Certain new plant breeding techniques and their marketability in the context of EU GMO legislation - recent developments

New genomic techniques, old divides: Stakeholder attitudes towards new biotechnology regulation in the EU and UK

The European Union and United Kingdom are in the process of establishing new regulation regarding the use of new genomic techniques in crop and animal breeding. As part of this process, consultations have been launched to understand the views of stakeholders towards the use of new genomic techniques in plant and animal breeding. The responsible research and innovation framework emphasises the importance of dialogue between technology developers and stakeholders, including the public, but what are the opinions of stakeholders towards the regulation of NGTs in Europe and do they view these consultations as opportunities to engage with technology governance? We conducted semi-structured interviews with experts from a range of agri-food stakeholder groups in the European Union and United Kingdom to understand current attitudes towards new biotechnology regulation, how they viewed the process of consultation in both places and what influence they felt they had in shaping regulations. We found that the discussion is similar in both EU and UK, with predictable and fixed opinions determined by attitudes towards the perceived risks associated with direct mutagenesis. Both UK and EU consultations were considered to have the same weaknesses and stakeholders discussed a desire for more dialogic forms of engagement. We highlight several options for new forms of involvement in biotechnology regulation by exploring relevant responsible research and innovation literature.

The Promising B-Type Response Regulator hst1 Gene Provides Multiple High Temperature and Drought Stress Tolerance in Rice

High temperatures, drought, and salt stresses severely inhibit plant growth and production due to the effects of climate change. The Arabidopsis ARR1, ARR10, and ARR12 genes were identified as negative salt and drought stress regulators. However, in rice, the tolerance capacity of the hst1 gene, which is orthologous to the ARR1, ARR10, and ARR12 genes, to drought and multiple high temperature and drought stresses remains unknown. At the seedling and reproductive stages, we investigated the drought (DS) high temperature (HT) and multiple high temperature and drought stress (HT+DS) tolerance capacity of the YNU31-2-4 (YNU) genotype, which carries the hst1 gene, and its nearest genomic relative Sister Line (SL), which has a 99% identical genome without the hst1 gene. At the seedling stage, YNU demonstrated greater growth, photosynthesis, antioxidant enzyme activity, and decreased ROS accumulation under multiple HT+DS conditions. The YNU genotype also demonstrated improved yield potential and grain quality due to higher antioxidant enzyme activity and lower ROS generation throughout the reproductive stage under multiple HT+DS settings. Furthermore, for the first time, we discovered that the B-type response regulator hst1 gene controls ROS generation and antioxidant enzyme activities by regulating upstream and downstream genes to overcome yield reduction under multiple high temperatures and drought stress. This insight will help us to better understand the mechanisms of high temperature and drought stress tolerance in rice, as well as the evolution of tolerant crops that can survive increased salinity to provide food security during climate change.

New genomic techniques and their European Union reform. Potential policy changes and their implications

The article discusses amendment options (no significant change, lowering of administrative burdens or exemption of certain products from the legislation) for the European Union (EU) authorization procedures of New Genomic Techniques' (NGT) products and their consequences for the sector and research institutions, particularly in the context of internal functioning, placing products on the market and international trade. A reform of the EU regulatory system requires a change in the procedures for the authorization of NGT products, otherwise EU researchers and investors may still be at a competitive disadvantage (as compared to Argentina, Brazil, Canada, United States or the United Kingdom) due to the inefficiency of the current system and the committee procedure for authorization. New legislation, currently being adopted in the United Kingdom is also presented for comparison.

Freedom of Choice—Organic Consumers’ Discourses on New Plant Breeding Techniques

In recent years, there have been significant developments in biotechnology, specifically regarding New Plant Breeding Techniques (NPBTs). Such advancements have been driven by the need to develop improved and more sustainable crops while reducing pesticides and fertilisers. NPBTs include a heterogeneous group of methods that allow performing plant mutations more precisely than in genetically modified (GM) technologies, saving time and effort. Although some experts consider NPBTs an opportunity for organic farming expansion, the European Court of Justice in 2018 pronounced against their use in organic farming since all plants obtained by NPBTs should follow the same regulations as Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). This study aims to understand consumers’ attitudes and viewpoints towards new breeding techniques. Focus groups and Q methodological approach were used to uncover consensus and divergence among organic consumers in seven selected European countries (Germany, Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom). Results of qualitative studies suggest that organic consumers are generally hostile towards NPBTs in organic farming. Using Q methodology, three distinct factors were identified: the “Risk Averse”, the “Technological Optimists”, and the “Socially Concerned”. The results highlight that consumers’ subjective knowledge and understanding of NPBTs diverge from the discourse of NPBTs lobbyists and proponents.

Random Mutagenesis as a Promising Tool for Microalgal Strain Improvement towards Industrial Production

Microalgae have become a promising novel and sustainable feedstock for meeting the rising demand for food and feed. However, microalgae-based products are currently hindered by high production costs. One major reason for this is that commonly cultivated wildtype strains do not possess the robustness and productivity required for successful industrial production. Several strain improvement technologies have been developed towards creating more stress tolerant and productive strains. While classical methods of forward genetics have been extensively used to determine gene function of randomly generated mutants, reverse genetics has been explored to generate specific mutations and target phenotypes. Site-directed mutagenesis can be accomplished by employing different gene editing tools, which enable the generation of tailor-made genotypes. Nevertheless, strategies promoting the selection of randomly generated mutants avoid the introduction of foreign genetic material. In this paper, we review different microalgal strain improvement approaches and their applications, with a primary focus on random mutagenesis. Current challenges hampering strain improvement, selection, and commercialization will be discussed. The combination of these approaches with high-throughput technologies, such as fluorescence-activated cell sorting, as tools to select the most promising mutants, will also be discussed.

Exploring Consumers’ Attitudes towards Food Products Derived by New Plant Breeding Techniques

New plant breeding techniques (NPBTs) are seen as promising and innovative tools to achieve food security and food safety. Biotechnological innovations have great potential to address sustainable food development, and they are expected in the near future to play a critical role in feeding a growing population without exerting added pressure on the environment. There is, however, a considerable debate as to how these new techniques should be regulated and whether some or all of them should fall within the scope of EU legislation on genetically modified organisms (GMOs), despite the product obtained being free from genes foreign to the species. In the EU, the adoption of these methods does not rely only on the scientific community but requires social acceptance and a political process that leads to an improved regulatory framework. In this paper, we present the results of an online survey carried out in Italy with 700 randomly selected participants on consumer attitudes towards food obtained by NPBTs. By applying the decision tree machine learning algorithm J48 to our dataset, we identified significant attributes to predict the main drivers of purchasing such products. A classification model accuracy assessment has also been developed to evaluate the overall performance of the classifier. The result of the model highlighted the role of consumers’ self-perceived knowledge and their trust in the European approval process for NPBT, as well as the need for a detailed label. Our findings may support decision makers and underpin the development of NPBT products in the market.

Improving microalgae for biotechnology - From genetics to synthetic biology - Moving forward but not there yet

Microalgae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that can be exploited for the production of different compounds, ranging from crude biomass and biofuels to high value-added biochemicals and synthetic proteins. Traditionally, algal biotechnology relies on bioprospecting to identify new highly productive strains and more recently, on forward genetics to further enhance productivity. However, it has become clear that further improvements in algal productivity for biotechnology is impossible without combining traditional tools with the arising molecular genetics toolkit. We review recent advantages in developing high throughput screening methods, preparing genome-wide mutant libraries, and establishing genome editing techniques. We discuss how algae can be improved in terms of photosynthetic efficiency, biofuel and high value-added compound production. Finally, we critically evaluate developments over recent years and explore future potential in the field.

Vision, challenges and opportunities for a Plant Cell Atlas

With growing populations and pressing environmental problems, future economies will be increasingly plant-based. Now is the time to reimagine plant science as a critical component of fundamental science, agriculture, environmental stewardship, energy, technology and healthcare. This effort requires a conceptual and technological framework to identify and map all cell types, and to comprehensively annotate the localization and organization of molecules at cellular and tissue levels. This framework, called the Plant Cell Atlas (PCA), will be critical for understanding and engineering plant development, physiology and environmental responses. A workshop was convened to discuss the purpose and utility of such an initiative, resulting in a roadmap that acknowledges the current knowledge gaps and technical challenges, and underscores how the PCA initiative can help to overcome them.

Regulatory approaches for genome edited agricultural plants in select countries and jurisdictions around the world

Genome editing in agriculture and food is leading to new, improved crops and other products. Depending on the regulatory approach taken in each country or region, commercialization of these crops and products may or may not require approval from the respective regulatory authorities. This paper describes the regulatory landscape governing genome edited agriculture and food products in a selection of countries and regions.

High Carotenoid Mutants of Chlorella vulgaris Show Enhanced Biomass Yield under High Irradiance

Microalgae represent a carbon-neutral source of bulk biomass, for extraction of high-value compounds and production of renewable fuels. Due to their high metabolic activity and reproduction rates, species of the genus Chlorella are highly productive when cultivated in photobioreactors. However, wild-type strains show biological limitations making algal bioproducts expensive compared to those extracted from other feedstocks. Such constraints include inhomogeneous light distribution due to high optical density of the culture, and photoinhibition of the surface-exposed cells. Thus, the domestication of algal strains for industry makes it increasingly important to select traits aimed at enhancing light-use efficiency while withstanding excess light stress. Carotenoids have a crucial role in protecting against photooxidative damage and, thus, represent a promising target for algal domestication. We applied chemical mutagenesis to Chlorella vulgaris and selected for enhanced tolerance to the carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitor norflurazon. The NFR (norflurazon-resistant) strains showed an increased carotenoid pool size and enhanced tolerance towards photooxidative stress. Growth under excess light revealed an improved carbon assimilation rate of NFR strains with respect to WT. We conclude that domestication of Chlorella vulgaris, by optimizing both carotenoid/chlorophyll ratio and resistance to photooxidative stress, boosted light-to-biomass conversion efficiency under high light conditions typical of photobioreactors. Comparison with strains previously reported for enhanced tolerance to singlet oxygen, reveals that ROS resistance in Chlorella is promoted by at least two independent mechanisms, only one of which is carotenoid-dependent.

Current updates and research on plant-based vaccines for coronavirus disease 2019

The primary outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, causing pneumonia-like symptoms in patients named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) had evolved into a global pandemic. COVID-19 has surpassed Middle East respiratory syndrome and severe acute respiratory syndrome in terms of rate and scale causing more than one million deaths. Development of an effective vaccine to fight against the spread of COVID-19 is the main goal of many countries around the world and plant-based vaccines are one of the available methods in vaccine developments. Plant-based vaccine has gained its reputation among researchers for its known effective manufacturing process and cost effectiveness. Many companies around the world are participating in the race to develop an effective vaccine by using the plant system. This review discusses different approaches used as well as highlights the challenges faced by various companies and research groups in developing the plant-based COVID-19 vaccine.

Genome editing for crop improvement: A perspective from India

Human population is expected to reach to about 10 billion by 2050. Climate change affects crop production, thus posing food security challenges. Conventional breeding alone will not bridge the gap between current level of crop production and expected levels in the decades to come in the food production systems. Rate of genetic gain with time has remained narrow considerably. Biotechnology-enabled crops developed through genome editing will have a part to play in improving crop productivity, meeting food, nutrition security besides catering to regional preferences and fetching valuable foreign exchange. Political, social, economical proposition, scientific will, retailer and consumer acceptance are a must for genome editing (GE) to succeed and add value in the food value chain. This will also help to make agriculture a lucrative profession and attract youth. Therefore, the present review looks into existing regulations governing crops developed using biotechnology in India, institutes involved in genome editing, prospects of new tools developed in this sphere such as DNA-free editing systems, nanotechnology, their applicability in crop improvement efforts, social and future prospects taking cue from recent global developments. This will make GE more appealing to stakeholders and defray any safety concerns.

Biotechnological Approaches: Gene Overexpression, Gene Silencing, and Genome Editing to Control Fungal and Oomycete Diseases in Grapevine

Downy mildew, powdery mildew, and grey mold are some of the phytopathological diseases causing economic losses in agricultural crops, including grapevine, worldwide. In the current scenario of increasing global warming, in which the massive use of agrochemicals should be limited, the management of fungal disease has become a challenge. The knowledge acquired on candidate resistant (R) genes having an active role in plant defense mechanisms has allowed numerous breeding programs to integrate these traits into selected cultivars, even though with some limits in the conservation of the proper qualitative characteristics of the original clones. Given their gene-specific mode of action, biotechnological techniques come to the aid of breeders, allowing them to generate simple and fast modifications in the host, without introducing other undesired genes. The availability of efficient gene transfer procedures in grapevine genotypes provide valid tools that support the application of new breeding techniques (NBTs). The expertise built up over the years has allowed the optimization of these techniques to overexpress genes that directly or indirectly limit fungal and oomycetes pathogens growth or silence plant susceptibility genes. Furthermore, the downregulation of pathogen genes which act as virulence effectors by exploiting the RNA interference mechanism, represents another biotechnological tool that increases plant defense. In this review, we summarize the most recent biotechnological strategies optimized and applied on Vitis species, aimed at reducing their susceptibility to the most harmful fungal and oomycetes diseases. The best strategy for combating pathogenic organisms is to exploit a holistic approach that fully integrates all these available tools.

Gene editing: an instrument for practical application of gene biology to plant breeding

Plant breeding is well recognized as one of the most important means to meet food security challenges caused by the ever-increasing world population. During the past three decades, plant breeding has been empowered by both new knowledge on trait development and regulation (e.g., functional genomics) and new technologies (e.g., biotechnologies and phenomics). Gene editing, particularly by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) and its variants, has become a powerful technology in plant research and may become a game-changer in plant breeding. Traits are conferred by coding and non-coding genes. From this perspective, we propose different editing strategies for these two types of genes. The activity of an encoded enzyme and its quantity are regulated at transcriptional and post-transcriptional, as well as translational and post-translational, levels. Different strategies are proposed to intervene to generate gene functional variations and consequently phenotype changes. For non-coding genes, trait modification could be achieved by regulating transcription of their own or target genes via gene editing. Also included is a scheme of protoplast editing to make gene editing more applicable in plant breeding. In summary, this review provides breeders with a host of options to translate gene biology into practical breeding strategies, i.e., to use gene editing as a mechanism to commercialize gene biology in plant breeding.

Isolation and Characterization of Novel Chlorella Vulgaris Mutants With Low Chlorophyll and Improved Protein Contents for Food Applications

Microalgae are widely used as food supplements due to their high protein content, essential fatty acids and amino acids as well as carotenoids. The addition of microalgal biomass to food products (e.g., baked confectioneries) is a common strategy to attract novel consumers. However, organoleptic factors such as color, taste and smell can be decisive for the acceptability of foods supplemented with microalgae. The aim of this work was to develop chlorophyll-deficient mutants of Chlorella vulgaris by chemically induced random mutagenesis to obtain biomass with different pigmentations for nutritional applications. Using this strategy, two C. vulgaris mutants with yellow (MT01) and white (MT02) color were successfully isolated, scaled up and characterized. The changes in color of MT01 and MT02 mutant strains were due to an 80 and 99% decrease in their chlorophyll contents, respectively, as compared to the original wild type (WT) strain. Under heterotrophic growth, MT01 showed a growth performance similar to that of the WT, reaching a concentration of 5.84 and 6.06 g L⁻¹, respectively, whereas MT02 displayed slightly lower growth (4.59 g L⁻¹). When grown under a light intensity of 100 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, the pigment content in MT01 increased without compromising growth, while MT02 was not able to grow under this light intensity, a strong indication that it became light-sensitive. The yellow color of MT01 in the dark was mainly due to the presence of the xanthophyll lutein. On the other hand, phytoene was the only carotenoid detected in MT02, which is known to be colorless. Concomitantly, MT02 contained the highest protein content, reaching 48.7% of DW, a 60% increase as compared to the WT. MT01 exhibited a 30% increase when compared to that of the WT, reaching a protein content of 39.5% of DW. Taken together, the results strongly suggest that the partial abrogation of pigment biosynthesis is a factor that might promote higher protein contents in this species. Moreover, because of their higher protein and lower chlorophyll contents, the MT01 and MT02 strains are likely candidates to be feedstocks for the development of novel, innovative food supplements and foods.

Engineering Synthetic Signaling in Plants

Synthetic signaling is a branch of synthetic biology that aims to understand native genetic regulatory mechanisms and to use these insights to engineer interventions and devices that achieve specified design parameters. Applying synthetic signaling approaches to plants offers the promise of mitigating the worst effects of climate change and providing a means to engineer crops for entirely novel environments, such as those in space travel. The ability to engineer new traits using synthetic signaling methods will require standardized libraries of biological parts and methods to assemble them; the decoupling of complex processes into simpler subsystems; and mathematical models that can accelerate the design-build-test-learn cycle. The field of plant synthetic signaling is relatively new, but it is poised for rapid advancement. Translation from the laboratory to the field is likely to be slowed, however, by the lack of constructive dialogue between researchers and other stakeholders.

Shotguns vs Lasers: Identifying barriers and facilitators to scaling-up plant molecular farming for high-value health products

Plant molecular farming (PMF) is a convenient and cost-effective way to produce high-value recombinant proteins that can be used in the production of a range of health products, from pharmaceutical therapeutics to cosmetic products. New plant breeding techniques (NPBTs) provide a means to enhance PMF systems more quickly and with greater precision than ever before. However, the feasibility, regulatory standing and social acceptability of both PMF and NPBTs are in question. This paper explores the perceptions of key stakeholders on two European Union (EU) Horizon 2020 programmes-Pharma-Factory and Newcotiana-towards the barriers and facilitators of PMF and NPBTs in Europe. One-on-one qualitative interviews were undertaken with N = 20 individuals involved in one or both of the two projects at 16 institutions in seven countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Israel, Spain and the UK). The findings indicate that the current EU regulatory environment and the perception of the public towards biotechnology are seen as the main barriers to scaling-up PMF and NPBTs. Competition from existing systems and the lack of plant-specific regulations likewise present challenges for PMF developing beyond its current niche. However, respondents felt that the communication of the benefits and purpose of NPBT PMF could provide a platform for improving the social acceptance of genetic modification. The importance of the media in this process was highlighted. This article also uses the multi-level perspective to explore the ways in which NPBTs are being legitimated by interested parties and the systemic factors that have shaped and are continuing to shape the development of PMF in Europe.

The Rapeseed Potential in Poland and Germany in the Context of Production, Legislation, and Intellectual Property Rights

Rapeseed is an essential crop which is used in many different areas as edible oil, biodiesel, lubricant, and feed. It is one of the most popular oil crops in Europe (63% of oilseeds production in 2017). The current study highlights the potential for further rapeseed development in European Union (EU), with special emphasis on Germany (19% of EU production) and Poland (12% of EU production). The study focused on three factors: cultivation area, volume of production and the numbers of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), particularly patents granted for rapeseed or rapeseed-related inventions and plant variety rights. Possible further obstacles to development, such as current legal framework, were also taken under consideration. The analyzed statistical data shows that both the cultivation area, as well as the volume of production of rapeseed fluctuated in the last decade in both examined countries, while the numbers for European patent publications and Community Plant Variety Rights showed a rising trend, indicating investments in the Research and Development (R&D) of the crop. The data analysis seems to confirm a hypothesis that there is a potential for the development of rapeseed as a versatile, multi-use crop; however, the current EU GMO policies and a legal uncertainty as to the status of products of certain modern gene editing techniques may hamper making optimal use of this potential.

Roads Forward for European GMO Policy-Uncertainties in Wake of ECJ Judgment Have to be Mitigated by Regulatory Reform

This article gives an overview of legal and procedural uncertainties regarding genome edited organisms and possible ways forward for European GMO policy. After a recent judgment by the European Court of Justice (ECJ judgment of 25 July 2018, C-528/16), organisms obtained by techniques of genome editing are GMOs and subject to the same obligations as transgenic organisms. Uncertainties emerge if genome edited organisms cannot be distinguished from organisms bred by conventional techniques, such as crossing or random mutagenesis. In this case, identical organisms can be subject to either GMO law or exempt from regulation because of the use of a technique that cannot be identified. Regulatory agencies might not be able to enforce GMO law for such cases in the long term. As other jurisdictions do not regulate such organisms as GMOs, accidental imports might occur and undermine European GMO regulation. In the near future, the EU Commission as well as European and national regulatory agencies will decide on how to apply the updated interpretation of the law. In order to mitigate current legal and procedural uncertainties, a first step forward lies in updating all guidance documents to specifically address genome editing specifically address genome editing, including a solution for providing a unique identifier. In part, the authorization procedure for GMO release can be tailored to different types of organisms by making use of existing flexibilities in GMO law. However, only an amendment to the regulations that govern the process of authorization for GMO release can substantially lower the burden for innovators. In a second step, any way forward has to aim at amending, supplementing or replacing the European GMO Directive (2001/18/EC). The policy options presented in this article presuppose political readiness for reform. This may not be realistic in the current political situation. However, if the problems of current GMO law are just ignored, European competitiveness and research in green biotechnology will suffer.