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Deng Z, Fan T, Xiao C, Tian H, Zheng Y, Li C, He J. TGF-β signaling in health, disease, and therapeutics. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:61. [PMID: 38514615 PMCID: PMC10958066 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-024-01764-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β is a multifunctional cytokine expressed by almost every tissue and cell type. The signal transduction of TGF-β can stimulate diverse cellular responses and is particularly critical to embryonic development, wound healing, tissue homeostasis, and immune homeostasis in health. The dysfunction of TGF-β can play key roles in many diseases, and numerous targeted therapies have been developed to rectify its pathogenic activity. In the past decades, a large number of studies on TGF-β signaling have been carried out, covering a broad spectrum of topics in health, disease, and therapeutics. Thus, a comprehensive overview of TGF-β signaling is required for a general picture of the studies in this field. In this review, we retrace the research history of TGF-β and introduce the molecular mechanisms regarding its biosynthesis, activation, and signal transduction. We also provide deep insights into the functions of TGF-β signaling in physiological conditions as well as in pathological processes. TGF-β-targeting therapies which have brought fresh hope to the treatment of relevant diseases are highlighted. Through the summary of previous knowledge and recent updates, this review aims to provide a systematic understanding of TGF-β signaling and to attract more attention and interest to this research area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqin Deng
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Tao Fan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Chu Xiao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - He Tian
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yujia Zheng
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Chunxiang Li
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
| | - Jie He
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
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Kunnathattil M, Rahul P, Skaria T. Soluble vascular endothelial glycocalyx proteoglycans as potential therapeutic targets in inflammatory diseases. Immunol Cell Biol 2024; 102:97-116. [PMID: 37982607 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Reducing the activity of cytokines and leukocyte extravasation is an emerging therapeutic strategy to limit tissue-damaging inflammatory responses and restore immune homeostasis in inflammatory diseases. Proteoglycans embedded in the vascular endothelial glycocalyx, which regulate the activity of cytokines to restrict the inflammatory response in physiological conditions, are proteolytically cleaved in inflammatory diseases. Here we critically review the potential of proteolytically shed, soluble vascular endothelial glycocalyx proteoglycans to modulate pathological inflammatory responses. Soluble forms of the proteoglycans syndecan-1, syndecan-3 and biglycan exert beneficial anti-inflammatory effects by the removal of chemokines, suppression of proinflammatory cytokine expression and leukocyte migration, and induction of autophagy of proinflammatory M1 macrophages. By contrast, soluble versikine and decorin enhance proinflammatory responses by increasing inflammatory cytokine synthesis and leukocyte migration. Endogenous syndecan-2 and mimecan exert proinflammatory effects, syndecan-4 and perlecan mediate beneficial anti-inflammatory effects and glypican regulates Hh and Wnt signaling pathways involved in systemic inflammatory responses. Taken together, targeting the vascular endothelial glycocalyx-derived, soluble syndecan-1, syndecan-2, syndecan-3, syndecan-4, biglycan, versikine, mimecan, perlecan, glypican and decorin might be a potential therapeutic strategy to suppress overstimulated cytokine and leukocyte responses in inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maneesha Kunnathattil
- Department of Zoology, Government College Madappally, University of Calicut, Calicut, Kerala, India
| | - Pedapudi Rahul
- School of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Calicut, Kerala, India
| | - Tom Skaria
- School of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Calicut, Kerala, India
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Qian M, Li S, Xi K, Tang J, Shen X, Liu Y, Guo R, Zhang N, Gu Y, Xu Y, Cui W, Chen L. ECM-engineered electrospun fibers with an immune cascade effect for inhibiting tissue fibrosis. Acta Biomater 2023; 171:308-326. [PMID: 37673231 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2023.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Tissue regeneration/fibrosis after injury is intricately regulated by the immune cascade reaction and extracellular matrix (ECM). Dysregulated cascade signal could jeopardize tissue homeostasis leading to fibrosis. Bioactive scaffolds mimicking natural ECM microstructure and chemistry could regulate the cascade reaction to achieve tissue regeneration. The current study constructed an ECM-engineered micro/nanofibrous scaffold using self-assembled nanofibrous collagen and decorin (DCN)-loaded microfibers to regulate the immune cascade reaction. The ECM-engineered scaffold promoted anti-inflammatory and pro-regenerative effects, M2 polarization of macrophages, by nanofibrous collagen. The ECM-engineered scaffold could release DCN to inhibit inflammation-associated fibrous angiogenesis. Yet, to prevent excessive M2 activity leading to tissue fibrosis, controlled release of DCN was expected to elicit M1 activity and achieve M1/M2 balance in the repair process. Regulated cascade reaction guided favorable crosstalk between macrophages, endothelial cells and fibroblasts by proximity. Additionally, decorin could also antagonize TGF-β1 via TGF-β/Smad3 pathway to suppress fibrotic activity of fibroblasts. Hence, ECM-engineered scaffolds could exert effective regulation of the immune cascade reaction by microstructure and DCN release and achieve the balance between tissue fibrosis and regeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: With the incidence of up to 74.6%, failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) has been a lingering issue in spine surgery, which poses a heavy socio-economic burden to society. Epidural fibrosis is believed to be responsible for the onset of FBSS. Current biomaterial-based strategies treating epidural fibrosis mainly rely on physical barriers and unidirectional suppression of inflammation. Regulation of the immune cascade reaction for inhibiting fibrosis has not been widely studied. Based on the simultaneous regulation of M1/M2 polarization and intercellular crosstalk, the ECM-engineered micro/nanofibrous scaffolds constructed in the current study could exert an immune cascade effect to coordinate tissue regeneration and inhibit fibrosis. This finding makes a significant contribution in the development of a treatment for epidural fibrosis and FBSS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Qian
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006 PR China
| | - Shun Li
- Center for Rehabilitation Medicine, Department of Pain Management, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, PR China
| | - Kun Xi
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006 PR China
| | - Jincheng Tang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006 PR China
| | - Xiaofeng Shen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Suzhou TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 889 Wuzhong West Road, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, PR China
| | - Yong Liu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Jiangyin Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangyin, Jiangsu 215600, PR China
| | - Ran Guo
- Center for Rehabilitation Medicine, Department of Pain Management, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, PR China
| | - Nannan Zhang
- Center for Rehabilitation Medicine, Department of Pain Management, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, PR China
| | - Yong Gu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006 PR China.
| | - Yun Xu
- Center for Rehabilitation Medicine, Department of Pain Management, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, PR China.
| | - Wenguo Cui
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Prevention and Treatment of Bone and Joint Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin 2nd Road, Shanghai 200025, PR China.
| | - Liang Chen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006 PR China.
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Gesteira TF, Verma S, Coulson-Thomas VJ. Small leucine rich proteoglycans: Biology, function and their therapeutic potential in the ocular surface. Ocul Surf 2023; 29:521-536. [PMID: 37355022 PMCID: PMC11092928 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2023.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023]
Abstract
Small leucine rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) are the largest family of proteoglycans, with 18 members that are subdivided into five classes. SLRPs are small in size and can be present in tissues as glycosylated and non-glycosylated proteins, and the most studied SLRPs include decorin, biglycan, lumican, keratocan and fibromodulin. SLRPs specifically bind to collagen fibrils, regulating collagen fibrillogenesis and the biomechanical properties of tissues, and are expressed at particularly high levels in fibrous tissues, such as the cornea. However, SLRPs are also very active components of the ECM, interacting with numerous growth factors, cytokines and cell surface receptors. Therefore, SLRPs regulate major cellular processes and have a central role in major fundamental biological processes, such as maintaining corneal homeostasis and transparency and regulating corneal wound healing. Over the years, mutations and/or altered expression of SLRPs have been associated with various corneal diseases, such as congenital stromal corneal dystrophy and cornea plana. Recently, there has been great interest in harnessing the various functions of SLRPs for therapeutic purposes. In this comprehensive review, we describe the structural features and the related functions of SLRPs, and how these affect the therapeutic potential of SLRPs, with special emphasis on the use of SLRPs for treating ocular surface pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sudhir Verma
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, USA; Department of Zoology, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
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Alhajlah S. Suppression of Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor-5 (FGFR5) has no Impact on Axon Regeneration after SCI. JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND BIOALLIED SCIENCES 2023; 15:S1111-S1115. [PMID: 37693980 PMCID: PMC10485452 DOI: 10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_199_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most common forms of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) injuries is spinal cord injury (SCI), and any lesion to the CNS can result in a lifelong functional impairment since CNS axons cannot regenerate. The relative axon regenerating genes following spinal SCI were examined using the regenerative SN, pSN + DC, and non-regenerating DC lesion models. By using qRT-PCR, we discovered that fibroblast growth factor receptor-5 (FGFR5) was 4.2-fold more highly expressed in non-regeneration lesions compared to intact control and regenerating animals. Furthermore, in cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGN), short interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of FGFR5 had no effect on DRGN neurite outgrowth, indicating that the gene's suppression has no effect on axon regeneration and may play other roles in the CNS besides axon regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharif Alhajlah
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Shaqra University, Shaqra, Saudi Arabia
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Science, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT , United Kingdom
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Du Y, Liu X, Du K, Zhang W, Li R, Yang L, Cheng L, He W, Zhang W. Decorin inhibits the formation of hard nodules after microwave ablation by inhibiting the TGF-β1/SMAD and MAPK signaling pathways: in a Bama miniature pig model of mammary gland hyperplasia. Int J Hyperthermia 2023; 40:2188151. [PMID: 36919520 DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2023.2188151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Benign breast lesions are often associated with hard nodule formation after microwave ablation (MWA), which persists for a long time and causes problems in patients. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of decorin in the treatment of hard nodule formation and its potential mechanism of action. METHODS Using a Bama miniature pig model of mammary gland hyperplasia, immunohistochemistry, Masson's trichrome and western blotting were firstly applied to compare the extent of fibrosis and activation of key members of the TGF-β1/SMAD and MAPK signaling pathways of hard nodule in the control and MWA groups, and then the extent of fibrosis and expression of signaling pathways in hard nodule were examined after application of decorin. RESULTS The results showed that the MWA group had increased levels of TGF-β1, p-SMAD2/3, p-ERK1/2, and collagen I proteins and increased fibrosis at 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 3 months after MWA. After decorin treatment, the expression levels of each protein were significantly downregulated, and the degree of fibrosis was reduced at 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 3 months after MWA compared with the MWA group. CONCLUSION In conclusion, these results suggest that activation of TGF-β1 may play an important role in hard nodule formation and that decorin may reduce hard nodule formation after MWA in a model of mammary gland hyperplasia by inhibiting the TGF-β1/SMAD and MAPK signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Du
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinyao Liu
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Kai Du
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wenkai Zhang
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Lizhi Yang
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Linggang Cheng
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wen He
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Ultrasound, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Decorin Promotes Osteoblastic Differentiation of Human Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27238224. [PMID: 36500314 PMCID: PMC9739490 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27238224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study is to clarify the biological functions of decorin (DCN) in the healing and regeneration of wounded periodontal tissue. We investigated the expression pattern of DCN during the healing of wounded periodontal tissue in rats by immunohistochemistry and the effects of DCN on the osteoblastic differentiation of human periodontal ligament (PDL) stem cells (HPDLSCs) and preosteoblasts by Alizarin red S staining, quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactions, and western blotting. The expression of DCN was increased around the wounded PDL tissue on day 5 after surgery compared with the nonwounded PDL tissue, whereas its expression was not changed in the osteoblastic layer around the wounded alveolar bone. Furthermore, DCN promoted the osteoblastic differentiation of HPDLSCs, but it did not affect the osteoblastic differentiation of preosteoblasts. ERK1/2 phosphorylation was upregulated during the DCN-induced osteoblastic differentiation of HPDLSCs. DCN did not affect proliferation, migration, or the PDL-related gene expression of HPDLSCs. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that DCN has a role in the healing of wounded periodontal tissue. Furthermore, DCN secreted from PDL cells may contribute to bone healing by upregulating osteoblastic differentiation through ERK1/2 signaling in HPDLSCs, indicating a therapeutic effect of DCN in periodontal tissue regeneration.
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Khan FI, Ahmed Z. Experimental Treatments for Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Cells 2022; 11:3409. [PMID: 36359804 PMCID: PMC9653737 DOI: 10.3390/cells11213409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is characterized by a complex and prolonged injury process that exacerbates the damage induced by the primary injury and inhibits the potential for regeneration. SCI frequently results in the devastating loss of neurological functions and thus has serious consequences on patient quality of life. Current treatments are limited and focus on early interventions for the acute management of complications. Therefore, the development of novel treatments targeting ongoing injury processes is required to improve SCI outcomes. We aimed to systematically review studies published in the last 10 years that examined experimental treatments with neuroregenerative and neuroprotective capabilities for the improvement of SCI. We analyzed treatments from 44 studies that were identified through a systematic literature search using three databases: PubMed, Web of Science and EMBASE (searched through Ovid). We performed a meta-analysis for Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) locomotion test data and collected immunohistochemistry results to demonstrate neuroregenerative and neuroprotective properties of the treatments, respectively. The two treatments that illustrated the most significant improvements in functional recovery using the BBB test were the combined use of tetrahedral framework nucleic acid (tFNA) with neural stem cells (NSCs) and Fortasyn® Connect (FC) supplementation. Both treatments also attenuated secondary injury processes as demonstrated through immunohistochemistry. Combined tFNA with NSCs and FC supplementation are promising treatments for the improvement of SCI as they both demonstrate neuroregenerative and neuroprotective properties. Further pre-clinical testing is required to validate and determine the long-term efficacies of these treatments for the improvement of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farihah Iqbal Khan
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Centre for Trauma Sciences Research, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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Taylor MJ, Thompson AM, Alhajlah S, Tuxworth RI, Ahmed Z. Inhibition of Chk2 promotes neuroprotection, axon regeneration, and functional recovery after CNS injury. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabq2611. [PMID: 36103534 PMCID: PMC9473583 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq2611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
DNA double-strand breaks occur in many acute and long-term neurological conditions, including neurodegeneration, neurotrauma, and stroke. Nonrepaired breaks chronically activate the DNA damage response in neurons, leading to neural dysfunction and apoptosis. Here, we show that targeting of the central ATM-Chk2 pathway regulating the response to double-strand breaks slows neural decline in Drosophila models of chronic neurodegeneration. Inhibitors of ATM-Chk2, but not the parallel ATR-Chk1 pathway, also promote marked, functional recovery after acute central nervous system injury in rats, suggesting that inhibiting nonhomologous end-joining rather than homologous recombination is crucial for neuroprotection. We demonstrate that the Chk2 inhibitor, prexasertib, which has been evaluated in phase 2 clinical trials for cancer, has potent neuroprotective effects and represents a new treatment option to promote functional recovery after spinal cord or optic nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Taylor
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Adam M. Thompson
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Sharif Alhajlah
- Applied Medical Science College, Shaqra University, Addawadmi, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Richard I. Tuxworth
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Centre for Trauma Sciences Research, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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Decorin Protects Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells from Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis via AMPK-mTOR-Regulated Autophagy. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:3955748. [PMID: 35391926 PMCID: PMC8983248 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3955748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of irreversible visual loss among the elderly worldwide with unidentified pathogenesis and limited therapeutic options. Oxidative stress-induced damage to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is central in the development and progression of AMD. Decorin (DCN), a small leucine-rich proteoglycan, possesses powerful antifibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and antiangiogenic properties. DCN has also been reported to serve a cytoprotective role in various cell types, but its protective effects against H2O2-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in ARPE-19 cells remain unclear. In this study, we showed that DCN significantly attenuated the increase in cell viability loss, apoptosis rate, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in ARPE-19 cells induced by H2O2. Furthermore, DCN activated the AMPK/mTOR pathway to promote autophagy while genetic inhibition of autophagy-related gene 5 (ATG5) hindered autophagic process and diminished the protective role of DCN against oxidative stress in ARPE-19 cells. Collectively, these results suggest that DCN could protect RPE cells from H2O2-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis via autophagy promotion, thus providing the therapeutic potential for AMD prevention and treatment.
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Ding Q, Wei Q, Sheng G, Wang S, Jing S, Ma T, Zhang R, Wang T, Li W, Tang X, Wu H, Liu C. The Preventive Effect of Decorin on Epidural Fibrosis and Epidural Adhesions After Laminectomy. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:774316. [PMID: 34975478 PMCID: PMC8716848 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.774316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Laminectomy is commonly performed to treat degenerative spinal diseases by reducing compression on the spinal cord and nerve roots. The postoperative epidural fibrosis and epidural adhesions may result in failed back surgery syndrome, which is characterized by the symptoms of lower back pain or leg pain. There is currently no satisfactory treatment for this complication. The pathological processes of epidural fibrosis and epidural adhesions are relevant to the proliferation of fibroblasts, transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, and the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) protein. According to reports, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) played a vital role in the development of fibrosis by promoting aforementioned processes. Decorin, an endogenous proteoglycan and natural inhibitor of TGF-β1, has exhibited prominent anti-fibrosis activity in various scar formation and fibrosis models of many organs. However, the preventive effect of decorin on epidural fibrosis and epidural adhesions requires further investigation. Here, we investigated the therapeutic effects and potential mechanisms of decorin on epidural fibrosis and epidural adhesions. Our results indicated that decorin could significantly suppress the TGF-β1-induced proliferation, transdifferentiation, and extracellular matrix production in primary fibroblasts. Furthermore, Smad2/3 signaling pathway had been demonstrated to be involved in the preventive effect of decorin. Moreover, administration of decorin in vivo could notably inhibit epidural fibrosis and epidural adhesions after laminectomy. To date, there is no approved therapy to target TGF-β1 for the treatment of epidural fibrosis and epidural adhesions after laminectomy. Our research proved the anti-fibrosis effect of decorin, which may provide an effective and promising treatment for epidural fibrosis and epidural adhesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Ding
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi Wei
- Department of Medical Ultrasound, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Gaohong Sheng
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shanxi Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shaoze Jing
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Taiyuan, China
| | - Tian Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ruizhuo Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Tianqi Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wenkai Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiangyu Tang
- Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hua Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chaoxu Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Matthews J, Surey S, Grover LM, Logan A, Ahmed Z. Thermosensitive collagen/fibrinogen gels loaded with decorin suppress lesion site cavitation and promote functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18124. [PMID: 34518601 PMCID: PMC8438067 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97604-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI) is a complex challenge in regenerative medicine, complicated by the low intrinsic capacity of CNS neurons to regenerate their axons and the heterogeneity in size, shape and extent of human injuries. For example, some contusion injuries do not compromise the dura mater and in such cases implantation of preformed scaffolds or drug delivery systems may cause further damage. Injectable in situ thermosensitive scaffolds are therefore a less invasive alternative. In this study, we report the development of a novel, flowable, thermosensitive, injectable drug delivery system comprising bovine collagen (BC) and fibrinogen (FB) that forms a solid BC/FB gel (Gel) immediately upon exposure to physiological conditions and can be used to deliver reparative drugs, such as the naturally occurring anti-inflammatory, anti-scarring agent Decorin, into adult rat spinal cord lesion sites. In dorsal column lesions of adult rats treated with the Gel + Decorin, cavitation was completely suppressed and instead lesion sites became filled with injury-responsive cells and extracellular matrix materials, including collagen and laminin. Decorin increased the intrinsic potential of dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGN) by increasing their expression of regeneration associated genes (RAGs), enhanced local axon regeneration/sprouting, as evidenced both histologically and by improved electrophysiological, locomotor and sensory function recovery. These results suggest that this drug formulated, injectable hydrogel has the potential to be further studied and translated into the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Matthews
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Sarina Surey
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Liam M Grover
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ann Logan
- Warwick Medical School, Biomedical Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK. .,Centre for Trauma Sciences Research, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
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13
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Alhajlah S, Thompson AM, Ahmed Z. Overexpression of Reticulon 3 Enhances CNS Axon Regeneration and Functional Recovery after Traumatic Injury. Cells 2021; 10:2015. [PMID: 34440784 PMCID: PMC8395006 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
CNS neurons are generally incapable of regenerating their axons after injury due to several intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including the presence of axon growth inhibitory molecules. One such potent inhibitor of CNS axon regeneration is Reticulon (RTN) 4 or Nogo-A. Here, we focused on RTN3 as its contribution to CNS axon regeneration is currently unknown. We found that RTN3 expression correlated with an axon regenerative phenotype in dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGN) after injury to the dorsal columns, a well-characterised model of spinal cord injury. Overexpression of RTN3 promoted disinhibited DRGN neurite outgrowth in vitro and dorsal column axon regeneration/sprouting and electrophysiological, sensory and locomotor functional recovery after injury in vivo. Knockdown of protrudin, however, ablated RTN3-enhanced neurite outgrowth/axon regeneration in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, overexpression of RTN3 in a second model of CNS injury, the optic nerve crush injury model, enhanced retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival, disinhibited neurite outgrowth in vitro and survival and axon regeneration in vivo, an effect that was also dependent on protrudin. These results demonstrate that RTN3 enhances neurite outgrowth/axon regeneration in a protrudin-dependent manner after both spinal cord and optic nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharif Alhajlah
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (S.A.); (A.M.T.)
- Applied Medical Science College, Shaqra University, P.O. Box 1678, Ad-Dawadmi 11911, Saudi Arabia
| | - Adam M Thompson
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (S.A.); (A.M.T.)
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (S.A.); (A.M.T.)
- Centre for Trauma Sciences Research, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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14
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Jhanji V, Billig I, Yam GHF. Cell-Free Biological Approach for Corneal Stromal Wound Healing. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:671405. [PMID: 34122095 PMCID: PMC8193853 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.671405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Corneal opacification is the fourth most common cause of blindness globally behind cataracts, glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration. The standard treatment of serious corneal scarring is corneal transplantation. Though it is effective for restoring vision, the treatment outcome is not optimal, due to limitations such as long-term graft survival, lifelong use of immunosuppressants, and a loss of corneal strength. Regulation of corneal stromal wound healing, along with inhibition or downregulation of corneal scarring is a promising approach to prevent corneal opacification. Pharmacological approaches have been suggested, however these are fraught with side effects. Tissue healing is an intricate process that involves cell death, proliferation, differentiation, and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Current research on stromal wound healing is focused on corneal characteristics such as the immune response, angiogenesis, and cell signaling. Indeed, promising new technologies with the potential to modulate wound healing are under development. In this review, we provide an overview of cell-free strategies and some approaches under development that have the potential to control stromal fibrosis and scarring, especially in the context of early intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal Jhanji
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Isabelle Billig
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Gary Hin-Fai Yam
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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15
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Çınar Z, Emre U, Gül M, Yiğit Ö, Mammadov E, Yiğit E, Gül S, Cırık HR. Is Decorin a Promising New Agent for Facial Nerve Regeneration? An Experimental Study. Audiol Neurootol 2021; 26:195-205. [PMID: 33677432 DOI: 10.1159/000512003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of systemic administration of decorin (DC) on facial nerve (FN) regeneration. METHODS A total of 32 female albino Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups: control (C) group: no bilateral FN neurorrhaphy (B-FNN), no DC application, sham-operated group: B-FNN without DC application, DC group: DC application without B-FNN, and B-FNN + DC group: B-FNN and DC application. Nerve conduction studies were performed before and after skin incisions at 1st, 3rd, 5th, and 7th weeks in all groups. The amplitude and latency of compound muscle action potentials were recorded. FN samples were obtained and were investigated under light microscopy and immunohistochemical staining. The nerve and axon diameter, number of axons, H score, Schwann cell proliferation, and myelin and axonal degeneration were recorded quantitatively. RESULTS In the sham group, the 3rd and 5th postoperative week, amplitude values were significantly lower than those of the B-FNN + DC group (p < 0.05). Nerve diameters were found to be significantly larger in the sham, DC, and B-FNN + DC groups than in the C group (p < 0.05). The number of axons, the axon diameter, and the H scores were found to be significantly higher in the B-FNN + DC group than in the sham group (p < 0.05). The Schwann cell proliferation, myelin degeneration, and axonal degeneration scores were significantly lower in the B-FNN + DC group than in the sham group (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION Electrophysiological and histopathological evaluation revealed the potential benefits provided by DC. This agent may increase FN regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zehra Çınar
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery, İstanbul Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey,
| | - Ufuk Emre
- Department of Neurology, Istanbul Training and Research Hospital, I, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Gül
- Department of Histology and Embryology, İnönü University Faculty of Medicine, Malatya, Turkey
| | - Özgür Yiğit
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery, İstanbul Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Elshan Mammadov
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery, İstanbul Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Enes Yiğit
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery, Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health Luleburgaz State Hospital, Kırklareli, Turkey
| | - Semir Gül
- Department of Histology and Embryology, İnönü University Faculty of Medicine, Malatya, Turkey
| | - Hilal Rumeyza Cırık
- Department of Histology and Embryology, İnönü University Faculty of Medicine, Malatya, Turkey
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16
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Chameettachal S, Prasad D, Parekh Y, Basu S, Singh V, Bokara KK, Pati F. Prevention of Corneal Myofibroblastic Differentiation In Vitro Using a Biomimetic ECM Hydrogel for Corneal Tissue Regeneration. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2021; 4:533-544. [PMID: 35014304 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Corneal scarring is one of the major causes of blindness, affecting millions worldwide. Despite recent advancements in surgical strategies, there is an unmet need for a clinically feasible material and methods to prevent scarring following corneal injury. In this study, we report the potential utility of a hydrogel derived from cadaveric animal corneas, using a decellularized corneal matrix hydrogel (abbreviated as dCMH), which is prepared by a simple method. This hydrogel is easily injectable, biocompatible, and has the ability to maintain good shape-retention properties at 37 °C, which make it suitable for in vivo applications. Furthermore, our gene expression studies and immunofluorescence studies indicate that dCMH maintains the morphology and function of keratocytes in vitro and prevents their transdifferentiation to myofibroblasts. From the above results, it is evident that dCMH maintains the keratocytes with the ability to regenerate the corneal defect without scar. We thus suggest a simple yet effective approach for corneal tissue decellularization and that dCMH can be a promising material for prophylaxis against blinding scar formation in an injured cornea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shibu Chameettachal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, Sangareddy 502285, Telangana, India
| | - Deeksha Prasad
- SSR-Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Center for Regenerative Ophthalmology, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad 500034, Telangana, India
| | - Yash Parekh
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, ANNEXE II, Medical Biotechnology Complex, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana, India
| | - Sayan Basu
- SSR-Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Center for Regenerative Ophthalmology, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad 500034, Telangana, India.,Centre for Ocular Regeneration (CORE), L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad 500034, Telangana, India
| | - Vivek Singh
- SSR-Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Center for Regenerative Ophthalmology, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad 500034, Telangana, India.,Centre for Ocular Regeneration (CORE), L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad 500034, Telangana, India
| | - Kiran Kumar Bokara
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, ANNEXE II, Medical Biotechnology Complex, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana, India
| | - Falguni Pati
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, Sangareddy 502285, Telangana, India
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17
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Hill LJ, Botfield HF, Begum G, Qureshi O, Vigneswara V, Masood I, Barnes NM, Bruce L, Logan A. ILB ® resolves inflammatory scarring and promotes functional tissue repair. NPJ Regen Med 2021; 6:3. [PMID: 33414477 PMCID: PMC7791102 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-020-00110-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibrotic disease is a major cause of mortality worldwide, with fibrosis arising from prolonged inflammation and aberrant extracellular matrix dynamics. Compromised cellular and tissue repair processes following injury, infection, metabolic dysfunction, autoimmune conditions and vascular diseases leave tissues susceptible to unresolved inflammation, fibrogenesis, loss of function and scarring. There has been limited clinical success with therapies for inflammatory and fibrotic diseases such that there remains a large unmet therapeutic need to restore normal tissue homoeostasis without detrimental side effects. We investigated the effects of a newly formulated low molecular weight dextran sulfate (LMW-DS), termed ILB®, to resolve inflammation and activate matrix remodelling in rodent and human disease models. We demonstrated modulation of the expression of multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in vitro together with scar resolution and improved matrix remodelling in vivo. Of particular relevance, we demonstrated that ILB® acts, in part, by downregulating transforming growth factor (TGF)β signalling genes and by altering gene expression relating to extracellular matrix dynamics, leading to tissue remodelling, reduced fibrosis and functional tissue regeneration. These observations indicate the potential of ILB® to alleviate fibrotic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa J Hill
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Hannah F Botfield
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ghazala Begum
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Omar Qureshi
- School of Pharmacy, Institute of Clinical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Vasanthy Vigneswara
- School of Pharmacy, Institute of Clinical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Imran Masood
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Nicholas M Barnes
- School of Pharmacy, Institute of Clinical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Lars Bruce
- TikoMed AB, P.O. Box 81, 263 03, Viken, Sweden
| | - Ann Logan
- Axolotl Consulting Ltd., Droitwich, Worcestershire, WR9 0JS, UK. .,Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
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18
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Teicher BA. TGFβ-Directed Therapeutics: 2020. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 217:107666. [PMID: 32835827 PMCID: PMC7770020 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) pathway is essential during embryo development and in maintaining normal homeostasis. During malignancy, the TGFβ pathway is co-opted by the tumor to increase fibrotic stroma, to promote epithelial to mesenchymal transition increasing metastasis and producing an immune-suppressed microenvironment which protects the tumor from recognition by the immune system. Compelling preclinical data demonstrate the therapeutic potential of blocking TGFβ function in cancer. However, the TGFβ pathway cannot be described as a driver of malignant disease. Two small molecule kinase inhibitors which block the serine-threonine kinase activity of TGFβRI on TGFβRII, a pan-TGFβ neutralizing antibody, a TGFβ trap, a TGFβ antisense agent, an antibody which stabilizes the latent complex of TGFβ and a fusion protein which neutralizes TGFβ and binds PD-L1 are in clinical development. The challenge is how to most effectively incorporate blocking TGFβ activity alone and in combination with other therapeutics to improve treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beverly A Teicher
- Developmental Therapeutics Program, DCTD, National Cancer Institute, RM 4-W602, MSC 9735, 9609 Medical Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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19
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Decorin expression is associated with predictive diffusion MR phenotypes of anti-VEGF efficacy in glioblastoma. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14819. [PMID: 32908231 PMCID: PMC7481206 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71799-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous data suggest that apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) imaging phenotypes predict survival response to anti-VEGF monotherapy in glioblastoma. However, the mechanism by which imaging may predict clinical response is unknown. We hypothesize that decorin (DCN), a proteoglycan implicated in the modulation of the extracellular microenvironment and sequestration of pro-angiogenic signaling, may connect ADC phenotypes to survival benefit to anti-VEGF therapy. Patients undergoing resection for glioblastoma as well as patients included in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and IVY Glioblastoma Atlas Project (IVY GAP) databases had pre-operative imaging analyzed to calculate pre-operative ADCL values, the average ADC in the lower distribution using a double Gaussian mixed model. ADCL values were correlated to available RNA expression from these databases as well as from RNA sequencing from patient derived mouse orthotopic xenograft samples. Targeted biopsies were selected based on ADC values and prospectively collected during resection. Surgical specimens were used to evaluate for DCN RNA and protein expression by ADC value. The IVY Glioblastoma Atlas Project Database was used to evaluate DCN localization and relationship with VEGF pathway via in situ hybridization maps and RNA sequencing data. In a cohort of 35 patients with pre-operative ADC imaging and surgical specimens, DCN RNA expression levels were significantly larger in high ADCL tumors (41.6 vs. 1.5; P = 0.0081). In a cohort of 17 patients with prospectively targeted biopsies there was a positive linear correlation between ADCL levels and DCN protein expression between tumors (Pearson R2 = 0.3977; P = 0.0066) and when evaluating different targets within the same tumor (Pearson R2 = 0.3068; P = 0.0139). In situ hybridization data localized DCN expression to areas of microvascular proliferation and immunohistochemical studies localized DCN protein expression to the tunica adventitia of blood vessels within the tumor. DCN expression positively correlated with VEGFR1 & 2 expression and localized to similar areas of tumor. Increased ADCL on diffusion MR imaging is associated with high DCN expression as well as increased survival with anti-VEGF therapy in glioblastoma. DCN may play an important role linking the imaging features on diffusion MR and anti-VEGF treatment efficacy. DCN may serve as a target for further investigation and modulation of anti-angiogenic therapy in GBM.
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20
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Wu M, Downie LE, Grover LM, Moakes RJA, Rauz S, Logan A, Jiao H, Hill LJ, Chinnery HR. The neuroregenerative effects of topical decorin on the injured mouse cornea. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:142. [PMID: 32366307 PMCID: PMC7199348 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01812-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The cornea is innervated with a rich supply of sensory nerves that play important roles in ocular surface health. Any injury or pathology of the corneal nerves increases the risk of dry eye disease and infection. This study aims to evaluate the therapeutic potential of topical decorin to improve corneal nerve regeneration in a mouse model of sterile epithelial abrasion injury. Methods Bilateral central corneal epithelial abrasions (2-mm, Alger Brush) were performed on young C57BL/6 J mice to remove the corneal sensory nerves. Decorin, or vehicle, was applied topically, three times per day for 1 week or every 2 h for 6 h. Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography was performed to measure the abrasion area and corneal thickness. Wholemount immunofluorescence staining was used to assess sensory nerve regeneration (β-tubulin III) and immune cell density (CD45, Iba1, CD11c). To investigate the specific role of dendritic cells (DCs), Cx3cr1gfp/gfp mice, which spontaneously lack resident corneal epithelial DCs, were also investigated. The effect of prophylactic topical administration of recombinant human decorin (applied prior to the abrasion) was also investigated. Nerve tracing (NeuronJ software) was performed to compare recovery of basal nerve axons and superficial nerve terminals in the central and peripheral cornea. Results At 6 h after injury, topical decorin application was associated with greater intraepithelial DC recruitment but no change in re-epithelialisation or corneal thickness, compared to the vehicle control. One week after injury, sub-basal nerve plexus and superficial nerve terminal density were significantly higher in the central cornea in the decorin-treated eyes. The density of corneal stromal macrophages in the decorin-treated eyes and their contralateral eyes was significantly lower compared to saline-treated corneas. No significant improvement in corneal nerve regeneration was observed in Cx3cr1gfp/gfp mice treated with decorin. Conclusions Decorin promotes corneal epithelial nerve regeneration after injury. The neuroregenerative effect of topical decorin was associated with a higher corneal DC density during the acute phase, and fewer macrophages at the study endpoint. The corneal neuroregenerative effects of decorin were absent in mice lacking intraepithelial DCs. Together, these findings support a role for decorin in DC-mediated neuroregeneration following corneal abrasion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengliang Wu
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia
| | - Laura E Downie
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia
| | - Liam M Grover
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Richard J A Moakes
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Saaeha Rauz
- Academic Unit of Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, Birmingham and Midland Eye Centre, Birmingham, UK.,Neuroscience and Ophthalmology Research Group, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ann Logan
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology Research Group, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Haihan Jiao
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia
| | - Lisa J Hill
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Clinical Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Holly R Chinnery
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3053, Australia.
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21
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Walimbe T, Panitch A. Proteoglycans in Biomedicine: Resurgence of an Underexploited Class of ECM Molecules. Front Pharmacol 2020; 10:1661. [PMID: 32082161 PMCID: PMC7000921 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteoglycans have emerged as biomacromolecules with important roles in matrix remodeling, homeostasis, and signaling in the past two decades. Due to their negatively charged glycosaminoglycan chains as well as distinct core protein structures, they interact with a variety of molecules, including matrix proteins, growth factors, cytokines and chemokines, pathogens, and enzymes. This led to the dawn of glycan therapies in the 20th century, but this research was quickly overshadowed by readily available DNA and protein-based therapies. The recent development of recombinant technology and advances in our understanding of proteoglycan function have led to a resurgence of these molecules as potential therapeutics. This review focuses on the recent preclinical efforts that are bringing proteoglycan research and therapies back to the forefront. Examples of studies using proteoglycan cores and mimetics have also been included to give the readers a perspective on the wide-ranging and extensive applications of these versatile molecules. Collectively, these advances are opening new avenues for targeting diseases at a molecular level, and providing avenues for the development of new and exciting treatments in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanaya Walimbe
- Laboratory of Engineered Therapeutics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Alyssa Panitch
- Laboratory of Engineered Therapeutics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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22
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Stevens AR, Ahmed U, Vigneswara V, Ahmed Z. Pigment Epithelium-Derived Factor Promotes Axon Regeneration and Functional Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:7490-7507. [PMID: 31049830 PMCID: PMC6815285 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-1614-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although neurons in the adult mammalian CNS are inherently incapable of regeneration after injury, we previously showed that exogenous delivery of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), a 50-kDa neurotrophic factor (NTF), promoted adult retinal ganglion cell neuroprotection and axon regeneration. Here, we show that PEDF and other elements of the PEDF pathway are highly upregulated in dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGN) from regenerating dorsal column (DC) injury paradigms when compared with non-regenerating DC injury models. Exogenous PEDF was neuroprotective to adult DRGN and disinhibited neurite outgrowth, whilst overexpression of PEDF after DC injury in vivo promoted significant DC axon regeneration with enhanced electrophysiological, sensory, and locomotor function. Our findings reveal that PEDF is a novel NTF for adult DRGN and may represent a therapeutically useful factor to promote functional recovery after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Stevens
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Robert Aitken Institute of Clinical Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Umar Ahmed
- King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Boys, Vicarage Road, Kings Heath, Birmingham, B14 7QJ, UK
| | - Vasanthy Vigneswara
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Robert Aitken Institute of Clinical Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Robert Aitken Institute of Clinical Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
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23
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Tuxworth RI, Taylor MJ, Martin Anduaga A, Hussien-Ali A, Chatzimatthaiou S, Longland J, Thompson AM, Almutiri S, Alifragis P, Kyriacou CP, Kysela B, Ahmed Z. Attenuating the DNA damage response to double-strand breaks restores function in models of CNS neurodegeneration. Brain Commun 2019; 1:fcz005. [PMID: 32954257 PMCID: PMC7425387 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcz005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA double-strand breaks are a feature of many acute and long-term neurological disorders, including neurodegeneration, following neurotrauma and after stroke. Persistent activation of the DNA damage response in response to double-strand breaks contributes to neural dysfunction and pathology as it can force post-mitotic neurons to re-enter the cell cycle leading to senescence or apoptosis. Mature, non-dividing neurons may tolerate low levels of DNA damage, in which case muting the DNA damage response might be neuroprotective. Here, we show that attenuating the DNA damage response by targeting the meiotic recombination 11, Rad50, Nijmegen breakage syndrome 1 complex, which is involved in double-strand break recognition, is neuroprotective in three neurodegeneration models in Drosophila and prevents Aβ1-42-induced loss of synapses in embryonic hippocampal neurons. Attenuating the DNA damage response after optic nerve injury is also neuroprotective to retinal ganglion cells and promotes dramatic regeneration of their neurites both in vitro and in vivo. Dorsal root ganglion neurons similarly regenerate when the DNA damage response is targeted in vitro and in vivo and this strategy also induces significant restoration of lost function after spinal cord injury. We conclude that muting the DNA damage response in the nervous system is neuroprotective in multiple neurological disorders. Our results point to new therapies to maintain or repair the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard I Tuxworth
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Matthew J Taylor
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ane Martin Anduaga
- Department of Genetics & Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Alaa Hussien-Ali
- Centre for Biomedical Science, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
| | | | - Joanne Longland
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Adam M Thompson
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Sharif Almutiri
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.,Applied Medical Science College, Shaqra University, Addawadmi, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Pavlos Alifragis
- Centre for Biomedical Science, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
| | | | - Boris Kysela
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.,Aston Medical School, Aston Medical Research Institute, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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Berry M, Ahmed Z, Logan A. Return of function after CNS axon regeneration: Lessons from injury-responsive intrinsically photosensitive and alpha retinal ganglion cells. Prog Retin Eye Res 2019; 71:57-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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A self-healing hydrogel eye drop for the sustained delivery of decorin to prevent corneal scarring. Biomaterials 2019; 210:41-50. [PMID: 31055049 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2019.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Scarring/Opacity on the surface of the eye and vascularisation following infectious diseases, inflammation and corneal trauma are often a leading cause of blindness. The 'gold standard' treatment to prevent corneal scarring is the application of amniotic membrane (AM) to the ocular surface in the acute stage of injury. Although clinically effective, the use of the AM is associated with biological variability and unpredictable responses. Potential health risks including disease transmission, significant ethical issues surrounding the tissue donation process and stringent regulations/storage conditions, preclude widespread use. Consequently, there is a demand for the development of a new, synthetic alternative, that is stable at room temperature, capable of protecting the wound and has the capacity to deliver anti-scarring and anti-inflammatory mediators. Here we have developed a micro-structured fluid gel eye drop, to deliver a potent anti-scarring molecule, decorin. We have compared the release of decorin from the formulated dressing to a typical gel film, demonstrating enhanced release for the fluid gel eye-drops. Therefore, we have investigated the effect of the fluid gel system in 2D human corneal fibroblast culture models, as well as shown the retention of the gellan fluid gel in an in vivo rat model. At the same time the efficacy of the fluid gel eye drop was studied in an organ culture model, whereby the fluid gel containing decorin, significantly (P < 0.05) increased re-epithelialisation within 4 days of treatment.
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Farrukh F, Davies E, Berry M, Logan A, Ahmed Z. BMP4/Smad1 Signalling Promotes Spinal Dorsal Column Axon Regeneration and Functional Recovery After Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:6807-6819. [PMID: 30924076 PMCID: PMC6728286 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-1555-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Signalling through the BMP4/Smad1 pathway promotes corticospinal tract axon regeneration and functional recovery in mice. However, unlike humans and rats, mice do not cavitate. Here, we investigated if activation of the BMP4/Smad1 pathway promotes axon regeneration and functional recovery in a rat model that cavitates. We show that dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGN) in injury models, including the non-regenerating dorsal column (DC) and the regenerating sciatic nerve (SN) crush and preconditioning (p) SN + DC (pSN + DC) paradigms, regulate the BMP4/Smad1 signalling pathway. For example, mRNA expression of positive regulators of the BMP4/Smad1 pathway was highly up-regulated whilst negative regulators were significantly down-regulated in DRGN in the regenerating SN and pSN + DC models compared to non-regenerating DC models, matched by concomitant changes in protein expression detected in DRGN by immunohistochemistry. BMP4 peptide promoted significant DRGN survival and disinhibited neurite outgrowth in vitro, whilst AAV-BMP4 delivery in vivo stimulated DC axon regeneration and functional recovery in a model that cavitates. Our results show that activation of the BMP4/Smad1 pathway is a potential therapeutic target in the search for axon regenerative signalling pathways in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Farrukh
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Elise Davies
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Martin Berry
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ann Logan
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
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Sustained release of decorin to the surface of the eye enables scarless corneal regeneration. NPJ Regen Med 2018; 3:23. [PMID: 30588331 PMCID: PMC6303295 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-018-0061-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Disorganization of the transparent collagenous matrix in the cornea, as a consequence of a variety of infections and inflammatory conditions, leads to corneal opacity and sight-loss. Such corneal opacities are a leading cause of blindness, according to the WHO. Public health programs target prevention of corneal scarring, but the only curative treatment of established scarring is through transplantation. Although attempts to minimize corneal scarring through aggressive control of infection and inflammation are made, there has been little progress in the development of anti-scarring therapies. This is owing to eye drop formulations using low viscosity or weak gelling materials having short retention times on the ocular surface. In this study, we report an innovative eye drop formulation that has the ability to provide sustained delivery of decorin, an anti-scarring agent. The novelty of this eye drop lies in the method of structuring during manufacture, which creates a material that can transition between solid and liquid states, allowing retention in a dynamic environment being slowly removed through blinking. In a murine model of Pseudomonaskeratitis, applying the eye drop resulted in reductions of corneal opacity within 16 days. More remarkably, the addition of hrDecorin resulted in restoration of corneal epithelial integrity with minimal stromal opacity endorsed by reduced α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), fibronectin, and laminin levels. We believe that this drug delivery system is an ideal non-invasive anti-fibrotic treatment for patients with microbial keratitis, potentially without recourse to surgery, saving the sight of many in the developing world, where corneal transplantation may not be available. An eye drop formulation that applies anti-scarring drugs to the surface of the eye helps reverse infection-induced corneal damage in mice. Hill et al. from the University of Birmingham, UK, formulated a fluid gel loaded with a wound-healing protein called decorin that conforms to the ocular surface and is cleared gradually through blinking. With colleagues in California, they applied the therapeutic eye drop to mice with bacterial eye infections that trigger sight-threatening corneal scarring. Within a matter of days, the team saw improvements in corneal transparency, with reductions in scar tissue and reconstitution of healthy cells. Such a drug delivery system, if successful in humans, could help save many people’s sight and reduce the need for corneal transplantation.
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Non-functionalized soft alginate hydrogel promotes locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury in a rat hemimyelonectomy model. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2018; 160:449-457. [PMID: 29230560 DOI: 10.1007/s00701-017-3389-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal cord injury (SCI) and the consecutive devastating neurological sequelae have an enormous individual and economic impact. Implantation of functionalized hydrogels is a promising approach, because they can serve as a matrix for the regenerating tissue, carry and release bioactive molecules and various cell types. We already demonstrated that non-functionalized soft alginate hydrogel supported axonal outgrowth and protected neurons against oxidative stress in vitro. Here, we investigated the effects of such soft alginate hydrogels on locomotor recovery in small and large spinal cord lesions. METHOD Hemimyelonectomy of 2 mm or 4 mm length was performed in rats and soft alginate hydrogel was implanted. Functional recovery of the hindlimbs was assessed in the open field [Batto Beattie Bresnahan (BBB) score] and using swimming test [Louisville Swim score (LSS)] for 140 days post injury (DPI). Reference histology was performed. RESULTS Rats that received an alginate implant into 2 mm spinal cord lesions demonstrated significantly improved locomotor recovery compared to controls detectable already at 10 DPI. At 140 DPI, they reached higher LSS and BBB scores in swimming and open field tests, respectively. However, this beneficial effect of alginate was lacking in animals with larger (4 mm) lesions. Histological examination suggested that fibrous scarring in the spinal cord was reduced after alginate implantation in comparison to controls. CONCLUSIONS Implantation of soft alginate hydrogel in small spinal cord lesions improved functional recovery. Possible underlying mechanisms include the mechanical stabilization of the wound, reduction of secondary damage and inhibition of fibrous scarring.
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Orlandin JR, Ambrósio CE, Lara VM. Glial scar-modulation as therapeutic tool in spinal cord injury in animal models. Acta Cir Bras 2017; 32:168-174. [PMID: 28300871 DOI: 10.1590/s0102-865020170209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Spinal Cord injury represents, in veterinary medicine, most of the neurological attendances and may result in permanent disability, death or euthanasia. Due to inflammation resulting from trauma, it originates the glial scar, which is a cell interaction complex system. Its function is to preserve the healthy circuits, however, it creates a physical and molecular barrier that prevents cell migration and restricts the neuroregeneration ability. METHODS This review aims to present innovations in the scene of treatment of spinal cord injury, approaching cell therapy, administration of enzyme, anti-inflammatory, and other active principles capable of modulating the inflammatory response, resulting in glial scar reduction and subsequent functional improvement of animals. RESULTS Some innovative therapies as cell therapy, administration of enzymes, immunosuppressant or other drugs cause the modulation of inflammatory response proved to be a promising tool for the reduction of gliosis. CONCLUSION Those tools promise to reduce gliosis and promote locomotor recovery in animals with spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Rodrigues Orlandin
- Veterinary Medicine Department, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, Universidade de São Paulo, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
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Caveat emptor: for researchers, a rose will not smell sweet unless we know its composition. Biosci Rep 2017; 37:BSR20170078. [PMID: 28356486 PMCID: PMC5426283 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20170078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In a recent publication in Bioscience Reports "Contaminants in commercial preparations of 'purified' small leucine-rich proteoglycans may distort mechanistic studies", Brown et al. identified by mass spectrometry and immunoblotting that certain commercial preparations of the small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) decorin and biglycan, in fact, contained a mix of several proteoglycans that also included fibromodulin and aggrecan. The preparations were thus not suitable to study specific activities of decorin or biglycan. Decorin and biglycan are widely studied SLRPs that are considered to have highly multi-functional effects on cells. Decorin is of interest as a transforming growth factor-β antagonist and is also finding use in tissue engineering materials. This Commentary discusses Brown et al.'s findings and general issues raised for researchers who work with commercially sourced purified proteoglycans.
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Song L, Tian L, Ma Y, Xie Y, Feng H, Qin F, Mo L, Lin S, Hou L, Wang C. Protection of flavonoids from Smilax china L. rhizome on phenol mucilage-induced pelvic inflammation in rats by attenuating inflammation and fibrosis. J Funct Foods 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
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Wang P, Liu X, Xu P, Lu J, Wang R, Mu W. Decorin reduces hypertrophic scarring through inhibition of the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway in a rat osteomyelitis model. Exp Ther Med 2016; 12:2102-2108. [PMID: 27698699 PMCID: PMC5038452 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2016.3591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic osteomyelitis is a bone infection that results in hypertrophic scarring of the soft tissue surrounding the infected bone. This scarring can create functional problems and its treatment is challenging. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of decorin in treating scar formation in osteomyelitis and the underlying mechanism of its action. A rat osteomyelitis model was used, and animals were divided into three groups, as follows: Group A (control), group B (osteomyelitis model) and group C (decorin-treated). X-ray scans, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and Masson's trichrome staining were performed to observe changes in femur and muscle tissue. In order to assess the role of the transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1)/Smad signaling pathway in scar formation in osteomyelitis, alterations in muscle tissue morphology and in the activation of key members of the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway were investigated in groups A and B. According to the results of H&E staining, evident fibrosis in muscle tissue were observed at days 14 and 28 in group B. Simultaneously, the expression levels of key members of the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway were increased. Subsequent to treatment with decorin in group C, scarring was reduced, and significant downregulation of collagen I, TGF-β1, phosphorylated (p)Smad2 and pSmad3 protein expression levels was observed at days 14 and 28 compared with the osteomyelitis group. In conclusion, these results suggest that activation of TGF-β1 may serve an important role in the formation of scars in osteomyelitis and that decorin can reduce scar formation in an osteomyelitis rat model through inhibition of the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wang
- Department of Traumatic Orthopaedics, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P.R. China; Department of Orthopaedics, Weihai Municipal Hospital, Weihai, Shandong 264200, P.R. China
| | - Xiangyan Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P.R. China
| | - Peng Xu
- Department of Traumatic Orthopaedics, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P.R. China
| | - Jialiang Lu
- Department of Traumatic Orthopaedics, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P.R. China
| | - Runze Wang
- Department of Traumatic Orthopaedics, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P.R. China
| | - Weidong Mu
- Department of Traumatic Orthopaedics, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, P.R. China
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Hill LJ, Ahmed Z, Logan A. Decorin treatment for reversing trabecular meshwork fibrosis in open-angle glaucoma. Neural Regen Res 2016; 11:922-3. [PMID: 27482219 PMCID: PMC4962588 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.184489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa J Hill
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Ann Logan
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Matrix Metalloproteinases During Axonal Regeneration, a Multifactorial Role from Start to Finish. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:2114-2125. [PMID: 26924318 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9801-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
By proteolytic cleavage, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) not only remodel the extracellular matrix (ECM) but they also modify the structure and activity of other proteinases, growth factors, signaling molecules, cell surface receptors, etc. Their vast substrate repertoire adds a complex extra dimension of biological control and turns MMPs into important regulatory nodes in the protease web. In the central nervous system (CNS), the detrimental impact of elevated MMP activities has been well-described for traumatic injuries and many neurodegenerative diseases. Nonetheless, there is ample proof corroborating MMPs as fine regulators of CNS physiology, and well-balanced MMP activity is instrumental to development, plasticity, and repair. In this manuscript, we review the emerging evidence for MMPs as beneficial modulators of axonal regeneration in the mammalian CNS. By exploring the multifactorial causes underlying the inability of mature axons to regenerate, and describing how MMPs can help to overcome these hurdles, we emphasize the benign actions of these Janus-faced proteases.
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Yan H, Chen Y, Li L, Jiang J, Wu G, Zuo Y, Zhang JH, Feng H, Yan X, Liu F. Decorin alleviated chronic hydrocephalus via inhibiting TGF-β1/Smad/CTGF pathway after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. Brain Res 2015; 1630:241-53. [PMID: 26556770 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Chronic hydrocephalus is one of the severe complications after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). However, there is no efficient treatment for the prevention of chronic hydrocephalus, partially due to poor understanding of underlying pathogenesis, subarachnoid fibrosis. Transforming growth factor-β1(TGF-β1) is a potent fibrogenic factor implicated in wide range of fibrotic diseases. To investigate whether decorin, a natural antagonist for TGF-β1, protects against subarachnoid fibrosis and chronic hydrocephalus after SAH, two-hemorrhage-injection SAH model was conducted in 6-week-old rats. Recombinant human decorin(rhDecorin) (30ug/2ul) was administered before blood injection and on the 10th day after SAH. TGF-β1, p-Smad2/3, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), collagen I and pro-collagen I c-terminal propeptide were assessed via western blotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, radioimmunoassay and immunofluorescence. And neurobehavioral tests and Morris water maze were employed to evaluate long-term neurological functions after SAH. We found that SAH induced heightened activation of TGF-β1/Smad/CTGF axis, presenting as a two peak response of TGF-β1 in cerebrospinal fluid, elevation of TGF-β1, p-Smad2/3, CTGF, collagen I in brain parenchyma and pro-collagen I c-terminal propeptide in cerebrospinal fluid, and increased lateral ventricle index. rhDecorin treatment effectively inhibited up-regulation of TGF-β1, p-Smad2/3, CTGF, collagen I and pro-collagen I c-terminal propeptide after SAH. Moreover, rhDecorin treatment significantly reduced lateral ventricular index and incidence of chronic hydrocephalus after SAH. Importantly, rhDecorin improved neurocognitive deficits after SAH. In conclusion, rhDecorin suppresses extracellular matrix accumulation and following subarachnoid fibrosis via inhibiting TGF-β1/Smad/CTGF pathway, preventing development of hydrocephalus and attenuating long-term neurocognitive defects after SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Yan
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yujie Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lingyong Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jiaode Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Guangyong Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yuchun Zuo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Hua Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiaoxin Yan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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Abbasi N, Hashemi SM, Salehi M, Jahani H, Mowla SJ, Soleimani M, Hosseinkhani H. Influence of oriented nanofibrous PCL scaffolds on quantitative gene expression during neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells. J Biomed Mater Res A 2015; 104:155-64. [PMID: 26255987 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells in combination with three-dimensional electrospun nanofibers as an artificial extracellular matrix can be utilized to reconstruct a spinal cord defect. In this study, random and parallel-aligned nanofibrous poly ɛ-caprolactone was fabricated using electrospinning. Its hydrophobicity was modified by O2 plasma treatment to facilitate enhanced cell attachment. Embryoid bodies (EBs), which contain all three embryonic germ layers, were cultured on poly ɛ-caprolactone scaffolds to study the effect of fiber orientation on cell morphology and differentiation. Cell morphology and neuron-specific gene and protein expressions were, respectively, evaluated by scanning electron microscopy, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunocytochemistry. Although two types of nanofibrous scaffolds showed neural marker expression at the protein level, cells on randomly oriented scaffolds showed short-range topographical guidance and stretched across multiple directions, whereas cells on the parallel scaffolds exhibited long extension with enhanced neuron outgrowth along the fiber, producing oriented extracellular matrix, leading to direct cell migration and nerve regeneration. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction showed that both aligned and random electrospun nanofibers downregulated the precursor neural marker Nestin compared with that in the control group, a gelatin-coated tissue culture plate (T). Analysis also showed higher expression of dorso-ventral neural markers (Isl1/2 and Lim1/2) than motor neuron progenitor markers (Pax6, Nkx6.1, and olig2) in aligned nanofibers than in the T group. Moreover, aligned nanofibers showed higher expression of mature neural specific markers such as β-tub and Map2 than those in the randomly oriented scaffolds. Therefore, we conclude that nanofibers with different orientations can support the neural lineage, but aligned nanofibrous scaffolds are superior candidates to promote the advancement of neural precursors to achieve maturity during the differentiation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naghmeh Abbasi
- Department of Biology, School of Basic Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Stem Cell Biology, Stem Cell Technology Research Center, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Mahmoud Hashemi
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Salehi
- Department of Biotechnology, School of advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hoda Jahani
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Stem Cell Technology Research Center, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Javad Mowla
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Biological Science, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoud Soleimani
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Stem Cell Technology Research Center, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Hematology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Hosseinkhani
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, 10607, Taiwan
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Smith PD, Coulson-Thomas VJ, Foscarin S, Kwok JCF, Fawcett JW. "GAG-ing with the neuron": The role of glycosaminoglycan patterning in the central nervous system. Exp Neurol 2015; 274:100-14. [PMID: 26277685 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2015] [Revised: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs) are a diverse family of proteins that consist of one or more glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains, covalently linked to a core protein. PGs are major components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and play critical roles in development, normal function and damage-response of the central nervous system (CNS). GAGs are classified based on their disaccharide subunits, into the following major groups: chondroitin sulfate (CS), heparan sulfate (HS), heparin (HEP), dermatan sulfate (DS), keratan sulfate (KS) and hyaluronic acid (HA). All except HA are modified by sulfation, giving GAG chains specific charged structures and binding properties. While significant neuroscience research has focused on the role of one PG family member, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG), there is ample evidence in support of a role for the other PGs in regulating CNS function in normal and pathological conditions. This review discusses the role of all the identified PG family members (CS, HS, HEP, DS, KS and HA) in normal CNS function and in the context of pathology. Understanding the pleiotropic roles of these molecules in the CNS may open the door to novel therapeutic strategies for a number of neurological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrice D Smith
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, UK; Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
| | - Vivien J Coulson-Thomas
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, UK
| | - Simona Foscarin
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jessica C F Kwok
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, UK
| | - James W Fawcett
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, UK.
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Cox A, Varma A, Banik N. Recent advances in the pharmacologic treatment of spinal cord injury. Metab Brain Dis 2015; 30:473-82. [PMID: 24833553 PMCID: PMC4233197 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-014-9547-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A need exists for the effective treatment of individuals suffering from spinal cord injury (SCI). Recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms occurring in SCI have resulted in an expansion of new therapeutic targets. This review summarizes both preclinical and clinical findings investigating the mechanisms and cognate pharmacologic therapeutics targeted to modulate hypoxia, ischemia, excitotoxicity, inflammation, apoptosis, epigenetic alterations, myelin regeneration and scar remodeling. Successful modulation of these targets has been demonstrated in both preclinical and clinical studies with agents such as Oxycyte, Minocycline, Riluzole, Premarin, Cethrin, and ATI-355. The translation of these agents into clinical studies highlights the progress the field has made in the past decade. SCI proves to be a complex condition; the numerous pathophysiological mechanisms occurring at varying time points suggests that a single agent approach to the treatment of SCI may not be optimal. As the field continues to mature, the hope is that the knowledge gained from these studies will be applied to the development of an effective multi-pronged treatment strategy for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- April Cox
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 96 Jonathan Lucas ST. MSC606, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA,
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Esmaeili M, Berry M, Logan A, Ahmed Z. Decorin treatment of spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:1653-6. [PMID: 25374584 PMCID: PMC4211183 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.141797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The scarring response after a penetrant central nervous system injury results from the interaction between invading leptominingeal/pericyte-derived fibroblasts and endogenous reactive astrocytes about the wound margin. Extracellular matrix and scar-derived axon growth inhibitory molecules fill the lesion site providing both a physical and chemical barrier to regenerating axons. Decorin, a small leucine-rich chondroitin-dermatan sulphate proteoglycan expressed by neurons and astrocytes in the central nervous system, is both anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory and attenuates the formation and partial dissolution of established and chronic scars. Here, we discuss the potential of using Decorin to antagonise scarring in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Esmaeili
- Neurotrauma Research Group, Neurobiology Section, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Martin Berry
- Neurotrauma Research Group, Neurobiology Section, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ann Logan
- Neurotrauma Research Group, Neurobiology Section, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Neurotrauma Research Group, Neurobiology Section, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
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Ohtake Y, Li S. Molecular mechanisms of scar-sourced axon growth inhibitors. Brain Res 2014; 1619:22-35. [PMID: 25192646 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.08.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Astrogliosis is a defense response of the CNS to minimize primary damage and to repair injured tissues, but it ultimately generates harmful effects by upregulating inhibitory molecules to suppress neuronal elongation and forming potent barriers to axon regeneration. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are highly expressed by reactive scars and are potent contributors to the non-permissive environment in mature CNS. Surmounting strong inhibition by CSPG-rich scar is an important therapeutic goal for achieving functional recovery after CNS injuries. Currently, enzymatic digestion of CSPGs with locally applied chondroitinase ABC is the main in vivo approach to overcome scar inhibition, but several disadvantages may prevent using this bacterial enzyme as a therapeutic option for patients. A better understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying CSPG function may facilitate development of new effective therapies to overcome scar-mediated inhibition. Previous studies support that CSPGs act by non-specifically hindering the binding of matrix molecules to their cell surface receptors through steric interactions, but two members of the leukocyte common antigen related (LAR) phosphatase subfamily, protein tyrosine phosphatase σ and LAR, are functional receptors that bind CSPGs with high affinity and mediate CSPG inhibition. CSPGs may also act by binding two receptors for myelin-associated growth inhibitors, Nogo receptors 1 and 3. Thus, CSPGs inhibit axon growth through multiple mechanisms, making them especially potent and difficult therapeutic targets. Identification of CSPG receptors is not only important for understanding the scar-mediated growth suppression, but also for developing novel and selective therapies to promote axon sprouting and/or regeneration after CNS injuries. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Ohtake
- Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center and Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, 3500N. Broad Street, Philadelphia 19140, PA, USA
| | - Shuxin Li
- Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center and Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, 3500N. Broad Street, Philadelphia 19140, PA, USA.
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