex steroid hormones are present between the sexes during early development and their receptors act as transcription factors to regulate gene expression, we hypothesize that sexually dimorphic gene expression in the developing mouse cortex and hippocampus might result in sex differences in brain structures and neural circuits governing distinct behaviors between the sexes as adults. To test our hypothesis, we used gene expression microarrays to identify 90 candidate genes differentially expressed in the neonatal cortex/hippocampus between male and female mice, including 55 male-biased and 35 female-biased genes. Among these genes, sexually dimorphic expression of eight sex chromosome genes was confirmed by reverse transcription with quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), including three located on the X chromosome (Xist, Eif2s3x, and Kdm6a), three on the Y chromosome (Ddx3y, Eif2s3y, and Kdm5d), and two in the pseudoautosomal region of the X and Y chromosomes (Erdr1 and Mid1). In addition, five autosomal genes (Cd151, Dab2, Klk8, Meg3, and Prkdc) were also validated for their sexually dimorphic expression in the neonatal mouse cortex/hippocampus. Gene Ontology annotation analysis suggests that many of these sexually dimorphic genes are involved in histone modifications, cell proliferation/death, androgen/estrogen signaling pathways, and synaptic organization, and these biological processes have been implicated in differential neural development, cognitive function, and neurological diseases between the sexes.
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17
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Yamauchi Y, Riel JM, Stoytcheva Z, Ward MA. Two Y genes can replace the entire Y chromosome for assisted reproduction in the mouse. Science 2014; 343:69-72. [PMID: 24263135 PMCID: PMC3880637 DOI: 10.1126/science.1242544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The Y chromosome is thought to be important for male reproduction. We have previously shown that, with the use of assisted reproduction, live offspring can be obtained from mice lacking the entire Y chromosome long arm. Here, we demonstrate that live mouse progeny can also be generated by using germ cells from males with the Y chromosome contribution limited to only two genes, the testis determinant factor Sry and the spermatogonial proliferation factor Eif2s3y. Sry is believed to function primarily in sex determination during fetal life. Eif2s3y may be the only Y chromosome gene required to drive mouse spermatogenesis, allowing formation of haploid germ cells that are functional in assisted reproduction. Our findings are relevant, but not directly translatable, to human male infertility cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Yamauchi
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East-West Rd, Honolulu, HI, 96822
| | - Jonathan M. Riel
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East-West Rd, Honolulu, HI, 96822
| | - Zoia Stoytcheva
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East-West Rd, Honolulu, HI, 96822
| | - Monika A. Ward
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East-West Rd, Honolulu, HI, 96822
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18
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Abstract
As for many human diseases, the incidence of obesity and its associated health risks are sexually dimorphic: worldwide the rate of obesity is higher in women. Sex differences in metabolism, appetite, body composition, and fat deposition are contributing biological factors. Gonadal hormones regulate the development of many sexually dimorphic traits in humans and animals, and, in addition, studies in mice indicate a role for direct genetic effects of sex chromosome dosage on body weight, deposition of fat, and circadian timing of feeding behavior. Specifically, mice of either sex with 2 X chromosomes, typical of normal females, have heavier body weights, gain more weight, and eat more food during the light portion of the day than mice of either sex with a single X chromosome. Here we test the effects of X chromosome dosage on body weight and report that gonadal females with 2 X chromosomes express higher levels of GH gene (Gh) mRNA in the preoptic area (POA) of the hypothalamus than females with 1 X chromosome and males. Furthermore, Gh expression in the POA of the hypothalamus of mice with 2 X chromosomes correlated with body weight; GH is known to have orexigenic properties. Acute infusion of GH into the POA increased immediate food intake in normal (XY) males. We propose that X inactivation-escaping genes modulate Gh expression and food intake, and this is part of the mechanism by which individuals with 2 X chromosomes are heavier than individuals with a single X chromosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Bonthuis
- PO Box 800733, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908.
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19
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Gabory A, Roseboom TJ, Moore T, Moore LG, Junien C. Placental contribution to the origins of sexual dimorphism in health and diseases: sex chromosomes and epigenetics. Biol Sex Differ 2013; 4:5. [PMID: 23514128 PMCID: PMC3618244 DOI: 10.1186/2042-6410-4-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences occur in most non-communicable diseases, including metabolic diseases, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, psychiatric and neurological disorders and cancer. In many cases, the susceptibility to these diseases begins early in development. The observed differences between the sexes may result from genetic and hormonal differences and from differences in responses to and interactions with environmental factors, including infection, diet, drugs and stress. The placenta plays a key role in fetal growth and development and, as such, affects the fetal programming underlying subsequent adult health and accounts, in part for the developmental origin of health and disease (DOHaD). There is accumulating evidence to demonstrate the sex-specific relationships between diverse environmental influences on placental functions and the risk of disease later in life. As one of the few tissues easily collectable in humans, this organ may therefore be seen as an ideal system for studying how male and female placenta sense nutritional and other stresses, such as endocrine disruptors. Sex-specific regulatory pathways controlling sexually dimorphic characteristics in the various organs and the consequences of lifelong differences in sex hormone expression largely account for such responses. However, sex-specific changes in epigenetic marks are generated early after fertilization, thus before adrenal and gonad differentiation in the absence of sex hormones and in response to environmental conditions. Given the abundance of X-linked genes involved in placentogenesis, and the early unequal gene expression by the sex chromosomes between males and females, the role of X- and Y-chromosome-linked genes, and especially those involved in the peculiar placenta-specific epigenetics processes, giving rise to the unusual placenta epigenetic landscapes deserve particular attention. However, even with recent developments in this field, we still know little about the mechanisms underlying the early sex-specific epigenetic marks resulting in sex-biased gene expression of pathways and networks. As a critical messenger between the maternal environment and the fetus, the placenta may play a key role not only in buffering environmental effects transmitted by the mother but also in expressing and modulating effects due to preconceptional exposure of both the mother and the father to stressful conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Gabory
- INRA, UMR1198 Biologie du Développement et Reproduction, Jouy-en-Josas, F-78352, France.
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20
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Wolstenholme JT, Rissman EF, Bekiranov S. Sexual differentiation in the developing mouse brain: contributions of sex chromosome genes. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2013; 12:166-80. [PMID: 23210685 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 10/25/2012] [Accepted: 11/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Neural sexual differentiation begins during embryogenesis and continues after birth for a variable amount of time depending on the species and brain region. Because gonadal hormones were the first factors identified in neural sexual differentiation, their role in this process has eclipsed investigation of other factors. Here, we use a mouse with a spontaneous translocation that produces four different unique sets of sex chromosomes. Each genotype has one normal X-chromosome and a unique second sex chromosome creating the following genotypes: XY(*x) , XX, XY(*) , XX(Y) (*) . This Y(*) mouse line is used by several laboratories to study two human aneuploid conditions: Turner and Klinefelter syndromes. As sex chromosome number affects behavior and brain morphology, we surveyed brain gene expression at embryonic days 11.5 and 18.5 to isolate X-chromosome dose effects in the developing brain as possible mechanistic changes underlying the phenotypes. We compared gene expression differences between gonadal males and females as well as individuals with one vs. two X-chromosomes. We present data showing, in addition to genes reported to escape X-inactivation, a number of autosomal genes are differentially expressed between the sexes and in mice with different numbers of X-chromosomes. Based on our results, we can now identify the genes present in the region around the chromosomal break point that produces the Y(*) model. Our results also indicate an interaction between gonadal development and sex chromosome number that could further elucidate the role of sex chromosome genes and hormones in the sexual differentiation of behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Wolstenholme
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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21
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Abstract
Differentiated sex chromosomes evolved because of suppressed recombination once sex became genetically controlled. In XX/XY and ZZ/ZW systems, the heterogametic sex became partially aneuploid after degeneration of the Y or W. Often, aneuploidy causes abnormal levels of gene expression throughout the entire genome. Dosage compensation mechanisms evolved to restore balanced expression of the genome. These mechanisms include upregulation of the heterogametic chromosome as well as repression in the homogametic sex. Remarkably, strategies for dosage compensation differ between species. In organisms where more is known about molecular mechanisms of dosage compensation, specific protein complexes containing noncoding RNAs are targeted to the X chromosome. In addition, the dosage-regulated chromosome often occupies a specific nuclear compartment. Some genes escape dosage compensation, potentially resulting in sex-specific differences in gene expression. This review focuses on dosage compensation in mammals, with comparisons to fruit flies, nematodes, and birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Disteche
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
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22
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Werler S, Poplinski A, Gromoll J, Wistuba J. Expression of selected genes escaping from X inactivation in the 41, XX(Y)* mouse model for Klinefelter's syndrome. Acta Paediatr 2011; 100:885-91. [PMID: 21241365 DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.02112.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM We hypothesized that patients with Klinefelter's syndrome (KS) not only undergo X inactivation, but also that genes escape from inactivation. Their transcripts would constitute a significant difference, as male metabolism is not adapted to a 'female-like' gene dosage. We evaluated the expression of selected X-linked genes in our 41, XX(Y)* male mice to determine whether these genes escape inactivation and whether tissue-specific differences occur. METHODS Correct X inactivation was identified by Xist expression. Relative expression of X-linked genes was examined in liver, kidney and brain tissue by real-time PCR in adult XX(Y)* and XY* males and XX females. RESULTS Expression of genes known to escape X inactivation was analysed. Relative mRNA levels of Pgk1 (control, X inactivated), and the genes Eif2s3x, Kdm5c, Ddx3x and Kdm6a escaping from X inactivation were quantified from liver, kidney and brain. Pgk1 mRNA expression showed no difference, confirming correct X inactivation. In kidney and liver, XX(Y)* males resembled the female expression pattern in all four candidate genes and were distinguishable from XY* males. Contrastingly, in brain tissue XX(Y)* males expressed all four genes higher than male and female controls. CONCLUSION Altered expression of genes escaping X inactivation probably contributes directly to the XX(Y)* phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffi Werler
- Institute of Reproductive and Regenerative Biology, Centre of Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Clinics, Muenster, Germany
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24
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Xu J, Andreassi M. Reversible histone methylation regulates brain gene expression and behavior. Horm Behav 2011; 59:383-92. [PMID: 20816965 PMCID: PMC3084016 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2010] [Revised: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetic chromatin remodeling, including reversible histone methylation, regulates gene transcription in brain development and synaptic plasticity. Aberrant chromatin modifications due to mutant chromatin enzymes or chemical exposures have been associated with neurological or psychiatric disorders such as mental retardation, schizophrenia, depression, and drug addiction. Some chromatin enzymes, such as histone demethylases JARID1C and UTX, are coded by X-linked genes which are not X-inactivated in females. The higher expression of JARID1C and UTX in females could contribute to sex differences in brain development and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Xu
- Tufts University, Department of Biomedical Sciences, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA.
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25
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Abel JM, Witt DM, Rissman EF. Sex differences in the cerebellum and frontal cortex: roles of estrogen receptor alpha and sex chromosome genes. Neuroendocrinology 2011; 93:230-40. [PMID: 21325792 PMCID: PMC3128132 DOI: 10.1159/000324402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Most neurobehavioral diseases are sexually dimorphic in their incidence, and sex differences in the brain may be key for understanding and treating these diseases. Calbindin (Calb) D28K is used as a biomarker for the well-studied sexually dimorphic nucleus, a hypothalamic structure that is larger in males than in females. In the current study weanling C56BL/6J mice were used to examine sex differences in the Calb protein and message focusing on regions outside of the hypothalamus. A robust sex difference was found in Calb in the frontal cortex (FC) and cerebellum (CB; specifically in Purkinje cells); mRNA and protein were higher in females than in males. Using 2 mouse lines, i.e. one with a complete deletion of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and the other with uncoupled gonads and sex chromosomes, we probed the mechanisms that underlie sexual dimorphisms. In the FC, deletion of ERα reduced Calb1 mRNA in females compared to males. In addition, females with XY sex chromosomes had levels of Calb1 equal to those of males. Thus, both ERα and the sex chromosome complement regulate Calb1 in the FC. In the CB, ERα knockout mice of both sexes had reduced Calb1 mRNA, yet sex differences were retained. However, the sex chromosome complement, regardless of gonadal sex, dictated Calb1 mRNA levels. Mice with XX chromosomes had significantly greater Calb1 than did XY mice. This is the first study demonstrating that sex chromosome genes are a driving force producing sex differences in the CB and FC, which are neuoranatomical regions involved in many normal functions and in neurobehavioral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Emilie F. Rissman
- *Emilie Rissman, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Virginia, PO Box 800733, Charlottesville, VA 22908 (USA), Tel. +1 434 982 5611, E-Mail
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Kuroiwa A, Ishiguchi Y, Yamada F, Shintaro A, Matsuda Y. The process of a Y-loss event in an XO/XO mammal, the Ryukyu spiny rat. Chromosoma 2010; 119:519-26. [PMID: 20443119 DOI: 10.1007/s00412-010-0275-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2009] [Revised: 02/22/2010] [Accepted: 04/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The Ryukyu spiny rat, Tokudaia osimensis, has an XO/XO sex chromosome constitution, lacking a Y chromosome and the mammalian sex-determining gene SRY. To investigate the Y-loss event, we traced three proto-Y-linked genes, RBMY1A1, EIF2S3Y, and KDM5D, in the genome. The original Y-linked RBMY1A1 was lost as well as SRY, and the remaining RBMY1A1 was a processed pseudogene on autosome. In contrast, EIF2S3Y and KDM5D were conserved in genomes of both sexes as a result of their translocation from the Y chromosome to the X chromosome and/or autosomes. Furthermore, these genes were expressed in gonads and brains of both sexes. Our study indicated a loss of Y-linked genes with important male functions to be necessary for the Y chromosome to disappear. These functions might have been retained through the acquisition of new genes, and therefore, the Y-loss has had no harmful effect on the maintenance of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asato Kuroiwa
- Laboratory of Animal Cytogenetics, Graduate School of Science, Hokkaido University, North 10, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan.
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Lopes AM, Burgoyne PS, Ojarikre A, Bauer J, Sargent CA, Amorim A, Affara NA. Transcriptional changes in response to X chromosome dosage in the mouse: implications for X inactivation and the molecular basis of Turner Syndrome. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:82. [PMID: 20122165 PMCID: PMC2837040 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2009] [Accepted: 02/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background X monosomic mice (39,XO) have a remarkably mild phenotype when compared to women with Turner syndrome (45,XO). The generally accepted hypothesis to explain this discrepancy is that the number of genes on the mouse X chromosome which escape X inactivation, and thus are expressed at higher levels in females, is very small. However this hypothesis has never been tested and only a small number of genes have been assayed for their X-inactivation status in the mouse. We performed a global expression analysis in four somatic tissues (brain, liver, kidney and muscle) of adult 40,XX and 39,XO mice using the Illumina Mouse WG-6 v1_1 Expression BeadChip and an extensive validation by quantitative real time PCR, in order to identify which genes are expressed from both X chromosomes. Results We identified several genes on the X chromosome which are overexpressed in XX females, including those previously reported as escaping X inactivation, as well as new candidates. However, the results obtained by microarray and qPCR were not fully concordant, illustrating the difficulty in ascertaining modest fold changes, such as those expected for genes escaping X inactivation. Remarkably, considerable variation was observed between tissues, suggesting that inactivation patterns may be tissue-dependent. Our analysis also exposed several autosomal genes involved in mitochondrial metabolism and in protein translation which are differentially expressed between XX and XO mice, revealing secondary transcriptional changes to the alteration in X chromosome dosage. Conclusions Our results support the prediction that the mouse inactive X chromosome is largely silent, while providing a list of the genes potentially escaping X inactivation in rodents. Although the lower expression of X-linked genes in XO mice may not be relevant in the particular tissues/systems which are affected in human X chromosome monosomy, genes deregulated in XO mice are good candidates for further study in an involvement in Turner Syndrome phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra M Lopes
- IPATIMUP, Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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Jazin E, Cahill L. Sex differences in molecular neuroscience: from fruit flies to humans. Nat Rev Neurosci 2010; 11:9-17. [DOI: 10.1038/nrn2754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Rimbault M, Robin S, Vaysse A, Galibert F. RNA profiles of rat olfactory epithelia: individual and age related variations. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:572. [PMID: 19954510 PMCID: PMC2797534 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mammalian genomes contain a large number (~1000) of olfactory receptor (OR) genes, many of which (20 to 50%) are pseudogenes. OR gene transcription is not restricted to the olfactory epithelium, but is found in numerous tissues. Using microarray hybridization and RTqPCR, we analyzed the mRNA profiles of the olfactory epithelium of male and female Brown Norway rats of different origins and ages (newborn, adult and old). Results (1) We observed very little difference between males and females and between rats from two different suppliers. (2) Different OR genes were expressed at varying levels, rather than uniformly across the four endoturbinates. (3) A large proportion of the gene transcripts (2/3 of all probes) were detected in all three age groups. Adult and older rats expressed similar numbers of OR genes, both expressing more OR genes than newborns. (4) Comparisons of whole transcriptomes or transcription profiles of expressed OR genes only showed a clear clustering of the samples as a function of age. (5) Most OR genes were expressed at lower levels at birth than in older animals, but a small number of OR genes were expressed specifically or were overexpressed in newborns. Conclusion Not all OR genes are expressed at a detectable level. Pups expressed fewer OR genes than adult rats, and generally at a lower level; however, a small subset of OR genes were more strongly expressed in these newborn rats. The reasons for these differences are not understood. However, the specific expression of some OR genes in newborn olfactory epithelia may be related to the blindness and deafness of pups at birth, when these pups are heavily reliant on olfaction and their mother.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Rimbault
- Faculté de Médecine, Université de Rennes 1, Institut de Génétique et Développement de Rennes, UEB, Rennes, France.
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Dementyeva EV, Shevchenko AI, Zakian SM. X-chromosome upregulation and inactivation: two sides of the dosage compensation mechanism in mammals. Bioessays 2009; 31:21-8. [PMID: 19153998 DOI: 10.1002/bies.080149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mammals have a very complex, tightly controlled, and developmentally regulated process of dosage compensation. One form of the process equalizes expression of the X-linked genes, present as a single copy in males (XY) and as two copies in females (XX), by inactivation of one of the two X-chromosomes in females. The second form of the process leads to balanced expression between the X-linked and autosomal genes by transcriptional upregulation of the active X in males and females. However, not all X-linked genes are absolutely balanced. This review is focused on the recent advances in studying the dosage compensation phenomenon in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V Dementyeva
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Department, Novosibirsk, Russia
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Kopsida E, Stergiakouli E, Lynn PM, Wilkinson LS, Davies W. The Role of the Y Chromosome in Brain Function. OPEN NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY JOURNAL (ONLINE) 2009; 2:20-30. [PMID: 20396406 PMCID: PMC2854822 DOI: 10.2174/1876528900902010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In mammals, sex differences are evident in many aspects of brain development, brain function and behaviour. Ultimately, such differences must arise from the differential sex chromosome complements in males and females: males inherit a single X chromosome and a Y chromosome, whilst females inherit two X chromosomes. One possible mechanism for sexual differentiation of the brain is via male-limited expression of genes on the small Y chromosome. Many Y-linked genes have been implicated in the development of the testes, and therefore could theoretically contribute to sexual differentiation of the brain indirectly, through influencing gonadal hormone production. Alternatively, Y-linked genes that are expressed in the brain could directly influence neural masculinisation. The present paper reviews evidence from human genetic studies and animal models for Y-linked effects (both direct and indirect) on neurodevelopment, brain function and behaviour. Besides enhancing our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying mammalian neural sexual differentiation, studies geared towards understanding the role of the Y chromosome in brain function will help to elucidate the molecular basis of sex-biased neuropsychiatric disorders, allowing for more selective sex-specific therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Kopsida
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Evangelia Stergiakouli
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Phoebe M. Lynn
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Lawrence S. Wilkinson
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - William Davies
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
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Prothero KE, Stahl JM, Carrel L. Dosage compensation and gene expression on the mammalian X chromosome: one plus one does not always equal two. Chromosome Res 2009; 17:637-48. [PMID: 19802704 PMCID: PMC4941101 DOI: 10.1007/s10577-009-9063-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Counting chromosomes is not just simple math. Although normal males and females differ in sex chromosome content (XY vs. XX), X chromosome imbalance is tolerated because dosage compensation mechanisms have evolved to ensure functional equivalence. In mammals this is accomplished by two processes--X chromosome inactivation that silences most genes on one X chromosome in females, leading to functional X monosomy for most genes in both sexes, and X chromosome upregulation that results in increased gene expression on the single active X in males and females, equalizing dosage relative to autosomes. This review focuses on genes on the X chromosome, and how gene content, organization and expression levels can be influenced by these two processes. Special attention is given to genes that are not X inactivated, and are not necessarily fully dosage compensated. These genes that "escape" X inactivation are of medical importance as they explain phenotypes in individuals with sex chromosome aneuploidies and may impact normal traits and disorders that differ between men and women. Moreover, escape genes give insight into how X chromosome inactivation is spread and maintained on the X.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie E. Prothero
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Jill M. Stahl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Laura Carrel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
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McPhie-Lalmansingh AA, Tejada LD, Weaver JL, Rissman EF. Sex chromosome complement affects social interactions in mice. Horm Behav 2008; 54:565-70. [PMID: 18590732 PMCID: PMC2561329 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2008] [Revised: 05/21/2008] [Accepted: 05/27/2008] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in behavior can be attributed to differences in steroid hormones. Sex chromosome complement can also influence behavior, independent of gonadal differentiation. The mice used for this work combined a spontaneous mutation of the Sry gene with a transgene for Sry that is incorporated into an autosome thus disassociating gonad differentiation from sex chromosome complement. The resulting genotypes are XX and XY(-) females (ovary-bearing) along with XXSry and XY(-)Sry males (testes-bearing). Here we report results of basic behavioral phenotyping conducted with these mice. Motor coordination, use of olfactory cues to find a food item, general activity, foot shock threshold, and behavior in an elevated plus maze were not affected by gonadal sex or sex chromosome complement. In a one-way active avoidance learning task females were faster to escape an electric shock than males. In addition, sex chromosome complement differences were noted during social interactions with submissive intruders. Female XY(-) mice were faster to follow an intruder than XX female mice. All XY(-) mice spent more time sniffing and grooming the intruder than the XX mice, with XY(-) females spending the most amount of time in this activity. Finally, XX females were faster to display an asocial behavior, digging, and engaged in more digging than XXSry male mice. All of these behaviors were tested in gonadectomized adults, thus, differences in circulating levels of gonadal steroids cannot account for these effects. Taken together, these data show that sex chromosome complement affects social interaction style in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Emilie F. Rissman
- Corresponding author. PO Box 800733, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA. Fax: +1 434 243 8433. E-mail address: (E.F. Rissman)
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Xu J, Deng X, Disteche CM. Sex-specific expression of the X-linked histone demethylase gene Jarid1c in brain. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2553. [PMID: 18596936 PMCID: PMC2438472 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2008] [Accepted: 05/28/2008] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Jarid1c, an X-linked gene coding for a histone demethylase, plays an important role in brain development and function. Notably, JARID1C mutations cause mental retardation and increased aggression in humans. These phenotypes are consistent with the expression patterns we have identified in mouse brain where Jarid1c mRNA was detected in hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum. Jarid1c expression and associated active histone marks at its 5′end are high in P19 neurons, indicating that JARID1C demethylase plays an important role in differentiated neuronal cells. We found that XX mice expressed Jarid1c more highly than XY mice, independent of their gonadal types (testes versus ovaries). This increased expression in XX mice is consistent with Jarid1c escape from X inactivation and is not compensated by expression from the Y-linked paralogue Jarid1d, which is expressed at a very low level compared to the X paralogue in P19 cells. Our observations suggest that sex-specific expression of Jarid1c may contribute to sex differences in brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Xu
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, North Grafton, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JX); (CD)
| | - Xinxian Deng
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Christine M. Disteche
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JX); (CD)
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Zinn AR, Kushner H, Ross JL. EFHC2 SNP rs7055196 is not associated with fear recognition in 45,X Turner syndrome. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:507-9. [PMID: 17948898 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The neurocognitive phenotype of Turner syndrome (TS) includes deficits in social cognitive skills such as recognition of the facial affect expressing fear. A TS social cognition locus was previously mapped to a 5 megabase interval of Xp11.3-p11.4 by Good et al. 2003. A recent study by these same workers found evidence for association of a SNP in the EFHC2 gene, rs7055196, within this interval with fear recognition in 45,X TS. As EFHC2 was not a biological candidate gene for this phenotype a priori, we sought to replicate their finding in an independent cohort of 45,X TS subjects, using the same instrument to measure facial affect fear recognition. In contrast to the previous results, we find no evidence of an association between rs7055196 genotype and fear recognition. Other variations in EFHC2 and other candidate genes should be tested for association with social cognition in 45,X TS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Zinn
- Department of Internal Medicine and McDermott Center for Human Growth and Development, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA.
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36
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Sex-specific differences in expression of histone demethylases Utx and Uty in mouse brain and neurons. J Neurosci 2008; 28:4521-7. [PMID: 18434530 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5382-07.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although X inactivation is thought to balance gene expression between the sexes, some genes escape inactivation, potentially contributing to differences between males and females. Utx (ubiquitously transcribed tetratricopeptide repeat gene on X chromosome) is an escapee gene that encodes a demethylase specific for lysine 27 of histone H3, a mark of repressed chromatin. We found Utx to be expressed higher in females than in males in developing and adult brains and in adult liver. XX mice had a higher level of Utx than XY mice, regardless of whether they had testes or ovaries, indicating that the sexually dimorphic gene expression was a consequence of the sex chromosome complement. Females had significantly higher levels of Utx than males in most brain regions except in the amygdala. The regional expression of the Y-linked paralogue Uty (ubiquitously transcribed tetratricopeptide repeat gene on Y chromosome) was somewhat distinct from that of Utx, specifically in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (high Uty) and the amygdala (high Utx), implying that the two paralogues may be differentially regulated. Higher expression of Utx compared with Uty was detected in P19 pluripotent embryonic carcinoma cells as well as in P19-derived neurons. This transcriptional divergence between the two paralogues was associated with high levels of histone H3 lysine 4 dimethylation at the Utx promoter and of histone H4 lysine 16 acetylation throughout the gene body, which suggests that epigenetic mechanisms control differential expression of paralogous genes.
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Isensee J, Ruiz Noppinger P. Sexually dimorphic gene expression in mammalian somatic tissue. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 4 Suppl B:S75-95. [PMID: 18156105 DOI: 10.1016/s1550-8579(07)80049-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/14/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The sexually dimorphic differentiation of the bipotential gonad into testis or ovary initiates the sexually dimorphic development of mammals and leads to divergent hormone concentrations between the sexes throughout life. However, despite the fact that anatomic and hormonal differences between the sexes are well described, only a few studies have investigated the manifestation of these differences at the transcriptional level in mammalian somatic tissue. OBJECTIVE This review focuses on basic regulatory mechanisms of sex-specific gene expression and examines recent gene expression profiling studies to outline basic differences between the sexes at the transcriptome level in somatic tissues. METHODS To identify gene expression profiling studies addressing sexually dimorphic gene expression, the PubMed database was searched using the terms sex and dimorp and gene expression not drosophila not elegans. Abstracts of all identified publications were screened for studies explicitly using microarrays to identify sex differences in somatic tissues of rodents or humans. The search was restricted to English-language articles published in the past 5 years. Reference lists of identified articles as well as microarray databases (Gene Expression Omnibus and ArrayExpress) were also used. RESULTS The application of microarray technology has enabled the systematic assessment of sex-biased gene expression on the transcriptome level, indicating that the regulatory pathways underlying sexual differentiation give rise to extensive differences in somatic gene expression across organisms. CONCLUSION Sustainable annotation of sex-biased gene expression provides a key to understanding basic physiological differences between healthy males and females as well as those with diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Isensee
- Center for Cardiovascular Research, Center for Gender in Medicine, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
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Isensee J, Witt H, Pregla R, Hetzer R, Regitz-Zagrosek V, Ruiz Noppinger P. Sexually dimorphic gene expression in the heart of mice and men. J Mol Med (Berl) 2007; 86:61-74. [PMID: 17646949 PMCID: PMC2755745 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-007-0240-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2006] [Revised: 05/08/2007] [Accepted: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence and clinical manifestation of several cardiovascular diseases vary considerably with sex and age. Thus, a better understanding of the molecular basis of these differences may represent a starting point for an improved gender-specific medicine. Despite the fact that sex-specific differences have been observed in the cardiovascular system of humans and animal models, systematic analyses of sexual dimorphisms at the transcriptional level in the healthy heart are missing. Therefore we performed gene expression profiling on mouse and human cardiac samples of both sexes and young as well as aged individuals and verified our results for a subset of genes using real-time polymerase chain reaction in independent left ventricular samples. To tackle the question whether sex differences are evolutionarily conserved, we also compared sexually dimorphic genes between both species. We found that genes located on sex chromosomes were the most abundant ones among the sexually dimorphic genes. Male-specific expression of Y-linked genes was observed in mouse hearts as well as in the human myocardium (e.g. Ddx3y, Eif2s3y and Jarid1d). Higher expression levels of X-linked genes were detected in female mice for Xist, Timp1 and Car5b and XIST, EIF2S3X and GPM6B in women. Furthermore, genes on autosomal chromosomes encoding cytochromes of the monoxygenase family (e.g. Cyp2b10), carbonic anhydrases (e.g. Car2 and Car3) and natriuretic peptides (e.g. Nppb) were identified with sex- and/or age-specific expression levels. This study underlines the relevance of sex and age as modifiers of cardiac gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Isensee
- Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Gender in Medicine, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- Department Vertebrate Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, Berlin, Germany
| | - Henning Witt
- Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Gender in Medicine, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- Department Vertebrate Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, Berlin, Germany
| | - Reinhard Pregla
- German Heart Institute Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roland Hetzer
- German Heart Institute Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vera Regitz-Zagrosek
- Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Gender in Medicine, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- German Heart Institute Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - Patricia Ruiz Noppinger
- Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Gender in Medicine, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Straße 3-4, Berlin, Germany
- Department Vertebrate Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, Berlin, Germany
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Nordquist N, Oreland L. RETRACTED ARTICLE: Monoallelic expression of MAO-A in skin fibroblasts. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2007; 114:713-6. [PMID: 17406964 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-007-0676-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2006] [Accepted: 11/11/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
X chromosome inactivation in mammalian females occurs early in embryonic development and renders most genes on the inactive X chromosome transcriptionally silenced. As a consequence, females will display an X chromosomal parent-of-origin mosaicism with regard to which parental allele that is expressed. Some genes however, escape inactivation and will therefore be expressed from both alleles. In this study we have investigated if the X-linked MAO-A gene have bi- or mono-allelic expression. This information would indicate whether or not MAO-A gene dosage could potentially explain the observed gender differences that show functional connections to the serotonin system, such as aggression and impulsiveness. To investigate the X inactivation status of MAO-A we have used primary clonal cell cultures, on which allelic expression was assessed with RFLP analysis. Our results show that the MAO-A gene has mono-allelic expression in these cells. This could have important implications for understanding traits that display gender differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Nordquist
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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40
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Lynn PMY, Davies W. The 39,XO mouse as a model for the neurobiology of Turner syndrome and sex-biased neuropsychiatric disorders. Behav Brain Res 2007; 179:173-82. [PMID: 17367875 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Revised: 02/09/2007] [Accepted: 02/15/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Turner syndrome (TS) is a developmental disorder most frequently arising from the loss of a complete X chromosome (karyotype 45,XO). The disorder is characterised by physiological abnormalities (notably short stature and ovarian dysfunction), emotional anomalies (including heightened anxiety) and by a neuropsychological profile encompassing deficits in visuospatial skills, memory, attention, social cognition and emotion recognition. Moreover, TS subjects are at significantly increased risk of developing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism. At the neuroanatomical level, TS subjects display abnormalities across a number of brain structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex. The TS phenotype arises due to reduced dosage of X-linked genes, and may also be modulated by parental origin of the single X chromosome. In this review, we discuss the utility of a mouse model of TS, the 39,XO mouse, in which the parental origin of the single X chromosome can be varied. This model provides the opportunity to investigate the effects of X-linked gene dosage/parent-of-origin effects on neurobiology in the absence of gross physiological abnormalities. Initial findings indicate that several features of the TS behavioural phenotype may be accurately recapitulated in the mouse. Furthermore, as X-linked gene dosage/imprinting can influence sex-specific neurobiology, investigations in the 39,XO mouse are also likely to offer insights into why certain neuropsychiatric disorders (including ADHD and autism) affect the sexes differently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phoebe M Y Lynn
- Behavioural Genetics Group, School of Psychology and Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Cardiff, UK
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Davies W, Wilkinson LS. It is not all hormones: Alternative explanations for sexual differentiation of the brain. Brain Res 2006; 1126:36-45. [PMID: 17101121 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.09.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2006] [Revised: 09/22/2006] [Accepted: 09/22/2006] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Males and females of many species differ with regard to neurodevelopment, ongoing brain function and behavior. For many years, it was assumed that these differences primarily arose due to hormonal masculinization of the male brain (and to a lesser extent hormonal feminization of the female brain). Recent elegant experiments in model systems have revealed that, while gonadal hormones undoubtedly play an important role in sexual differentiation of the brain, they are not the only possible mechanism for this phenomenon. In the present review, we discuss the concept that genes residing upon the sex chromosomes (which are asymmetrically inherited between males and females) may influence sexually dimorphic neurobiology directly, and suggest possible mechanisms. Future work will be directed towards understanding the extent and specificity with which sex-linked genes and hormones define brain structure and function, and towards elucidating potential interactions between the two mechanisms. Ultimately, it is hoped that such studies will provide insights into why men and women are differentially vulnerable to certain mental disorders, and will enable the development of effective sex-tailored therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Davies
- The Babraham Institute, Babraham Research Campus, Babraham, Cambridge CB2 4AT, UK.
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42
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Xu J, Disteche CM. Sex differences in brain expression of X- and Y-linked genes. Brain Res 2006; 1126:50-5. [PMID: 16962077 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2006] [Revised: 08/07/2006] [Accepted: 08/14/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The X chromosome plays an important role in brain development and function, as evidenced by its disproportionately high content of genes whose mutations cause mental retardation. These X-linked brain genes may play a role in sexual differentiation if they are expressed at a higher level in XX females than in XY males, due to incomplete X inactivation in females. The expression of several X escapee genes is indeed higher in brain tissues from females when compared to males. In mouse, some of the sex differences are only found in adult brains but not in other tissues. Determining the brain expression pattern of these X escapee genes is important for a better understanding of their role in the neurological phenotypes of XO Turner syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Xu
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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43
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Nordquist N, Oreland L. Monoallelic expression of MAOA in skin fibroblasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 348:763-7. [PMID: 16890910 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.07.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2006] [Accepted: 07/23/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
X chromosome inactivation in mammalian females occurs early in embryonic development and renders most genes on the inactive X chromosome transcriptionally silenced. As a consequence, females will display an X chromosomal parent-of-origin mosaiscism with regard to which parental allele that is expressed. Some genes, however, escape inactivation and will therefore be expressed from both alleles. In this study, we have investigated if the X-linked MAO-A gene has bi- or mono-allelic expression. This information would indicate whether or not MAO-A gene dosage could potentially explain the observed gender differences that show functional connections to the serotonin system, such as aggression, and impulsiveness. To investigate the X inactivation status of MAO-A we have used primary clonal cell cultures, on which allelic expression was assessed with RFLP analysis. Our results show that the MAO-A gene has mono-allelic expression in these cells. This could have important implications for understanding traits that display gender differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Nordquist
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Yang X, Schadt EE, Wang S, Wang H, Arnold AP, Ingram-Drake L, Drake TA, Lusis AJ. Tissue-specific expression and regulation of sexually dimorphic genes in mice. Genome Res 2006; 16:995-1004. [PMID: 16825664 PMCID: PMC1524872 DOI: 10.1101/gr.5217506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 658] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We report a comprehensive analysis of gene expression differences between sexes in multiple somatic tissues of 334 mice derived from an intercross between inbred mouse strains C57BL/6J and C3H/HeJ. The analysis of a large number of individuals provided the power to detect relatively small differences in expression between sexes, and the use of an intercross allowed analysis of the genetic control of sexually dimorphic gene expression. Microarray analysis of 23,574 transcripts revealed that the extent of sexual dimorphism in gene expression was much greater than previously recognized. Thus, thousands of genes showed sexual dimorphism in liver, adipose, and muscle, and hundreds of genes were sexually dimorphic in brain. These genes exhibited highly tissue-specific patterns of expression and were enriched for distinct pathways represented in the Gene Ontology database. They also showed evidence of chromosomal enrichment, not only on the sex chromosomes, but also on several autosomes. Genetic analyses provided evidence of the global regulation of subsets of the sexually dimorphic genes, as the transcript levels of a large number of these genes were controlled by several expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) hotspots that exhibited tissue-specific control. Moreover, many tissue-specific transcription factor binding sites were found to be enriched in the sexually dimorphic genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Yang
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Eric E. Schadt
- Rosetta Inpharmatics, LLC, a Wholly Owned Subsidiary of Merck & Co. Inc., Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Susanna Wang
- Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Statistics, College of Letters and Science, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Arthur P. Arnold
- Department of Physiological Science, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Leslie Ingram-Drake
- Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Thomas A. Drake
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Aldons J. Lusis
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
- Corresponding author.E-mail ; fax (310) 794-7345
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