Synthesis, characterization, α-glucosidase inhibition and molecular modeling studies of some pyrazoline-1H-1,2,3-triazole hybrids

Synthesis and Molecular Docking of Curcumin-Derived Pyrazole-Thiazole Hybrids as Potent α-Glucosidase Inhibitors

α-Glucosidase inhibitors are critical for diabetes management, with pyrazoles and thiazoles emerging as effective options. This research highlights curcumin-based pyrazole-thiazole hybrids as potential inhibitors, synthesizing derivatives and evaluating their inhibitory capabilities. The study involved the synthesis of novel compounds using hydrazonoyl halides, confirmed through elemental and spectral analyses. The synthesized derivatives exhibited significant α-glucosidase inhibition, with IC50 values ranging from 3.37±0.25 to 16.35±0.37 μM. Among them, compound 7e demonstrated the strongest inhibition at 3.37±0.25 μM, outperforming the standard drug acarbose (IC50=5.36±0.31 μM). In silico assessments and molecular docking using AutoDock Vina revealed strong interactions, particularly with compounds 7b, 7e, 7f, and 7g, indicating their potential as stable and effective inhibitors. The results suggest that the synthesized pyrazole-thiazole hybrids hold promise as novel therapeutic agents for diabetes, warranting further exploration of their substituent effects for optimized inhibitor design.

An insight on medicinal attributes of 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-triazole derivatives as alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is the globe's common leading disease which is caused by high consumption of glucose. DM compiles groups of metabolic disorders which are characterized by inadequate secretion of insulin from pancreas, resulting in hyperglycemia condition. Many enzymes play a vital role in the metabolism of carbohydrate known as α-amylase and α-glucosidase which is calcium metalloenzyme that leads to breakdown of complex polysaccharides into glucose. To tackle this problem, search for newer antidiabetic drugs is the utmost need for the treatment and/or management of increasing diabetic burden. The inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase is one of the effective therapeutic approaches for the development of antidiabetic therapeutics. The exhaustive literature survey has shown the importance of medicinally privileged triazole specifically 1,2,3-triazol and 1,2,4-triazoles scaffold tethered, fused and/or clubbed with other heterocyclic rings structures as promising agents for designing and development of novel antidiabetic therapeutics. Molecular hybrids namely pyridazine-triazole, pyrazoline-triazole, benzothiazole-triazole, benzimidazole-triazole, curcumin-triazole, (bis)coumarin-triazole, acridine-9-carboxamide linked triazole, quinazolinone-triazole, xanthone-triazole, thiazolo-triazole, thiosemicarbazide-triazole, and indole clubbed-triazole are few examples which have shown promising antidiabetic activity by inhibiting α-amylase and/or α-glucosidase. The present review summarizes the structure-activity relationship (SAR), enzyme inhibitory activity including IC50 values, percentage inhibition, kinetic studies, molecular docking studies, and patents filed of the both scaffolds as alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, which may be used for further development of potent inhibitors against both enzymes.

Recent Developments in 1,2,3-Triazole Based α-Glucosidase Inhibitors: Design Strategies, Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanistic Insights

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic and most prevalent metabolic disorder affecting 422 million the people worldwide and causing life-threatening associated conditions including disorders of kidney, heart, and nervous system as well as leg amputation and retinopathy. Steadily rising cases from the last few decades suggest the failure of currently available drugs in containment of this disease. α-Glucosidase is a potential target for effectively tackling this disease and attracting significant interest from medicinal chemists around the globe. Besides having a set of side effects, currently available α-glucosidase inhibitors (carbohydrate mimics) offer better tolerability, safety, and synergistic pharmacological outcomes with other antidiabetic drugs therefore medicinal chemists have working extensively over last three decades for developing alternative α-glucosidase inhibitors. The 1,2,3-Triazole nucleus is energetically used by various research groups around the globe for the development of α-glucosidase inhibitors posing it as an optimum scaffold in the field of antidiabetic drug development. This review is a systematic analysis of α-glucosidase inhibitors developed by employing 1,2,3-triazole scaffold with special focus on design strategies, structure-activity relationships, and mechanism of inhibitory effect. This article will act as lantern for medicinal chemists in developing of potent, safer, and effective α-glucosidase inhibitors with desired properties and improved therapeutic efficacy.

An updated review on 1,2,3-/1,2,4-triazoles: synthesis and diverse range of biological potential

The synthesis of triazoles has attracted a lot of interest in the field of organic chemistry because of its versatile chemical characteristics and possible biological uses. This review offers an extensive overview of the different pathways used in the production of triazoles. A detailed analysis of recent research indicates that triazole compounds have a potential range of pharmacological activities, including the ability to inhibit enzymes, and have antibacterial, anticancer, and antifungal activities. The integration of computational and experimental methods provides a thorough understanding of the structure-activity connection, promoting sensible drug design and optimization. By including triazoles as essential components in drug discovery, researchers can further explore and innovate in the synthesis, biological assessment, and computational studies of triazoles as drugs, exploring the potential therapeutic significance of triazoles.

Pyrazoline Spiro-oxindole tethered 1,2,3-triazole hybrids: Design, synthesis, antimicrobial efficacy and molecular modelling studies

Inspired from the important applications of spirocyclic compounds in medicinal chemistry, a new series of pyrazoline Spiro-oxindole tethered 1,2,3-triazole hybrids was reported via Cu(I)-catalyzed click reaction from isatin-pyrazoline linked terminal alkynes with in situ derived benzyl azides. Antimicrobial evaluation data showed that all hybrids exhibited promising efficacy towards the tested microbial strains. Antimicrobial screening as well as docking studies suggested that hybrid 6a was found to be most potent towards Aspergillus niger (MIC = 0.0122 μmol/mL) and Escherichia coli (MIC = 0.0061 μmol/mL). Molecular docking studies of 6a within the binding pockets of antibacterial and antifungal targets revealed good interactions with the binding energies of - 144.544 kcal/mol and - 154.364 kcal/mol against 1KZN (E. coli) and 3D3Z (A. niger), respectively. Further, MD simulations were performed to study the stability of the complexes formed at 300 K. Based on the RMSD trajectories, it is evident that 3D3Z-6a complex exhibits minimal deviation, whereas the 1KZN-6a complex displayed little more deviation compared to the protein but, both are in acceptable range. Moreover, 3D3Z-6a and 1KZN-6a showed maximum number of hydrogen bonds at 50 ns and 70 ns, respectively, thereby complementing the stability of these complexes.

Synthesis, Characterization, Antimicrobial and In Silico Studies of Isatin Schiff Base Linked 1,2,3-Triazole Hybrids

A new series of isatin-Schiff base linked 1,2,3-triazole hybrids has been synthesized using CuAAC approach from (E)-3-(phenylimino)-1-(prop-2-yn-1-yl)indolin-2-one derivatives in high yield (73-91 %). These synthesized derivatives were characterized using FT-IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, 2D-NMR and HRMS spectral techniques. The in vitro antimicrobial activity assay demonstrated that most of the tested hybrids exhibited promising activity. Compound 5 j displayed significant antibacterial efficacy against P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis with MIC value of 0.0062 μmol/mL. While, 5 j also showed better antifungal potency against A. niger with MIC value of 0.0123 μmol/mL. The docking studies of most promising compounds were performed with the well-known antibacterial and antifungal targets i. e. 1KZ1, 5TZ1. Molecular modelling investigations demonstrated that hybrids 5 h and 5 l exhibited good interactions with 1KZN and 5TZ1, with binding energies of -9.6 and -11.0 kcal/mol, respectively. Further, molecular dynamics studies of the compounds showing promising binding interactions were also carried out to study the stability of complexes of these hybrids with both the targets.

Click chemistry beyond metal-catalyzed cycloaddition as a remarkable tool for green chemical synthesis of antifungal medications

Click chemistry is widely used for the efficient synthesis of 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazole, a well-known scaffold with widespread biological activity in the pharmaceutical sciences. In recent years, this magic ring has attracted the attention of scientists for its potential in designing and synthesizing new antifungal agents. Despite scientific and medical advances, fungal infections still account for more than 1.5 million deaths globally per year, especially in people with compromised immune function. This increasing trend is definitely related to a raise in the incidence of fungal infections and prevalence of antifungal drug resistance. In this condition, an urgent need for new alternative antifungals is undeniable. By focusing on the main aspects of reaction conditions in click chemistry, this review was conducted to classify antifungal 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazole hybrids based on their chemical structures and introduce the most effective triazole antifungal derivatives. It was notable that in all reactions studied, Cu(I) catalysts generated in situ by the reduction in Cu(II) salts or used copper(I) salts directly, as well as mixed solvents of t-BuOH/H2O and DMF/H2O had most application in the synthesis of triazole ring. The most effective antifungal activity was also observed in fluconazole analogs containing 1,2,3-triazole moiety and benzo-fused five/six-membered heterocyclic conjugates with a 1,2,3-triazole ring, even with better activity than fluconazole. The findings of structure-activity relationship and molecular docking of antifungal derivatives synthesized with copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) could offer medicinal chemistry scientists valuable data on designing and synthesizing novel triazole antifungals with more potent biological activities in their future research.

A Comprehensive Review of the Diverse Spectrum Activity of 1,2,3-Triazole-linked Isatin Hybrids

Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2,3-triazole and isatin as core structures have emerged as promising drug candidates due to their diverse biological activities such as anti-cancer, antifungal, antimicrobial, antitumor, anti-epileptic, antiviral, and more. The presence of 1,2,3-triazoles and isatin heterocycles in these hybrids, both individually known for their medicinal significance, has increasingly piqued the interest of drug discovery researchers, as they seek to delve deeper into their extensive pharmacological potential for enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, these hybrid compounds are synthetically accessible using readily available materials. Therefore, there is a pressing need to provide a comprehensive overview of the existing knowledge in this field, offering valuable insights to readers and paving the way for the discovery of novel 1,2,3-triazole-linked isatin hybrids with therapeutic potential.

Biochemical and computational inhibition of α-glucosidase by novel metronidazole-linked 1H-1,2,3-triazole and carboxylate moieties: kinetics and dynamic investigations

In the current study, metronidazole derivatives containing 1H-1,2,3-triazole and carboxylate moieties were evaluated in vitro and by computational methods for their anti-diabetic potential to insight into their medicinal use for the management of type II diabetes mellitus. Interestingly all 14 compounds displayed high to significant inhibitory capability against the key carbohydrate's digestive enzyme α-glucosidase with IC50 values in range of 9.73-56.39 μM, as compared to marketed drug acarbose (IC50 = 873.34 ± 1.67 μM). Compounds 5i and 7c exhibited the highest inhibition, therefore, these two compounds were further evaluated for their mechanistic studies to explore its type of inhibition. Compounds 5i and 7c both displayed a concentration-dependent (competitive type of inhibition) with Ki values 7.14 ± 0.01, 6.15 ± 0.02 μM, respectively, which conclude their favourable interactions with the active site residues of the α-glucosidase. Interestingly all compounds are non-cytotoxic against BJ cell line. To further validate our findings, in-silico approaches like molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulations were applied to investigate the mode of bindings of compounds with the enzyme and identifies their inhibition mechanism, which strongly complements our experimental findings.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The Synthesis, In Vitro Bio-Evaluation, and In Silico Molecular Docking Studies of Pyrazoline-Thiazole Hybrid Analogues as Promising Anti-α-Glucosidase and Anti-Urease Agents

In the present work, a concise library of benzothiazole-derived pyrazoline-based thiazole (1-17) was designed and synthesized by employing a multistep reaction strategy. The newly synthesized compounds were screened for their α-glucosidase and urease inhibitory activities. The scaffolds (1-17) were characterized using a combination of several spectroscopic techniques, including FT-IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and EI-MS. The majority of the synthesized compounds demonstrated a notable potency against α-glucosidase and urease enzymes. These analogues disclosed varying degrees of α-glucosidase and urease inhibitory activities, with their IC50 values ranging from 2.50 to 17.50 μM (α-glucosidase) and 14.30 to 41.50 (urease). Compounds 6, 7, 14, and 12, with IC50 values of 2.50, 3.20, 3.40, and 3.50 μM as compared to standard acarbose (IC50 = 5.30 µM), while the same compounds showed 14.30, 19.20, 21.80, and 22.30 comparable with thiourea (IC50 = 31.40 μM), respectively, showed excellent inhibitory activity. The structure-activity relationship revealed that the size and electron-donating or electron-withdrawing effects of substituents influenced the enzymatic activities such as α-glucosidase and urease. Compound 6 was a dual potent inhibitor against α-glucosidase and urease due to the presence of -CF3 electron-withdrawing functionality on the phenyl ring. To the best of our knowledge, these synthetic compounds were found to be the most potent dual inhibitors of α-glucosidase and urease with minimum IC50 values. Moreover, in silico studies on most active compounds, i.e., 6, 7, 14, and 12, were also performed to understand the binding interaction of most active compounds with active sites of α-glucosidase and urease enzymes.

Synthesis, antimicrobial, antibiofilm and computational studies of isatin-semicarbazone tethered 1,2,3-triazoles

In present era, heterocyclic compounds containing two or three nitrogen atoms play a vital role in drug discovery. In this context, a new class of isatin-semicarbazone tethered 1,2,3-triazole hybrids was synthesized via Cu(I)-mediated azide alkyne cycloaddition reaction. Structural characteristics of the newly derived compounds were identified by various spectral techniques like FTIR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, HRMS and single crystal X-ray crystallography. Synthesized derivatives were also screened for in vitro antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity against different microbial species. Triazole hybrid 7e showed significant efficacy towards E. coli having MIC of 0.0063 µmol/mL, whereas 6a, 6b, 7a, 7c, 7e, and 7f showed highest percentage of biofilm inhibition against P. aeruginosa. Bioassay results suggested that these triazole hybrids could act as biomaterial for antimicrobial and antibiofilm applications and may constitute a new promising class of antimicrobial and antibiofilm agents. These results were further supported by in silico docking, DFT calculations and ADME studies.

Inhibition of α-glucosidase enzyme by 'click'-inspired pharmacophore framework 1,3,4-thiadiazole-1,2,3-triazole hybrids

Aim: α-Glucosidase inhibitors are important oral antidiabetic drugs that are used alone or in combination therapy. Materials & methods: In this regard, 1,3,4-thiadiazoles-1,2,3-triazoles were designed, synthesized and evaluated for α-glucosidase enzyme inhibition. Results: The applied synthesis protocol involved a 'click' reaction between a novel alkyne derived from a 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivative and phenylacetamide azides. The hybrid (9n) bearing 2-methyl and 4-nitro substituents was the best inhibitor with an IC₅₀ value of 31.91 μM (acarbose IC₅₀ = 844.81 μM). The blind molecular docking study of the best derivative (9n) showed that it interacted with the allosteric site's amino acid residues of α-glucosidase. Conclusion: 'Click'-inspired potential α-glucosidase inhibitors (1,3,4-thiadiazole-1,2,3-triazole hybrids) were identified and structure-activity relationship and kinetic and molecular docking studies accomplished.

Pyrazole scaffold-based derivatives: A glimpse of α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, SAR, and route of synthesis

The α-glucosidase is a validated target to develop drugs for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus. The existing α-glucosidase inhibitors have certain shortcomings related to side effects and route of synthesis. Accordingly, it is inevitable to develop new chemical templates as α-glucosidase inhibitors. Pyrazole derivatives have a special place in medicinal chemistry because of various biological activities. Recently, pyrazole-based heterocyclic compounds have emerged as a promising scaffold to develop α-glucosidase inhibitors. This study focuses on the recently reported pyrazole-based α-glucosidase inhibitors, including their biological activity (in vivo, in vitro, and in silico), structure-activity relationship, and ways of synthesis. The literature revealed the development of several promising pyrazole-based α-glucosidase inhibitors and new synthetic routes for their preparation. The encouraging α-glucosidase inhibitory results of the pyrazole-based heterocyclic compounds make them an attractive target for further research. The authors also foresee the arrival of the pyrazole-based α-glucosidase inhibitors in clinical practice.

Synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico studies of indole-tethered pyrazoline derivatives as anticancer agents targeting topoisomerase IIα

We herein report a new series of indole-tethered pyrazoline derivatives as potent anticancer agents. A total of 12 compounds were designed and synthesized by conventional as well as microwave-irradiated synthesis methods. The latter method results in a significant reduction in the duration of reaction along with improved yields. All synthesized derivatives (7a-7l) were evaluated for their cytotoxic activity against A431, HeLa, and MDAMB-231 cell lines. Compounds 7a and 7b were found most potent in the series and demonstrated an IC₅₀ value of 3.17 and 5.16 µM against the A431 cell line, respectively, compared to the standard drug doxorubicin. Compounds 7a and 7b significantly suppress colony formation, migration, and S phase cell cycle arrest of A431 cells. Furthermore, compound 7a regulated the expression of apoptotic proteins causing the downregulation of procaspase 3/9, antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL, and upregulation of proapoptotic protein Bax in a dose-dependent manner. Topoisomerase enzyme inhibition assay confirmed that compounds 7a and 7b can significantly inhibit topoisomerase IIα. In vivo oral acute toxicity of compounds 7a and 7b revealed that both compounds are safe compared to doxorubicin; cardiomyopathy studies showed normal architecture of cardiomyocytes and myofibrils. In addition, molecular docking studies revealed the possible interaction of compounds 7a and 7b within the active binding site of the topoisomerase enzyme. The 100 ns molecular dynamic simulation of compounds 7a and 7b proved that both compounds validate all screening parameters.

Flavone-1,2,3-triazole derivatives as potential α-glucosidase inhibitors: Synthesis, enzyme inhibition, kinetic analysis and molecular docking study

α-Glucosidase inhibitors are considered prime therapeutics in the management of type-2 diabetes and are preferred due to their localized action ushered by limited side effects. In this regard, nineteen new flavone-1,2,3-triazole derivatives have been designed and synthesized via utilizing an efficient click reaction protocol, and screened for the inhibition of the α-glucosidase enzyme. The reaction conditions were mild, good yielding and required easy work up. All the synthesized flavone-triazole derivatives were found more active against the yeast α-glucosidase with IC₅₀ values ranging from 24.37 ± 0.55-168.44 ± 0.77 μ M as compared to standard inhibitor acarbose (IC₅₀ = 844.81 ± 0.53 μM). The derivatives with 2,5‑dichloro 9k (IC₅₀ = 24.37 ± 0.55 μM) and 4‑chloro 9d (IC₅₀ = 24.77 ± 0.30 μM) substituent bearing an amide linkage were the most active. In the kinetic study of most active derivatives 9k and 9d, they were found to be mixed and uncompetitive inhibitors, respectively. In molecular docking studies, blind docking of the most active compounds was accomplished to find the interactions between the compounds and α-glucosidase that further confirms the mixed or uncompetitive nature of the inhibitors.

Synthesis, antimicrobial evaluation and docking studies of fluorinated imine linked 1,2,3-triazoles

A diverse series of imine linked 1,2,3-triazole hybrids has been synthesized via Cu(I)-promoted click reaction, with an aim to develop some new antimicrobial molecules. The structural characterization of the synthesized triazole hybrids was accomplished using various spectral techniques like ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, FTIR and HRMS. Among the synthesized hybrids, 7d exhibited highest antimicrobial efficacy against R. oryzae and S. aureus with MIC of 0.0123 µmol/mL and 0.0061 µmol/mL, respectively. Docking studies of the terminal alkynes (4a, 4b) and triazole hybrids (6a, 6d, 7c, 7g) showing high potency towards E. coli DNA gyrase and C. albicans sterol 14-α demethylase were also undertaken to understand the binding behaviour.

Synthesis and Evaluation of 1,3,5-Triaryl-2-Pyrazoline Derivatives as Potent Dual Inhibitors of Urease and α-Glucosidase Together with Their Cytotoxic, Molecular Modeling and Drug-Likeness Studies

In the present work, a concise library of 1,3,5-triaryl-2-pyrazolines (2a-2q) was designed and synthesized by employing a multistep strategy, and the newly synthesized compounds were screened for their urease and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. The compounds (2a-2q) were characterized using a combination of several spectroscopic techniques including FT-IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and EI-MS. All the synthesized compounds, except compound 2i, were potent against urease as compared to the standard inhibitor thiourea (IC50 = 21.37 ± 0.26 μM). These analogs disclosed varying degrees of urease inhibitory activities ranging from 9.13 ± 0.25 to 18.42 ± 0.42 μM. Compounds 2b, 2g, 2m, and 2q having IC50 values of 9.36 ± 0.27, 9.13 ± 0.25, 9.18 ± 0.35, and 9.35 ± 0.35 μM, respectively, showed excellent inhibitory activity as compared to standard thiourea (IC50 = 21.37 ± 0.26 μM). A kinetic study of compound 2g revealed that compound 2g inhibited urease in a competitive mode. Among the synthesized pyrazolines, the compounds 2c, 2k, 2m, and 2o exhibited excellent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity with the lowest IC50 values of 212.52 ± 1.31, 237.26 ± 1.28, 138.35 ± 1.32, and 114.57 ± 1.35 μM, respectively, as compared to the standard acarbose (IC50 = 375.82 ± 1.76 μM). The compounds (2a-2q) showed α-glucosidase IC50 values in the range of 114.57 ± 1.35 to 462.94 ± 1.23 μM. Structure-activity relationship revealed that the size and electron-donating or -withdrawing effects of substituents influenced the activities, which led to the urease and α-glucosidase inhibiting properties. Compound 2m was a dual potent inhibitor against urease and α-glucosidase due to the presence of 2-CF3 electron-withdrawing functionality on the phenyl ring. To the best of our knowledge, these synthetic compounds were found to be the most potent dual inhibitors of urease and α-glucosidase with minimum IC50 values. The cytotoxicity of the compounds (2a-2q) was also investigated against human cell lines MCF-7 and HeLa. Compound 2l showed moderate cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 and HeLa cell lines. Moreover, in silico studies on most active compounds were also performed to understand the binding interaction of most active compounds with active sites of urease and α-glucosidase enzymes. Some compounds exhibited drug-like characteristics due to their lower cytotoxic and good ADME profiles.

An Update on the synthesis and pharmacological properties of pyrazoles obtained from Chalcone

Abstract:

A review concerning the synthesis and pharmacological properties of pyrazoles obtained from Chalcone described in the literature over the last 5 years (2016-2020) was presented and discussed. Among the synthetic approaches for pyrazoles described so far, the cyclization and acetylation method of α,β-unsaturated chalcones and substituted hydrazine was selected and analyzed. 105 pyrazole derivatives (3-107) were evaluated as well as their pharmacological activities, namely, antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antimycobacterial, antiplasmodial, Alzheimer's disease, enzymes inhibition (like acetylcholinesterase, carbonic anhydrase, and malonyl CoA decarboxylase), anticonvulsant, among others. Pyrazolic compounds are widely used in the new drugs design with a wide spectrum of pharmacological approaches, therefore, it is relevant to research the synthetic methods and therapeutic properties of different pyrazole derivatives.

Urea-thiazole/benzothiazole hybrids with a triazole linker: synthesis, antimicrobial potential, pharmacokinetic profile and in silico mechanistic studies

Some urea-thiazole/benzothiazole hybrids with a triazole linker were synthesized via Cu(I)-catalysed click reaction. After successfully analysed by various spectral techniques including FTIR, NMR and HRMS, antimicrobial screening of the synthesized hybrids along with their precursors was carried out against two Gram (+) bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus endophyticus), two Gram (-) bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens) and two fungi (Candida albicans and Rhizopus oryzae). All the synthesized compounds (4a-4l) displayed better biological response than the standard fluconazole against both of the tested fungi. Compounds 4h and 4j were found to be the most active compounds against R. oryzae and C. albicans, respectively. Molecular docking of hybrid 4j and its alkyne precursor 1b in the active site of C. albicans target sterol 14-α demethylase was also performed and was also supported by molecular dynamics studies. In silico ADME prediction of synthesized urea-thiazole/benzothiazole hybrids with a triazole linker and their alkyne precursors was also predicted.

1,2,3-Triazoles of 8-Hydroxyquinoline and HBT: Synthesis and Studies (DNA Binding, Antimicrobial, Molecular Docking, ADME, and DFT)

A new series of 1,2,3-triazole hybrids containing either 2- or 4-hydroxyphenyl benzothiazole (2- or 4-HBT) and naphthalen-1-ol or 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) was synthesized in high yields and fully characterized. In vitro DNA binding studies with herring fish sperm DNA (hs-DNA) showed that quinoline- and 2-HBT-linked 1,2,3-triazoles of shorter alkyl linkers such as 6a are better with a high binding affinity (3.90 × 105 L mol-1) with hs-DNA as compared to naphthol- and 4-HBT-linked 1,2,3-triazoles bound to longer alkyl linkers. Molecular docking of most active 1,2,3-triazoles 6a-f showed high binding energy of 6a (-8.7 kcal mol-1). Also, compound 6a displayed considerable antibacterial activity and superior antifungal activity with reference to ciprofloxacin and fluconazole, respectively. The docking results of the fungal enzyme lanosterol 14-α-demethylase showed high binding energy for 6a (-9.7 kcal mol-1) involving dominating H-bonds, electrostatic interaction, and hydrophobic interaction. The absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) parameter, Molinspiration bioactivity score, and the PreADMET properties revealed that most of the synthesized 1,2,3-triazole molecules possess desirable physicochemical properties for drug-likeness and may be considered as orally active potential drugs. The electrophilicity index and chemical hardness properties were also studied by density functional theory (DFT) using the B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level/basis set.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of 1,6-bis-triazole-2,3,4-tri-O-benzyl-α-d-glucopyranosides as a novel α-glucosidase inhibitor in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes

A novel series of 1,6-bis-triazole-benzyl-α-glucoside derivatives (7a-7ee) were designed, synthesized and evaluated for inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase. Most of the synthesized compounds exhibited good activity with IC₅₀ ranging from 3.73 µM to 53.34 µM and are more potent than the standard drug acarbose (IC₅₀ = 146.25 ± 0.40 µM). SARs study showed the ester and menthol moiety play an important role in the inhibitory activity. The molecular docking model of the potent compounds 7f, 7z, 7cc and 7dd showed good binding energy and interacts well with amino acid residues around the active site of the enzyme, which confirmed the in vitro activity results.

Design, synthesis, and α-glucosidase-inhibitory activity of phenoxy-biscoumarin-N-phenylacetamide hybrids

Thirteen new phenoxy-biscoumarin-N-phenylacetamide derivatives (7a-m) were designed based on a molecular hybridization approach as new α-glucosidase inhibitors. These compounds were synthesized with high yields and evaluated in vitro for their inhibitory activity against yeast α-glucosidase. The obtained results revealed that a significant proportion of the synthesized compounds showed considerable α-glucosidase-inhibitory activity in comparison to acarbose as a positive control. Representatively, 2-(4-(bis(4-hydroxy-2-oxo-2H-chromen-3-yl)methyl)phenoxy)-N-(4-bromophenyl)acetamide (7f), with IC₅₀  = 41.73 ± 0.38 µM against α-glucosidase, was around 18 times more potent than acarbose (IC₅₀  = 750.0 ± 10.0 µM). This compound was a competitive α-glucosidase inhibitor. Molecular modeling and dynamic simulation of these compounds confirmed the obtained results through in vitro experiments. Prediction of the druglikeness/ADME/toxicity of the compound 7f and comparison with the standard drug acarbose showed that the new compound 7f was probably better than the standard drug in terms of toxicity.

Identification of a new class of potent aldose reductase inhibitors: Design, microwave-assisted synthesis, in vitro and in silico evaluation of 2-pyrazolines

Aldose reductase (AR) acts as a multi-disease target for the design and development of therapeutic agents for the management of diabetic complications as well as non-diabetic diseases. In the search for potent AR inhibitors, the microwave-assisted synthesis of twenty new compounds with a 1,3-diaryl-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline moiety as a common fragment in their structure (1-20) was carried out efficiently. Compounds 1-20 were subjected to in vitro studies, which were conducted to assess their AR inhibitory effects and cytotoxicity towards L929 mouse fibroblast (normal) cells. Among these compounds, 1-(3-bromophenyl)-3-(4-piperidinophenyl)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline (20) was identified as the most promising AR inhibitor with an IC₅₀ value of 0.160 ± 0.005 μM exerting competitive inhibition with a K_i value of 0.019 ± 0.001 μM as compared to epalrestat (IC₅₀ = 0.279 ± 0.001 μM; K_i = 0.801 ± 0.023 μM) and quercetin (IC₅₀ = 4.120 ± 0.123 μM; K_i = 6.082 ± 0.272 μM). Compound 20 displayed cytotoxicity towards L929 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 18.75 ± 1.06 μM highlighting its safety as an AR inhibitor. Molecular docking studies suggested that π-π stacking interactions occurred between the m-bromophenyl moiety of compound 20 and Trp21. Based on in silico pharmacokinetic studies, compound 20 was found to possess favorable oral bioavailability and drug-like properties. It can be concluded that compound 20 is a potential orally bioavailable AR inhibitor for the management of diabetic complications as well as non-diabetic diseases.