Thermoresponsive polymeric gel as an on-demand transdermal drug delivery system for pain management

Chitosan-based hydrogels: A comprehensive review of transdermal drug delivery

This article provides a comprehensive review of chitosan-based hydrogels for transdermal drug delivery. It covers various aspects including the chemical structure of chitosan and its derivatives, crosslinking agents, hydrogel morphology, and drug loading and release behaviors. The review draws on 16 studies sourced from Scopus, focusing on how the composition and structure of hydrogels influence drug release. The chemical structure of chitosan and its derivatives, such as chitosan hydrochloride and quaternary ammonium chitosan, plays a crucial role in determining the mechanical properties and stability of hydrogels. Crosslinking agents, both chemical and physical, affect the hydrogel's strength and transparency as well as its drug release profile. Hydrogel morphology, including its porosity, significantly impacts drug loading capacity and release behavior. Hydrogel-based microneedles show potential in overcoming the limitations of traditional drug administration methods by enhancing skin penetration and drug loading efficiency. Additionally, factors such as swelling ratio, drug loading efficiency, and release behavior are influenced by crosslinking methods, material composition, and environmental conditions. This article concludes that the design and modification of chitosan-based hydrogels can optimize transdermal drug delivery by improving drug release profiles and stability.

Strategic development of aceclofenac loaded organosomes for topical application: An explorative ex-vivo and in-vivo investigation for arthritis

Present study intends to develop aceclofenac-encapsulated organosomes (OS), which consist of phospholipids coupled with a combination of organic solvents, for the management of arthritis. The formulation was characterized and tested for efficacy using formalin-induced hyperalgesia, air pouch, and CFA-induced arthritic rat models. OS system exhibited spherical dimension, nanometric size with low PDI (278.3 ± 12.21 nm; 0.145), zeta potential (-24.56 ± 7.53 mV), drug entrapment (85.62 ± 7.2 %) and vesicles count (4.2x104 mm3). The gelled OS formulation demonstrated increased drug permeability and accumulation rate (51.77 ± 7.1 % and 396.19 ± 59.21 µg/cm2) compared to the MKT product (102.93 ± 13.78 µg/cm2 and 16.14 ± 4.3 %). Dermatokinetic assessments exhibited significantly higher drug levels in dermal layers compared to MKT product (p < 0.001), and CLSM studies further supported the OS system's deeper penetration. The results of arthritic index significantly better (9 times) in the OS-treated group than the MKT product. OS system treatment significantly reduced biochemicals and cytokines levels, such as CRP, ESR, TLC, lymphocytes, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β to levels of the control group (p < 0.001). Pseudoplastic behaviour of the developed product was indicated by the rheological results, and it also demonstrated biocompatibility through skin compliance studies. Based on the current findings, it appears that OS may be a better choice for managing arthritis and related inflammations.

Lignocellulosic Membranes Grafted with N-Vinylcaprolactam Using Radiation Chemistry: Load and Release Capacity of Vancomycin

Radiation chemistry presents a unique avenue for developing innovative polymeric materials with desirable properties, eliminating the need for chemical initiators, which can be potentially detrimental, especially in sensitive sectors like medicine. In this investigation, we employed a radiation-induced graft polymerization process with N-vinylcaprolactam (NVCL) to modify lignocellulosic membranes derived from Agave salmiana, commonly known as maguey. The membranes underwent thorough characterization employing diverse techniques, including contact angle measurement, degree of swelling, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier-transform infrared-attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR), nuclear magnetic resonance (CP-MAS 13C-NMR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and uniaxial tensile mechanical tests. The membranes' ability to load and release an antimicrobial glycopeptide drug was assessed, revealing significant enhancements in both drug loading and sustained release. The grafting of PNVCL contributed to prolonged sustained release by decreasing the drug release rate at temperatures above the LCST. The release profiles were analyzed using the Higuchi, Peppas-Sahlin, and Korsmeyer-Peppas models, suggesting a Fickian transport mechanism as indicated by the Korsmeyer-Peppas model.

Novel Targets and Drug Delivery System in the Treatment of Postoperative Pain: Recent Studies and Clinical Advancement

Pain is generated by a small number of peripheral targets. These can be made more sensitive by inflammatory mediators. The number of opioids prescribed to the patients can be reduced dramatically with better pain management. Any therapy that safely and reliably provides extended analgesia and is flexible enough to facilitate a diverse array of release profiles would be useful for improving patient comfort, quality of care, and compliance after surgical procedures. Comparisons are made between new and traditional methods, and the current state of development has been discussed; taking into account the availability of molecular and cellular level data, preclinical and clinical data, and early post-market data. There are a number of benefits associated with the use of nanotechnology in the delivery of analgesics to specific areas of the body. Nanoparticles are able to transport drugs to inaccessible bodily areas because of their small molecular size. This review focuses on targets that act specifically or primarily on sensory neurons, as well as inflammatory mediators that have been shown to have an analgesic effect as a side effect of their anti- inflammatory properties. New, regulated post-operative pain management devices that use existing polymeric systems were presented in this article, along with the areas for potential development. Analgesic treatments, both pharmacological and non-pharmacological, have also been discussed.

Recent developments in natural biopolymer based drug delivery systems

Targeted delivery of drug molecules to diseased sites is a great challenge in pharmaceutical and biomedical sciences. Fabrication of drug delivery systems (DDS) to target and/or diagnose sick cells is an effective means to achieve good therapeutic results along with a minimal toxicological impact on healthy cells. Biopolymers are becoming an important class of materials owing to their biodegradability, good compatibility, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, and long blood circulation time and high drug loading ratio for both macros as well as micro-sized drug molecules. This review summarizes the recent trends in biopolymer-based DDS, forecasting their broad future clinical applications. Cellulose chitosan, starch, silk fibroins, collagen, albumin, gelatin, alginate, agar, proteins and peptides have shown potential applications in DDS. A range of synthetic techniques have been reported to design the DDS and are discussed in the current study which is being successfully employed in ocular, dental, transdermal and intranasal delivery systems. Different formulations of DDS are also overviewed in this review article along with synthesis techniques employed for designing the DDS. The possibility of these biopolymer applications points to a new route for creating unique DDS with enhanced therapeutic qualities for scaling up creative formulations up to the clinical level.

Localized Drug Delivery Systems: An Update on Treatment Options for Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinomas

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is one of the most common cancers in the world, with surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy being the primary treatment modalities. The treatment for HNSCC has evolved over time, due to which the prognosis has improved drastically. Despite the varied treatment options, major challenges persist. HNSCC chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic drugs are usually administered systemically, which could affect the patient's quality of life due to the associated side effects. Moreover, the systemic administration of salivary stimulating agents for the treatment of radiation-induced xerostomia is associated with toxicities. Localized drug delivery systems (LDDS) are gaining importance, as they have the potential to provide non-invasive, patient-friendly alternatives to cancer therapy with reduced dose-limiting toxicities. LDDSs involve directly delivering a drug to the tissue or organ affected by the disease. Some of the common localized routes of administration include the transdermal and transmucosal drug delivery system (DDSs). This review will attempt to explore the different treatment options using LDDSs for the treatment of HNSCC and radiotherapy-induced damage and their potential to provide a better experience for patients, as well as the obstacles that need to be addressed to render them successful.

Chitosan: A Potential Biopolymer in Drug Delivery and Biomedical Applications

Chitosan, a biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide derived from chitin, has surfaced as a material of promise for drug delivery and biomedical applications. Different chitin and chitosan extraction techniques can produce materials with unique properties, which can be further modified to enhance their bioactivities. Chitosan-based drug delivery systems have been developed for various routes of administration, including oral, ophthalmic, transdermal, nasal, and vaginal, allowing for targeted and sustained release of drugs. Additionally, chitosan has been used in numerous biomedical applications, such as bone regeneration, cartilage tissue regeneration, cardiac tissue regeneration, corneal regeneration, periodontal tissue regeneration, and wound healing. Moreover, chitosan has also been utilized in gene delivery, bioimaging, vaccination, and cosmeceutical applications. Modified chitosan derivatives have been developed to improve their biocompatibility and enhance their properties, resulting in innovative materials with promising potentials in various biomedical applications. This article summarizes the recent findings on chitosan and its application in drug delivery and biomedical science.

Injectable Thermosensitive Nanocomposites Based on Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) and Silica Particles for Localized Release of Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Drugs

The systemic delivery of drugs employed by conventional methods has shown to be less effective than a localized delivery system. Many drugs have the effectiveness reduced by fast clearance, increasing the amount required for an efficient treatment. One way to overcome this drawback is through the use of thermoresponsive polymers that undergo a sol-gel transition at physiological temperature, allowing their injection directly in the desired site. In this work, thermosensitive nanocomposites based on poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) and silica particles with 80 and 330 nm were synthesized to be employed as delivery systems for hydrophobic (naringin) and hydrophilic (doxorubicin hydrochloride) drugs. The insertion of SiO₂ increased the rheological properties of the nanocomposite at 37 °C, which helps to prevent its diffusion away from the site of injection. The synthesized materials were also able to control the drug release for a period of 7 days under physiological conditions. Due to its higher hydrophobicity and better interaction with the PNVCL matrix, naringin presented a more controlled release. The Korsmeyer-Peppas model indicated different release mechanisms for each drug. At last, a preliminary in vitro study of DOX-loaded nanocomposites cultured with L929 and MB49 cells showed negligible toxic effects on healthy cells and better efficient inhibition of carcinoma cells.

Responsive Nanostructure for Targeted Drug Delivery

Currently, intelligent, responsive biomaterials have been widely explored, considering the fact that responsive biomaterials provide controlled and predictable results in various biomedical systems. Responsive nanostructures undergo reversible or irreversible changes in the presence of a stimulus, and that stimuli can be temperature, a magnetic field, ultrasound, pH, humidity, pressure, light, electric field, etc. Different types of stimuli being used in drug delivery shall be explained here. Recent research progress in the design, development and applications of biomaterials comprising responsive nanostructures is also described here. More emphasis will be given on the various nanostructures explored for the smart stimuli responsive drug delivery at the target site such as wound healing, cancer therapy, inflammation, and pain management in order to achieve the improved efficacy and sustainability with the lowest side effects. However, it is still a big challenge to develop well-defined responsive nanostructures with ordered output; thus, challenges faced during the design and development of these nanostructures shall also be included in this article. Clinical perspectives and applicability of the responsive nanostructures in the targeted drug delivery shall be discussed here.

Nanomaterials based on thermosensitive polymer in biomedical field

The progress of nanotechnology enables us to make use of the special properties of materials on the nanoscale and open up many new fields of biomedical research. Among them, thermosensitive nanomaterials stand out in many biomedical fields because of their “intelligent” behavior in response to temperature changes. However, this article mainly reviews the research progress of thermosensitive nanomaterials, which are popular in biomedical applications in recent years. Here, we simply classify the thermally responsive nanomaterials according to the types of polymers, focusing on the mechanisms of action and their advantages and potential. Finally, we deeply investigate the applications of thermosensitive nanomaterials in drug delivery, tissue engineering, sensing analysis, cell culture, 3D printing, and other fields and probe the current challenges and future development prospects of thermosensitive nanomaterials.

NVCL-Based Hydrogels and Composites for Biomedical Applications: Progress in the Last Ten Years

Hydrogels consist of three-dimensionally crosslinked polymeric chains, are hydrophilic, have the ability to absorb other molecules in their structure and are relatively easy to obtain. However, in order to improve some of their properties, usually mechanical, or to provide them with some physical, chemical or biological characteristics, hydrogels have been synthesized combined with other synthetic or natural polymers, filled with inorganic nanoparticles, metals, and even polymeric nanoparticles, giving rise to composite hydrogels. In general, different types of hydrogels have been synthesized; however, in this review, we refer to those obtained from the thermosensitive polymer poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PNVCL) and we focus on the definition, properties, synthesis techniques, nanomaterials used as fillers in composites and mainly applications of PNVCL-based hydrogels in the biomedical area. This type of material has great potential in biomedical applications such as drug delivery systems, tissue engineering, as antimicrobials and in diagnostic and bioimaging.

Nanocarriers for Skin Applications: Where Do We Stand?

Skin penetration of active molecules for treatment of diverse diseases is a major field of research owing to the advantages associated with the skin like easy accessibility, reduced systemic-derived side effects, and increased therapeutic efficacy. Despite these advantages, dermal drug delivery is generally challenging due to the low skin permeability of therapeutics. Although various methods have been developed to improve skin penetration and permeation of therapeutics, they are usually aggressive and could lead to irreversible damage to the stratum corneum. Nanosized carrier systems represent an alternative approach for current technologies, with minimal damage to the natural barrier function of skin. In this Review, the use of nanoparticles to deliver drug molecules, genetic material, and vaccines into the skin is discussed. In addition, nanotoxicology studies and the recent clinical development of nanoparticles are highlighted to shed light on their potential to undergo market translation.

Chitosan-Based Biocompatible Copolymers for Thermoresponsive Drug Delivery Systems: On the Development of a Standardization System

Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide that is considered to be biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic. The polymer has been used in drug delivery applications for its positive charge, which allows for adhesion with and recognition of biological tissues via non-covalent interactions. In recent times, chitosan has been used for the preparation of graft copolymers with thermoresponsive polymers such as poly-N-vinylcaprolactam (PNVCL) and poly-N-isopropylamide (PNIPAM), allowing the combination of the biodegradability of the natural polymer with the ability to respond to changes in temperature. Due to the growing interest in the utilization of thermoresponsive polymers in the biological context, it is necessary to increase the knowledge of the key principles of thermoresponsivity in order to obtain comparable results between different studies or applications. In the present review, we provide an overview of the basic principles of thermoresponsivity, as well as a description of the main polysaccharides and thermoresponsive materials, with a special focus on chitosan and poly-N-Vinyl caprolactam (PNVCL) and their biomedical applications.

Thermoresponsive Chitosan-Grafted-Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) Microgels via Ionotropic Gelation for Oncological Applications

Microgels can be considered soft, porous and deformable particles with an internal gel structure swollen by a solvent and an average size between 100 and 1000 nm. Due to their biocompatibility, colloidal stability, their unique dynamicity and the permeability of their architecture, they are emerging as important candidates for drug delivery systems, sensing and biocatalysis. In clinical applications, the research on responsive microgels is aimed at the development of "smart" delivery systems that undergo a critical change in conformation and size in reaction to a change in environmental conditions (temperature, magnetic fields, pH, concentration gradient). Recent achievements in biodegradable polymer fabrication have resulted in new appealing strategies, including the combination of synthetic and natural-origin polymers with inorganic nanoparticles, as well as the possibility of controlling drug release remotely. In this review, we provide a literature review on the use of dual and multi-responsive chitosan-grafted-poly-(N-vinylcaprolactam) (CP) microgels in drug delivery and oncological applications.

Characterization of Thermoresponsive Poly-N-Vinylcaprolactam Polymers for Biological Applications

Poly-N-Vinylcaprolactam (PNVCL) is a thermoresponsive polymer that exhibits lower critical solution temperature (LCST) between 25 and 50 °C. Due to its alleged biocompatibility, this polymer is becoming popular for biomedical and environmental applications. PNVCL with carboxyl terminations has been widely used for the preparation of thermoresponsive copolymers, micro- and nanogels for drug delivery and oncological therapies. However, the fabrication of such specific targeting devices needs standardized and reproducible preparation methods. This requires a deep understanding of how the miscibility behavior of the polymer is affected by its structural properties and the solution environment. In this work, PNVCL-COOH polymers were prepared via free radical polymerization (FRP) in order to exhibit LCST between 33 and 42 °C. The structural properties were investigated with NMR, FT-IR and conductimetric titration and the LCST was calculated via UV-VIS and DLS. The LCST is influenced by the molecular mass, as shown by both DLS and viscosimetric values. Finally, the behavior of the polymer was described as function of its concentration and in presence of different biologically relevant environments, such as aqueous buffers, NaCl solutions and human plasma.

Preparation and Characterization of Oleanolic Acid-Based Low-Molecular-Weight Supramolecular Hydrogels Induced by Heating

The natural-product-based low-molecular-weight supramolecular hydrogels (LMWSHs) induced by heating are rarely reported. In this work, a simple salt of oleanolic acid (OA) and choline ([choline][OA]) was used as the natural product hydrogelator (NPHG) to form LMWSHs. Unlike common sol-gel transitions, the OA-based LMWSH displayed a unique property with which the system could undergo a phase transition from the sol state to the gel state upon heating. Moreover, the phase separation was observed in sol and gel states when the temperature was elevated with nonreversible transparent-turbid transitions. LMWSHs showed good stability and injectability and the potential to be a drug delivery vehicle for sustained release of drugs. In this regard, this work provided a facile approach to designing an OA-based NPHG for preparing heat-induced LMWSHs.

A Recent Update on Drug Delivery Systems for Pain Management

Pain remains a global health challenge affecting approximately 1.5 billion people worldwide. Pain has been an implicit variable in the equation of human life for many centuries considering different types and the magnitude of pain. Therefore, developing an efficacious drug delivery system for pain management remains an open challenge for researchers in the field of medicine. Lack of therapeutic efficacy still persists, despite high throughput studies in the field of pain management. Research scientists have been exploiting different alternatives to curb the adverse side effects of pain medications or attempting a more substantial approach to minimize the prevalence of pain. Various drug delivery systems have been developed such as nanoparticles, microparticles to curb adverse side effects of pain medications or minimize the prevalence of pain. This literature review firstly provides a brief introduction of pain as a sensation and its pharmacological interventions. Second, it highlights the most recent studies in the pharmaceutical field for pain management and serves as a strong base for future developments. Herein, we have classified drug delivery systems based on their sizes such as nano, micro, and macro systems, and for each of the reviewed systems, design, formulation strategies, and drug release performance has been discussed.

Wearable patch delivery system for artificial pancreas health diagnostic-therapeutic application: A review

The advanced stimuli-responsive approaches for on-demand drug delivery systems have received tremendous attention as they have great potential to be integrated with sensing and multi-functional electronics on a flexible and stretchable single platform (all-in-one concept) in order to develop skin-integration with close-loop sensation for personalized diagnostic and therapeutic application. The wearable patch pumps have evolved from reservoir-based to matrix patch and drug-in-adhesive (single-layer or multi-layer) type. In this review, we presented the basic requirements of an artificial pancreas, surveyed the design and technologies used in commercial patch pumps available on the market and provided general information about the latest wearable patch pump. We summarized the various advanced delivery strategies with their mechanisms that have been developed to date and representative examples. Mechanical, electrical, light, thermal, acoustic and glucose-responsive approaches on patch form have been successfully utilized in the controllable transdermal drug delivery manner. We highlighted key challenges associated with wearable transdermal delivery systems, their research direction and future development trends.

Polymer-Based Smart Drug Delivery Systems for Skin Application and Demonstration of Stimuli-Responsiveness

Progress in recent years in the field of stimuli-responsive polymers, whose properties change depending on the intensity of a signal, permitted an increase in smart drug delivery systems (SDDS). SDDS have attracted the attention of the scientific community because they can help meet two current challenges of the pharmaceutical industry: targeted drug delivery and personalized medicine. Controlled release of the active ingredient can be achieved through various stimuli, among which are temperature, pH, redox potential or even enzymes. SDDS, hitherto explored mainly in oncology, are now developed in the fields of dermatology and cosmetics. They are mostly hydrogels or nanosystems, and the most-used stimuli are pH and temperature. This review offers an overview of polymer-based SDDS developed to trigger the release of active ingredients intended to treat skin conditions or pathologies. The methods used to attest to stimuli-responsiveness in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo are discussed.

Degradable polymeric vehicles for postoperative pain management

Effective control of pain management has the potential to significantly decrease the need for prescription opioids following a surgical procedure. While extended release products for pain management are available commercially, the implementation of a device that safely and reliably provides extended analgesia and is sufficiently flexible to facilitate a diverse array of release profiles would serve to advance patient comfort, quality of care and compliance following surgical procedures. Herein, we review current polymeric systems that could be utilized in new, controlled post-operative pain management devices and highlight where opportunities for improvement exist.

The role of internal and external stimuli in the rational design of skin-specific drug delivery systems

The concept of skin-specific drug delivery with a spatio-temporal control has just recently received concerns in dermatology. Inspired by the progress in smart materials and their perspective application in medicine science, development of stimuli responsive drug delivery systems with skin-specificity has become possible, which has led to a new era in the localized treatment of skin diseases. This review highlights both the internal and external stimuli that have been employed in this field, with a focus on their implication on the rational design of pharmaceutical formulations, especially those nanoscale drug carriers that are able to provide release of payloads with a precise spatio-temporal control in response to specific stimuli. Also, the strategy of dual stimuli responsive drug delivery systems will be discussed for further improvement of the efficacy of skin drug delivery. The prominent examples of the established approaches are described as comprehensive and current as possible. The review is expected to provide some inspiration for utilizing different stimuli for realizing the site-specific and on-demand drug delivery to the skin.

Conductive poly(2-ethylaniline) dextran-based hydrogels for electrically controlled diclofenac release

Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) are used as an alternative route to deliver drugs into the blood system for therapy. The matrix materials that have been widely used in TDDS are hydrogels. The dextran hydrogels were prepared by the solution casting using trisodium trimetaphosphate (STMP) as the crosslinking agent, and diclofenac sodium salt (Dcf) as the anionic model drug. Poly(2-ethylaniline) (PEAn) was successfully synthesized and embedded into the dextran hydrogel as the drug encapsulation host. The in-vitro release of Dcf from the hydrogels was investigated using a modified Franz-Diffusion cell in a phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution at the pH of 7.4 and at 37 °C for a period of 24 h, under the effects of crosslinking ratios, dextran molecular weights, electric potentials, and the conductive polymer PEAn. The release mechanism of Dcf from the dextran hydrogels and the composite without electrical potential was the diffusion controlled mechanism or the Fickian diffusion. Under applied electrical potentials, the release mechanism was a combination between the Fickian diffusion and the matrix swelling. The Dcf diffusion coefficients from the dextran hydrogels without electrical potential increased with decreasing crosslinking ratio and molecular weight. Under electrical potentials, the corresponding diffusion coefficients were much higher due mainly to the electro-repulsive force between the negatively charged electrode and the negatively charged dextran and the induced dextran expansion. For the Dcf-loaded PEAn/dextran composite, the diffusion coefficient was enhanced by two orders of magnitude when the electric potential was applied, specifically illustrating the unique features of PEAn as an efficient drug encapsulation host without electric field, and as a drug release enhancer under electric field through the reduction reaction.

Thermochromic Hydrogel-Functionalized Textiles for Synchronous Visual Monitoring of On-Demand In Vitro Drug Release

In vitro drug release systems have recently received tremendous attention because they allow noninvasive, convenient, and prolonged administration of pharmacological agents. On-demand epidermal drug release systems can improve treatment efficiency, prevent multidrug resistance, and minimize drug toxicity to healthy cells. In addition, real-time monitoring of drug content is also essential for guiding the determination of drug dosage and replacing drug carriers in time. Therefore, it is important to integrate the above properties in one ideal epidermal patch. Herein, photonic crystals (PCs) based on Fe₃O₄@C nanoparticles were introduced into drug-loaded poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (P(NIPAM-AAc)) hydrogel-functionalized textiles. Drug loading and release depended on the expansion and contraction of the hydrogels. The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the hydrogels was adjusted to 40 °C, which is higher than the skin temperature, by varying the content of hydrophilic comonomer acrylic acid (AAc) to store the drug at room temperature, and on-demand release was achieved by mild thermal stimulation. Moreover, the lattice spacing (d) of PCs varied with the expansion and contraction of the hydrogels, which can cause the color of P(NIPAM-AAc) hydrogel-functionalized textiles to change. These synchronous thermoresponsive chromic drug uptake and release behaviors provided an effective method for visual and real-time monitoring of drug content. Furthermore, in view of the poor mechanical properties of hydrogel wound dressings, textile matrices were composited to prevent holistic breaking during the stretching process. Biological experiments proved that the drug-loaded P(NIPAM-AAc) hydrogel-functionalized textiles had good antibacterial properties and wound-healing effects.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymeric Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery, Imaging, and Theragnosis

In the past few decades, polymeric nanocarriers have been recognized as promising tools and have gained attention from researchers for their potential to efficiently deliver bioactive compounds, including drugs, proteins, genes, nucleic acids, etc., in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Remarkably, these polymeric nanocarriers could be further modified as stimuli-responsive systems based on the mechanism of triggered release, i.e., response to a specific stimulus, either endogenous (pH, enzymes, temperature, redox values, hypoxia, glucose levels) or exogenous (light, magnetism, ultrasound, electrical pulses) for the effective biodistribution and controlled release of drugs or genes at specific sites. Various nanoparticles (NPs) have been functionalized and used as templates for imaging systems in the form of metallic NPs, dendrimers, polymeric NPs, quantum dots, and liposomes. The use of polymeric nanocarriers for imaging and to deliver active compounds has attracted considerable interest in various cancer therapy fields. So-called smart nanopolymer systems are built to respond to certain stimuli such as temperature, pH, light intensity and wavelength, and electrical, magnetic and ultrasonic fields. Many imaging techniques have been explored including optical imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear imaging, ultrasound, photoacoustic imaging (PAI), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and positron emission tomography (PET). This review reports on the most recent developments in imaging methods by analyzing examples of smart nanopolymers that can be imaged using one or more imaging techniques. Unique features, including nontoxicity, water solubility, biocompatibility, and the presence of multiple functional groups, designate polymeric nanocues as attractive nanomedicine candidates. In this context, we summarize various classes of multifunctional, polymeric, nano-sized formulations such as liposomes, micelles, nanogels, and dendrimers.

Polyvinyl Alcohol/Hydroxyethylcellulose Containing Ethosomes as a Scaffold for Transdermal Drug Delivery Applications

This study aims to develop scaffold for transdermal drug delivery method (TDDM) using electrospinning technique from polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC). The fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) loaded on ethosomes (FITC@Eth) was used as a drug model. The prepared PVA/HEC/FITC@Eth scaffold was characterized via scanning electron microscope (SEM) that show morphology change by adding FITC@Eth. Also, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), mechanical properties, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal gravimetric (TGA) analysis show that the addition of FITC@Eth to PVA/HEC does not change the scaffold properties. Franz diffusion cells were used for in vitro skin permeation experiments using rat dorsal skins. The FITC@Eth penetration was better than that of free FITC due to the presence of ethosome which enhance the potential skin targeting. In conclusion, the prepared PVA/HEC/FITC@Eth scaffold can serve as a promising transdermal scaffold for sustained FITC release.

Thermoresponsive polymers and their biomedical application in tissue engineering - a review

Thermoresponsive polymers hold great potential in the biomedical field, since they enable the fabrication of cell sheets, in situ drug delivery and 3D-printing under physiological conditions. In this review we provide an overview of several thermoresponsive polymers and their application, with focus on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-surfaces for cell sheet engineering. Basic knowledge of important processes like protein adsorption on surfaces and cell adhesion is provided. For different thermoresponsive polymers, namely PNIPAm, Pluronics, elastin-like polypeptides (ELP) and poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PNVCL), synthesis and basic chemical and physical properties have been described and the mechanism of their thermoresponsive behavior highlighted. Fabrication methods of thermoresponsive surfaces have been discussed, focusing on PNIPAm, and describing several methods in detail. The latter part of this review is dedicated to the application of the thermoresponsive polymers and with regard to cell sheet engineering, the process of temperature-dependent cell sheet detachment is explained. We provide insight into several applications of PNIPAm surfaces in cell sheet engineering. For Pluronics, ELP and PNVCL we show their application in the field of drug delivery and tissue engineering. We conclude, that research of thermoresponsive polymers has made big progress in recent years, especially for PNIPAm since the 1990s. However, manifold research possibilities, e.g. in surface fabrication and 3D-printing and further translational applications are conceivable in near future.

Facile design and development of photoluminescent graphene quantum dots grafted dextran/glycol-polymeric hydrogel for thermoresponsive triggered delivery of buprenorphine on pain management in tissue implantation

A novel nano-formulations of biocompatible, biodegradable and thermo-responsive graphene quantum dots (GQDs) loaded dextran/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (Dex/PNIPAM) copolymeric matrix was synthesized and analyzed the materials characterization, sustained drug delivery system, tissue feasibility in the tissue implantation site. This research report was aimed to grafting and functionalizing thermo-responsive (Dex/PNIPAM) copolymeric composite with presence of graphene quantum dots to achieve thermal responsive drug delivery (TrDD) with no harm effect in the implantation site. The synthesized GQD by using ionic liquid were evaluated by spectroscopic (DLS, PL, XRD and Raman spectroscopy) and Transmission electron microscopic analysis (TEM). The ultra-small GQDs loaded Dex/PNIPAM and was appeared to be asymmetric and open uniform porous structure, which can be significantly favorable for cell uptake and greatly influenced to be an effective drug carrier into the cellular compartment with good fluid flow. The PNIPAM polymeric composite were exhibited sustained and enhanced drug release percentages with increasing temperature at above low critical solution temperature (LCST) is 39 °C comparable to the cumulative drug release profile of below LCST (32 °C), which demonstrated that thermo-responsive polymer was played a significant role in the delivery system. The treated group of GQDs-Dex/PNIPAM was observed that no inflammation and shows noteworthy stromal cell infiltration, demonstrating that the synthesized drug carriers did not harm to the nerves and tissues and only was responsible for the pain management.

In vivo temperature-sensitive drug release system trigged by cooling using low-melting-point microcrystalline wax

Temperature-sensitive formulations are attractive controlled-release formulations, which release an incorporated drug by changes in body temperature induced by external temperature stimulation. Recently, it has been reported that wax matrix (WM) particles composed of a low-melting-point microcrystalline wax (MCW) released only a small amount of the drug at 37 °C, whereas faster drug release occurred at 25 °C. In this study, temperature-sensitive formulations composed of low-melting-point MCW that release drugs triggered by cooling, rather than heating, were developed. In an in vitro dissolution test in which the test medium was repeatedly cooled from 37 to 25 °C, control of the promotion and suppression of drug release was achieved. The drug concentration in the plasma of rats administered the particles was significantly increased by cooling compared with non-cooling, indicating that the drug release from the particles was promoted by cooling both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, particles composed of low-melting-point MCW should be useful for the development of cooling-triggered, temperature-sensitive formulations.

Synthesis of AMPSA Polymeric Derivatives Monitored by Electrical Conductivity and Evaluation of Thermosensitive Properties of Resulting Microspheres

Four stimuli-responsive polymers of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPA) and 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid (AMPSA) and crosslinked derivatives by N,N′-methylene bisacrylamide (MBA) were synthesized: PNA, PAMPSA, PNAM, PAMPSAM. The effect of the cross-linker and methyl sulphonic acid (-CH₃-SO₃H) group on particle size, aggregation and volume phase transition temperature (VPTT) was investigated. Polymeric particles were synthesized via the surfactant free precipitation polymerization (SFPP) at 70 °C in the presence of cationic initiator 2,2′-azobis[2-methylpropionamidine] dihydrochloride (AMP) system. Chemical composition and morphology of investigated samples were evaluated using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, ¹H-NMR spectrometry and SEM-EDS techniques. The hydrodynamic diameters (HD), zeta potential (ZP), and polydispersity index (PDI) in aqueous dispersions were assessed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) between 18–42 °C. HD values at 18 °C for PNA, PAMPSA, PNAM, PAMPSAM polymers were approx. 32, 730, 715, 665 nm, and ZP values were −1.36, −0.01, 8.90, −0.09 mV, respectively. The VPTT range was observed between 29 and 41 °C. PDI’s for PNA and PNAM were low and varied between 0.276 and 0.460, and between 0.119 and 0.056, respectively. PAMPSA and PAMPSAM were characterized by higher PDI in the range 0.728–0.959 and 0.658–0.836, respectively. The results confirmed the thermal sensitivity of the synthesized polymers and indicated a significant polydispersity and aggregation tendency of the resulting molecules. The conductivity results were applied for the interpretation of the polymerization process.

Mechanism of Drug Release From Temperature-Sensitive Formulations Composed of Low-Melting-Point Microcrystalline Wax

It was reported that wax matrix (WM) particles composed of low-melting-point microcrystalline wax showed unique release behaviors; the particles released only a small amount of the entrapped drug (non-diffusion-controlled release) at 37°C, whereas it showed comparatively fast drug release in a diffusion-controlled manner at 25°C. However, the mechanism of the drug release is still unclear. The objective of this study was to determine the mechanism of drug release from the WM particles using X-ray computed tomography. In the WM particles collected during dissolution tests at 25°C, the void space derived from drug release increased with increasing time, and there was no change in the structure, indicating that the WM particles released drug while maintaining the particle shape at 25°C. In the WM particles collected during dissolution tests at 37°C, the void space was confirmed at initial time point; however, at subsequent time points, the void space was disappeared, and the roughness of the surface was evident. This structural change may have blocked the conveyance pathway of the outer medium, which would inhibit the drug release. The difference between the drug-release mechanisms of the WM particles at the 2 temperatures will be valuable for developing cooling-triggered, temperature-sensitive formulations.

Thermoresponsive Water-Soluble Polymer Layers and Water-Stable Copolymer Layers Synthesized by Atmospheric Plasma Initiated Chemical Vapor Deposition

The growth of thermoresponsive layers with the atmospheric pressure plasma-initiated chemical vapor deposition (AP-PiCVD) process is reported for the first time. N-vinyl caprolactam (NVCL) was successfully homopolymerized and copolymerized with ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA), yielding water-soluble and water-stable thermoresponsive thin films, respectively. Strong chemical retention and high thermoresponsivity were achieved, highlighting the ability of AP-PiCVD to grow functional conventional homopolymers and copolymers.

Hyaluronic acid-containing ethosomes as a potential carrier for transdermal drug delivery

A hyaluronic acid-containing ethosomes (HA-ES) as the transdermal drug delivery system was prepared in this work, and rhodamine B (RB) was used as a model drug to be encapsulated. The obtained HA-ES-RB was then characterized by the surface morphology, entrapment efficiency, drug loading and the stability. Results showed that the prepared HA-ES-RB was spherical and showed good dispersion as well as the stability, with a particle size of below 100 nm. The skin permeation experiments were carried out in vitro with the Franz diffusion cells and the rat dorsal skins were used. It was found that the penetration effect of HA-ES-RB was much better than that of ES-RB. The fluorescence microscopy image showed that HA-ES-RB penetrated into the deepest dermis. The excellent transdermic drug delivery effect of HA-ES-RB maybe attributed from its smaller size, hydration of hyaluronic acid as well as greater potential targeting to skin and skin appendages of liposomal carriers. Moreover, the HA-ES delivery system showed non-cytotoxicity to normal cells, indicating a good biocompatibility. This work provded a hyaluronic acid-containing ethosomes which can offer a quick, high efficient, safe and self-administered transdermal drug delivery system.

Chitosan Derivatives: Introducing New Functionalities with a Controlled Molecular Architecture for Innovative Materials

The functionalization of polymeric substances is of great interest for the development of innovative materials for advanced applications. For many decades, the functionalization of chitosan has been a convenient way to improve its properties with the aim of preparing new materials with specialized characteristics. In the present review, we summarize the latest methods for the modification and derivatization of chitin and chitosan under experimental conditions, which allow a control over the macromolecular architecture. This is because an understanding of the interdependence between chemical structure and properties is an important condition for proposing innovative materials. New advances in methods and strategies of functionalization such as the click chemistry approach, grafting onto copolymerization, coupling with cyclodextrins, and reactions in ionic liquids are discussed.

Advances in thermosensitive polymer-grafted platforms for biomedical applications

Studies on "smart" polymeric material performing environmental stimuli such as temperature, pH, magnetic field, enzyme and photo-sensation have recently paid much attention to practical applications. Among of them, thermo-responsive grafted copolymers, amphiphilic steroids as well as polyester molecules have been utilized in the fabrication of several multifunctional platforms. Indeed, they performed a strikingly functional improvement comparing to some original materials and exhibited a holistic approach for biomedical applications. In case of drug delivery systems (DDS), there has been some successful proof of thermal-responsive grafted platforms on clinical trials such as ThermoDox®, BIND-014, Cynviloq IG-001, Genexol-PM, etc. This review would detail the recent progress and highlights of some temperature-responsive polymer-grafted nanomaterials or hydrogels in the 'smart' DDS that covered from synthetic polymers to nature-driven biomaterials and novel generations of some amphiphilic functional platforms. These approaches could produce several types of smart biomaterials for human health care in future.

Recent Advances in Wearable Transdermal Delivery Systems

Wearable transdermal delivery systems have recently received tremendous attention due to their noninvasive, convenient, and prolonged administration of pharmacological agents. Here, the material prospects, fabrication processes, and drug-release mechanisms of these types of therapeutic delivery systems are critically reviewed. The latest progress in the development of multifunctional wearable devices capable of closed-loop sensation and drug delivery is also discussed. This survey reveals that wearable transdermal delivery has already made an impact in diverse healthcare applications, while several grand challenges remain.

Getting Drugs Across Biological Barriers

The delivery of drugs to a target site frequently involves crossing biological barriers. The degree and nature of the impediment to flux, as well as the potential approaches to overcoming it, depend on the tissue, the drug, and numerous other factors. Here an overview of approaches that have been taken to crossing biological barriers is presented, with special attention to transdermal drug delivery. Technology and knowledge pertaining to addressing these issues in a variety of organs could have a significant clinical impact.

Dual responsive magnetic composite nanogels for thermo-chemotherapy

With the onset of hyperthermia and their advantage in increasing vascular perfusion and permeability in the cancer milieu, thermo-responsive polymers have become an attractive candidate for designing therapeutic nano-vehicles for targeted on-demand delivery of bioactive agents. For this purpose, we developed a dual (thermo- and pH-) responsive nanotherapeutic composite system rendering a combinational therapy of hyperthermia mediated drug delivery. This composite system comprises of magnetic chitosan-g-PNVCL (MCP) polymeric nanogels loaded with anticancer drug, Doxorubicin (DOX). The size distribution and the stability of the MCP nanogels have been characterized using DLS and Zeta-potential studies. XRD and TG-DTA confirms the presence of magnetic nanoparticles loaded onto MCP nanogel. ICP-AES analysis was done to determine the amount of iron content in the MCP nanogels. The magnetic property of the MCP nanogels was estimated to be ∼37 emu/g using Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM). The heating ability of MCP nanogels was calculated to be ∼204W/g for the concentration of 2mg/mL using time-dependent Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) method. Magnetic field induced thermo-responsive and pH responsive drug release studies were carried out and it was found that MCP nanogels have a good on-demand drug release properties. The DOX-MCP nanogels were evaluated for its in vitro killing efficacy of breast cancer cells MCF 7 and MDAMB 231 cells with synergistic effects of both hyperthermia and chemotherapy in presence of magnetic field at the concentration of 2mg/mL. Thus, MCP nanogels can be a potential dual modal on-demand hyperthermia mediated drug delivery platform for the breast cancer treatment.

NIR light-triggered shrinkable thermoresponsive PNVCL nanoshells for cancer theranostics

NIR light-responsive gold coated shrinkable thermoresponsive nanoshells as preliminary step to ablate large and deep-seated tumors using combined chemo-photothermal therapy.