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Zelleroth S, Stam F, Nylander E, Kjellgren E, Gising J, Larhed M, Grönbladh A, Hallberg M. The decanoate esters of nandrolone, testosterone, and trenbolone induce steroid specific memory impairment and somatic effects in the male rat. Horm Behav 2024; 161:105501. [PMID: 38368844 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Long-term use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) in supratherapeutic doses is associated with severe adverse effects, including physical, mental, and behavioral alterations. When used for recreational purposes several AAS are often combined, and in scientific studies of the physiological impact of AAS either a single compound or a cocktail of several steroids is often used. Because of this, steroid-specific effects have been difficult to define and are not fully elucidated. The present study used male Wistar rats to evaluate potential somatic and behavioral effects of three different AAS; the decanoate esters of nandrolone, testosterone, and trenbolone. The rats were exposed to 15 mg/kg of nandrolone decanoate, testosterone decanoate, or trenbolone decanoate every third day for 24 days. Body weight gain and organ weights (thymus, liver, kidney, testis, and heart) were measured together with the corticosterone plasma levels. Behavioral effects were studied in the novel object recognition-test (NOR-test) and the multivariate concentric square field-test (MCSF-test). The results conclude that nandrolone decanoate, but neither testosterone decanoate nor trenbolone decanoate, caused impaired recognition memory in the NOR-test, indicating an altered cognitive function. The behavioral profile and stress hormone level of the rats were not affected by the AAS treatments. Furthermore, the study revealed diverse AAS-induced somatic effects i.e., reduced body weight development and changes in organ weights. Of the three AAS included in the study, nandrolone decanoate was identified to cause the most prominent impact on the male rat, as it affected body weight development, the weights of multiple organs, and caused an impaired memory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Zelleroth
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Neuropharmacology and Addiction Research, SE-751 24, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Frida Stam
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Neuropharmacology and Addiction Research, SE-751 24, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Erik Nylander
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Neuropharmacology and Addiction Research, SE-751 24, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Ellinor Kjellgren
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Neuropharmacology and Addiction Research, SE-751 24, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Johan Gising
- The Beijer Laboratory, Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, SE-751 23, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Mats Larhed
- The Beijer Laboratory, Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, SE-751 23, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Alfhild Grönbladh
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Neuropharmacology and Addiction Research, SE-751 24, Uppsala University, Sweden.
| | - Mathias Hallberg
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Neuropharmacology and Addiction Research, SE-751 24, Uppsala University, Sweden.
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2
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Adenosine receptors participate in anabolic-androgenic steroid-induced changes on risk assessment/anxiety-like behaviors in male and female rats. Physiol Behav 2023; 261:114071. [PMID: 36584765 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.114071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) and caffeine can induce several behavioral alterations in humans and rodents. Administration of nandrolone decanoate is known to affect defensive responses to aversive stimuli, generally decreasing inhibitory control and increasing aggressivity but whether caffeine intake influences behavioral changes induced by AAS is unknown. The present study aimed to investigate behavioral effects of caffeine (a non-selective antagonist of adenosine receptors) alone or combined with nandrolone decanoate (one of the most commonly AAS abused) in female and male Lister Hooded rats. Our results indicated that chronic administration of nandrolone decanoate (10 mg/kg, i.m., once a week for 8 weeks) decreased risk assessment/anxiety-like behaviors (in the elevated plus maze test), regardless of sex. These effects were prevented by combined caffeine intake (0.1 g/L, p.o., ad libitum). Overall, the present study heralds a key role for caffeine intake in the modulation of nandrolone decanoate-induced behavioral changes in rats, suggesting adenosine receptors as candidate targets to manage impact of AAS on brain function and behavior.
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3
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Bispo JMM, Melo JEC, Gois AM, Medeiros KAAL, Silva RS, Leal PC, Franco HS, Souza MF, Lins LCRF, Ribeiro AM, Silva RH, Santos JR. Testosterone propionate improves motor alterations and dopaminergic damage in the reserpine-induced progressive model of Parkinson's disease. Brain Res Bull 2022; 187:162-168. [PMID: 35781030 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorder with a higher susceptibility to occur in men. Studies suggest that this susceptibility is related to the hormonal differences observed between men and women, being a risk factor for PD. In addition, testosterone supplementation has shown controversial results in animal models of PD and parkinsonian patients. This study evaluated the effect of chronic administration of testosterone propionate (TP) on motor behavior and neurochemical parameters in the reserpine-induced rat model of parkinsonism. Male Wistar rats received 15 injections of reserpine (RES - 0.1 mg/kg) every other day and were concomitantly treated with different doses (0.1, 1.0, or 5.0 mg/kg) of daily TP for 30 days. The rats were euthanized 48 h after the 15th injection of RES or vehicle. Brains were removed and subjected to Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunohistochemistry. TP at 1.0 mg/kg reduced the damages caused by reserpine in the vacuous chewing and tong protrusion behaviors and prevented dopaminergic damage in the SNpc, VTA, and Striatum. TP at 5.0 mg/kg reduced the damages caused by reserpine in the catalepsy and tong protrusion behaviors, prevented the weight loss, and prevented dopaminergic damage in the VTA. Our results suggest that chronic administration of TP has a protective effect in a rat model of parkinsonism, improving motor alterations and dopamine depletion induced by RES.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M M Bispo
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
| | - João E C Melo
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
| | - Auderlan M Gois
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
| | - Katty A A L Medeiros
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
| | - Rodolfo Santos Silva
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
| | - Pollyana C Leal
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil; Graduate Program in Dentistry / Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, SE, Brazil.
| | - Heitor S Franco
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
| | - Marina F Souza
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
| | - Lívia C R F Lins
- Department of Physiology, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, SE, Brazil.
| | | | - Regina H Silva
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - José R Santos
- Behavioral and Evolutionary Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Itabaiana, SE, Brazil.
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Hoff D. Positiva upplevelser av dopning: En kvalitativ studie av AAS-bruk och reflexiva kroppar [Positive experiences of doping: A qualitative study of AAS-use and reflexive bodies]. NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS 2022; 39:146-162. [PMID: 35757092 PMCID: PMC9189561 DOI: 10.1177/14550725211053130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on doping usually has focused on social and individual problems, such as AAS-use in relations to substance abuse, criminality and health issues. The purpose of this study was to analyze the meaning of positive experiences of doping with Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS), outside the traditional sports competition context. Eight respondents with own AAS-experiences were interviewed. The theoretical framework was elaborated from Giddens’ discussion on individuals’ self-reflexivity and the construction of the self-identity in the late modern age. The respondents’ narratives were analyzed in four themes: (1) To be big and strong – masculine self-identity; (2) Revenge and to become a part of a community; (3) AAS and training as an “exit” from risk behavior and substance use; (4) Euphoria generator and anxiety reducer. The themes were analyzed as different processes of the respondents’ constructions of new self-identities and lifestyles using their reflexive bodies in body regimes where weight training and use of AAS were crucial.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Hoff
- School of Social Work, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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Diviccaro S, Melcangi RC, Giatti S. Post-finasteride syndrome: An emerging clinical problem. Neurobiol Stress 2019; 12:100209. [PMID: 32435662 PMCID: PMC7231981 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2019.100209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of side effects during pharmacological treatment is unfortunately a quite common problem. In this review, we focused our attention on adverse events related to 5 alpha-reductase (5α-R) inhibitors (i.e., finasteride and dutasteride), approved for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and androgenetic alopecia (AGA). Although these drugs are generally well tolerated, many reports described adverse effects in men during treatment, such as sexual dysfunction and mood alteration. In addition, it has been also reported that persistent side effects may occur in some AGA patients. This condition, termed post-finasteride syndrome (PFS) is characterized by sexual side effects (i.e., low libido, erectile dysfunction, decreased arousal and difficulty in achieving orgasm), depression, anxiety and cognitive complaints that are still present despite drug withdrawal. Indeed, some national agencies (e.g., Swedish Medical Products Agency, the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency of UK and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration) required to include multiple persistent side effects within the finasteride labels. As here reported, these observations are mainly based on self-reporting of the symptomatology by the patients and few clinical studies have been performed so far. In addition, molecular mechanisms and/or genetic determinants behind such adverse effects have been poorly explored both in patients and animal models. Therefore, results here discussed indicate that PFS is an emerging clinical problem that needs to be further elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Diviccaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberto Cosimo Melcangi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Silvia Giatti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
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Marocolo M, Silva-Neto JA, Barbosa Neto O. Acute interruption of treatment with nandrolone decanoate is not sufficient to reverse cardiac autonomic dysfunction and ventricular repolarization disturbances in rats. Steroids 2018; 132:12-17. [PMID: 29366731 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Revised: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic androgenic steroids are a class of synthetic compounds derived from testosterone, eventually used by athletes, to improve physical performance. However, anabolic steroids can also modify normal cardiovascular function. Thus, we investigated cardiac electrophysiological and autonomic abnormalities in rats, through a electrocardiographic variability protocol during and after interruption of administration of nandrolone decanoate (DECA) anabolic steroid. Twenty male Wistar rats (60-70 days old) received DECA (10 mg. kg-1i.m) once a week or vehicle, during eight weeks. Electrocardiogram was recorded in conscious rats by a noninvasive method, and time and domain analysis of heart rate variability as well as electrocardiogram intervals (QTc / QTd) were performed. Body mass was lower in treated rats compared to control after 4th and 8th weeks, but not at the end of 14th week. QTc and QTd were longer in DECA group compared to control on 4th, 8th, 11th, but equal on 14th week. Cardiac autonomic dysfunction (vagal attenuation) was present on DECA group after 4th week and did not normalize after interruption of treatment. The animals of DECA group showed a correlation between attenuated parasympathetic modulation and increased correct QT interval. Our data allow us to conclude that long-term treatment with DECA impairs autonomic cardiac physiology, predisposing to cardiovascular risk and sudden death, and interruption of administration does not recovery the normality immediately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moacir Marocolo
- Physiology and Human Performance Research Group, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Brazil.
| | - Julio A Silva-Neto
- "Paes de Carvalho" Laboratory of Biophysics of Heart, Department of Physiology, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Brazil
| | - Octávio Barbosa Neto
- Department of Sport Sciences, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Brazil
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7
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Hildebrandt T, Heywood A, Wesley D, Schulz K. Defining the Construct of Synthetic Androgen Intoxication: An Application of General Brain Arousal. Front Psychol 2018; 9:390. [PMID: 29651261 PMCID: PMC5885244 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic androgens (i. e., anabolic-androgenic steroids) are the primary component to the majority of problematic appearance and performance enhancing drug (APED) use. Despite evidence that these substances are associated with increased risk for aggression, violence, body image disturbances, and polypharmacy and can develop a pattern of chronic use consistent with drug dependence, there are no formal definitions of androgen intoxication. Consequently, the purpose of this paper is to establish a testable theory of androgen intoxication. We present evidence and theorize that synthetic androgen intoxication can be defined by a pattern of poor self-regulation characterized by increased propensity for a range of behaviors (e.g., aggression, sex, drug seeking, exercise, etc.) via androgen mediated effects on general brain arousal. This theory posits that androgens reduce threshold for emotional reactivity, motor response, and alertness to sensory stimuli and disrupt inhibitory control over the behaviors associated with synthetic androgen use. These changes result from alteration to basic neurocircuitry that amplifies limbic activation and reduces top-down cortical control. The implications for this definition are to inform APED specific hypotheses about the behavioral and psychological effects of APED use and provide a basis for establishing clinical, legal, and public health guidelines to address the use and misuse of these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Hildebrandt
- Eating and Weight Disorders Program, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Ashley Heywood
- Eating and Weight Disorders Program, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Daniel Wesley
- Eating and Weight Disorders Program, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Kurt Schulz
- Eating and Weight Disorders Program, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
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8
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Li L, Kang YX, Ji XM, Li YK, Li SC, Zhang XJ, Cui HX, Shi GM. Finasteride inhibited brain dopaminergic system and open-field behaviors in adolescent male rats. CNS Neurosci Ther 2017; 24:115-125. [PMID: 29214729 DOI: 10.1111/cns.12781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Finasteride inhibits the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. Because androgen regulates dopaminergic system in the brain, it could be hypothesized that finasteride may inhibit dopaminergic system. The present study therefore investigates the effects of finasteride in adolescent and early developmental rats on dopaminergic system, including contents of dopamine and its metabolites (dihydroxy phenyl acetic acid and homovanillic acid) and tyrosine hydroxylase expressions both at gene and protein levels. Meanwhile, open-field behaviors of the rats are examined because of the regulatory effect of dopaminergic system on the behaviors. METHODS Open-field behaviors were evaluated by exploratory and motor behaviors. Dopamine and its metabolites were assayed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA and protein expressions were determined by real-time qRT-PCR and western blot, respectively. RESULTS It was found that in adolescent male rats, administration of finasteride at doses of 25 and 50 mg/kg for 14 days dose dependently inhibited open-field behaviors, reduced contents of dopamine and its metabolites in frontal cortex, hippocampus, caudate putamen, nucleus accumbens, and down-regulated tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA and protein expressions in substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. However, there was no significant change of these parameters in early developmental rats after finasteride treatment. CONCLUSION These results suggest that finasteride inhibits dopaminergic system and open-field behaviors in adolescent male rats by inhibiting the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, and imply finasteride as a potential therapeutic option for neuropsychiatric disorders associated with hyperactivities of dopaminergic system and androgen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China.,Central Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yun-Xiao Kang
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Ji
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Ying-Kun Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China.,Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Shuang-Cheng Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiang-Jian Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardio-cerebrovascular Disease, Hebei Key Laboratory of Vascular Homeostasis, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Hui-Xian Cui
- Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Ge-Ming Shi
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
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Cui R, Kang Y, Wang L, Li S, Ji X, Yan W, Zhang G, Cui H, Shi G. Testosterone Propionate Exacerbates the Deficits of Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System and Downregulates Nrf2 Expression in Reserpine-Treated Aged Male Rats. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 9:172. [PMID: 28620296 PMCID: PMC5449473 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a controversy over the effects of testosterone supplements on dopaminergic function. Both neuroprotective and toxic effects of testosterone supplements are reported. The status of oxidative stress seems to explain the neuroprotective or toxic properties of testosterone. To determine the efficacy of testosterone supplements in different status of oxidative stress, the present studies analyzed the dopamine (DA)-related behaviors and neurochemical indices, as well as markers of nigrostriatal dopaminergic (NSDA) system in reserpine-treated aged male rats followed by testosterone propionate (TP) supplements. The status of oxidative stress of experimental animals was evaluated by analyzing oxidative stress parameters and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling pathway in substantia nigra (SN). Consistent with our previous studies, TP supplements to 21-month old aged male rats had the beneficial effects on NSDA system and DA-related behaviors and enhanced the antioxidative capabilities in SN. However, the beneficial effects of TP supplements on NSDA system and DA-related behaviors in aged male rats were reversed by reserpine pretreatment to them. Reserpine treatment induced the severe oxidative stress and reduced the expressions of Nrf2, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase-1 (NQO1) in the SN of aged male rats. The TP supplements to reserpine-pretreated aged male rats exacerbated the defects in NSDA system and DA-related behaviors, aggravated oxidative damages and downregulated the expression of Nrf2, HO-1 and NQO1 in the SN. These results suggested that the efficacy of TP supplements on impaired NSDA system was related to the status of oxidative stress in experimental rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Cui
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China.,Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Yunxiao Kang
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Shuangcheng Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiaoming Ji
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Wensheng Yan
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Guoliang Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China.,Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Huixian Cui
- Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
| | - Geming Shi
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang, China
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Struik D, Fadda P, Zara T, Zamberletti E, Rubino T, Parolaro D, Fratta W, Fattore L. The anabolic steroid nandrolone alters cannabinoid self-administration and brain CB 1 receptor density and function. Pharmacol Res 2016; 115:209-217. [PMID: 27890818 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Clinical and pre-clinical observations indicate that anabolic-androgenic steroids can induce neurobiological changes that alter the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse. In this study, we investigated the effect of the anabolic steroid nandrolone on the rewarding properties of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist WIN55,212-2 (WIN) in rats. Lister Hooded male rats were treated intramuscularly with nandrolone (15mg/kg) or vehicle for 14 consecutive days, and then allowed to self-administer WIN (12.5μg/kg/infusion) intravenously. After reaching stable drug intake, self-administration behavior was extinguished to examine drug- and cue-induced reinstatement of cannabinoid-seeking behavior. Other behavioral parameters presumed to influence drug-taking and drug-seeking behaviors were examined to gain more insight into the behavioral specificity of nandrolone treatment. Finally, animals were sacrificed for analysis of CB1 receptor density and function in selected brain areas. We found that nandrolone-treated rats self-administered up to 2 times more cannabinoid than vehicle-treated rats, but behaved similarly to control rats when tested for drug- and cue-induced reinstatement of cannabinoid-seeking behavior. Enhanced cannabinoid intake by nandrolone-treated rats was not accompanied by changes in locomotor activity, sensorimotor gating, or memory function. However, our molecular data show that after chronic WIN self-administration nandrolone-treated rats display altered CB1 receptor density and function in selected brain areas. We hypothesize that increased cannabinoid self-administration in nandrolone-treated rats results from a nandrolone-induced decrease in reward function, which rats seem to compensate by voluntarily increasing their cannabinoid intake. Altogether, our findings corroborate the hypothesis that chronic exposure to anabolic-androgenic steroids induces dysfunction of the reward pathway in rats and might represent a potential risk factor for abuse of cannabis and other drugs in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dicky Struik
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen 9713ZG, the Netherlands
| | - Paola Fadda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, SS 554Km 4,500, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy; Centre of Excellence "Neurobiology of Dependence", University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, SS 554 Km 4,500, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
| | - Tamara Zara
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, SS 554Km 4,500, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
| | - Erica Zamberletti
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, and Neuroscience Center University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy
| | - Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, and Neuroscience Center University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, and Neuroscience Center University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy; Zardi Gori Foundation, Via Curtatone 25, Milano, Italy
| | - Walter Fratta
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, SS 554Km 4,500, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy; Centre of Excellence "Neurobiology of Dependence", University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, SS 554 Km 4,500, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
| | - Liana Fattore
- Centre of Excellence "Neurobiology of Dependence", University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, SS 554 Km 4,500, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy; CNR Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Italy.
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11
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Huang EYK, Chen YH, Huang TY, Chen YJ, Chow LH. Chronic administration of nandrolone increases susceptibility to morphine dependence without correlation with LVV-hemorphin 7 in rats. Neuropeptides 2016; 59:63-69. [PMID: 27289274 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2016.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
LVV-hemorphin 7 (LVVYPWTQRF; LVV-H7), an N-terminal fragment of the β-chain of hemoglobin cleaved by cathepsin D/pepsin, is an atypical endogenous opioid peptide that is found in high concentration in blood. LVV-H7 acts as a μ-opioid agonist and an inhibitor of insulin-regulated aminopeptidase. Subchronic administration of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) has been clinically proven to induce the synthesis of erythrocytes and increase hemoglobin concentrations. Patients with a history of AAS abuse are more susceptible to opioid abuse. We hypothesized that this association could be at least partially attributed to the sensitization of the mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic pathway by LVV-H7. Using the conditioned place preference test and neurochemical analysis, we investigated the possible mechanism underlying the effect of chronic nandrolone administration on morphine-induced reward and its correlation with LVV-H7 in rats. Either LVV-H7 may not sensitize the rewarding neural circuits or its inhibition on locomotor activity could mask reward-related behaviors. Chronic nandrolone pretreatment indeed caused a significant reward by low dose morphine, which did not cause any reward in control rats. However, coadministration of anti-LVV-H7 antiserum with nandrolone did not block this effect. This may rule out the possibility of the involvement of LVV-H7 in the action of nandrolone to intensify morphine-induced reward. Moreover, the serum level of LVV-H7 was mildly increased in response to chronic nandrolone administration in our animal model. According to the current clinical observations, we may conclude that the chronic administration of nandrolone can increase susceptibility to morphine dependence, but that this effect is not related to elevated LVV-H7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eagle Yi-Kung Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yuan-Hao Chen
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Tzu-Ying Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ying-Jie Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Lok-Hi Chow
- Department of Anesthesiology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Anesthesiology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
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12
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Grönbladh A, Nylander E, Hallberg M. The neurobiology and addiction potential of anabolic androgenic steroids and the effects of growth hormone. Brain Res Bull 2016; 126:127-137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Zhang G, Li S, Kang Y, Che J, Cui R, Song S, Cui H, Shi G. Enhancement of dopaminergic activity and region-specific activation of Nrf2-ARE pathway by intranasal supplements of testosterone propionate in aged male rats. Horm Behav 2016; 80:103-116. [PMID: 26893122 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2015] [Revised: 02/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The potential influence of intranasal testosterone propionate (InTP) supplements on mesodopaminergic system in aged male rats was investigated by analyzing the exploratory and motor behaviors as well as dopamine neurobiochemical indices. Meanwhile, oxidative stress parameters and pathway of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-binding antioxidant response elements (Nrf2-ARE) were examined to check whether the Nrf2-ARE pathway was involved in the InTP-induced alteration of mesodopaminergic system in aged male rats. The exploratory and motor behavioral deficits, as well as the reduced expression of dopamine, tyrosine hydroxylase, and dopamine transporter, which indicated the declined activity of mesodopaminergic system, were ameliorated in rats administered with 12-week InTP. The results indicated that chronic InTP supplements could effectively influence the brain function activity in a way opposite to the effect of aging on the mesodopaminergic system of rats. The increased levels of Nrf2, heme oxygenase-1, and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1 in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, but not in the hippocampus of InTP-administered aged male rats, indicated that the ameliorative effect of InTP supplements on mesodopaminergic system might be related to the region-specific activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoliang Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China; Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China
| | - Shuangcheng Li
- Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China
| | - Yunxiao Kang
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China
| | - Jing Che
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China; Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071000, PR China
| | - Rui Cui
- Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China
| | - Shuang Song
- Institute of Basic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China
| | - Huixian Cui
- Department of Human Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China
| | - Geming Shi
- Department of Neurobiology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, PR China.
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Deficits in coordinated motor behavior and in nigrostriatal dopaminergic system ameliorated and VMAT2 expression up-regulated in aged male rats by administration of testosterone propionate. Exp Gerontol 2016; 78:1-11. [PMID: 26956479 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The effects of testosterone propionate (TP) supplements on the coordinated motor behavior and nigrostriatal dopaminergic (NSDA) system were analyzed in aged male rats. The present study showed the coordinated motor behavioral deficits, the reduced activity of NSDA system and the decreased expression of vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) in 24 month-old male rats. Long term TP treatment improved the motor coordination dysfunction with aging. Increased tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter, as well as dopamine and its metabolites were found in the NSDA system of TP-treated 24 month-old male rats, indicative of the amelioratory effects of TP supplements on NSDA system of aged male rats. The enhancement of dopaminergic (DAergic) activity of NSDA system by TP supplements might underlie the amelioration of the coordinated motor dysfunction in aged male rats. TP supplements up-regulated VMAT2 expression in NSDA system of aged male rats. Up-regulation of VMAT2 expression in aged male rats following chronic TP treatment might be involved in the maintenance of DAergic function of NSDA system in aged male rats.
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15
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Turillazzi E, Neri M, Cerretani D, Cantatore S, Frati P, Moltoni L, Busardò FP, Pomara C, Riezzo I, Fineschi V. Lipid peroxidation and apoptotic response in rat brain areas induced by long-term administration of nandrolone: the mutual crosstalk between ROS and NF-kB. J Cell Mol Med 2016; 20:601-12. [PMID: 26828721 PMCID: PMC5125979 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the played by oxidative stress in the apoptotic response in different brain areas of rats chronically treated with supra-physiological doses of nandrolone decanoate (ND). Immunohistochemical study and Western blot analysis were performed to evaluate cells' apoptosis and to measure the effects of expression of specific mediators, such as NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells), Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2), SMAC/DIABLO (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases/direct IAP-binding protein with low PI) and VMAT2 (vesicular monoamine transporter 2) on apoptosis. The results of the present study indicate that a long-term administration of ND promotes oxidative injury in rat brain specific areas. A link between oxidative stress and NF-κB signalling pathways is supported by our results. In addition to high levels of oxidative stress, we consistently observed a strong immunopositivity to NF-κB. It has been argued that one of the pathways leading to the activation of NF-κB could be under reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated control. In fact, growing evidence suggests that although in limited doses, endogenous ROS may play an activating role in NF-κB signalling, while above a certain threshold, they may negatively impact upon this signalling. However, a mutual crosstalk between ROS and NF-κB exists and recent studies have shown that ROS activity is subject to negative feedback regulation by NF-κB, and that this negative regulation of ROS is the means through which NF-κB counters programmed cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Turillazzi
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Margherita Neri
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Daniela Cerretani
- Pharmacology Unit, Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, University of Siena, Italy
| | - Santina Cantatore
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Paola Frati
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy.,Neuromed, Istituto Mediterraneo Neurologico (IRCCS), Pozzilli, Isernia, Italy
| | - Laura Moltoni
- Pharmacology Unit, Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, University of Siena, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Cristoforo Pomara
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Irene Riezzo
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Vittorio Fineschi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
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Busardò FP, Frati P, Sanzo MD, Napoletano S, Pinchi E, Zaami S, Fineschi V. The impact of nandrolone decanoate on the central nervous system. Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 13:122-31. [PMID: 26074747 PMCID: PMC4462037 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666141210225822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2014] [Revised: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Nandrolone is included in the class II of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) which is
composed of 19-nor-testosterone-derivates. In general, AAS is a broad and rapidly increasing group
of synthetic androgens used both clinically and illicitly. AAS in general and nandrolone decanoate
(ND) in particular have been associated with several behavioral disorders. The purpose of this review
is to summarize the literature concerning studies dealing with ND exposure on animal models, mostly
rats that mimic human abuse systems (i.e. supraphysiological doses). We have focused in particular
on researches that have investigated how ND alters the function and expression of neuronal signaling molecules that
underlie behavior, anxiety, aggression, learning and memory, reproductive behaviors, locomotion and reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco P Busardò
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Frati
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy; ; Neuromed, Istituto Mediterraneo Neurologico (IRCCS), Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, 86077 Isernia, Italy
| | - Mariantonia Di Sanzo
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Napoletano
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrica Pinchi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Vittorio Fineschi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy
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Martínez-Rivera FJ, Natal-Albelo EJ, Martínez NA, Orozco-Vega RA, Muñiz-Seda OA, Barreto-Estrada JL. The effect of the anabolic steroid, nandrolone, in conditioned place preference and D1 dopamine receptor expression in adolescent and adult mice. Behav Processes 2015; 113:81-5. [PMID: 25612844 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Adolescents and adults engage in anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) misuse seeking their anabolic effects, even though later on, many could develop neuropsychological dependence. Previously, we have shown that nandrolone induces conditioned place preference (CPP) in adult male mice. However, whether nandrolone induces CPP during adolescence remains unknown. In this study, the CPP test was used to determine the rewarding properties of nandrolone (7.5 mg/kg) in adolescent mice. In addition, since D1 dopamine receptors (D1DR) are critical for reward-related processes, the effect of nandrolone on the expression of D1DR in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) was investigated by Western blot analysis. Similar to our previous results, nandrolone induced CPP in adults. However, in adolescents, nandrolone failed to produce place preference. At the molecular level, nandrolone decreased D1DR expression in the NAc only in adult mice. Our data suggest that nandrolone may not be rewarding in adolescents at least during short-term use. The lack of nandrolone rewarding effects in adolescents may be due, in part to differences in D1DR expression during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddyson J Martínez-Rivera
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
| | - Eduardo J Natal-Albelo
- Department of Biology, Río Piedras Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
| | - Namyr A Martínez
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
| | - Roberto A Orozco-Vega
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Cayey Campus, University of Puerto Rico, PR 00736, USA
| | - Oscar A Muñiz-Seda
- Department of Biology, Río Piedras Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA
| | - Jennifer L Barreto-Estrada
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA.
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Pomara C, Neri M, Bello S, Fiore C, Riezzo I, Turillazzi E. Neurotoxicity by synthetic androgen steroids: oxidative stress, apoptosis, and neuropathology: A review. Curr Neuropharmacol 2015; 13:132-45. [PMID: 26074748 PMCID: PMC4462038 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666141210221434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic substances derived from testosterone that are largely employed due to their trophic effect on muscle tissue of athletes at all levels. Since a great number of organs and systems are a target of AAS, their adverse effects are primarily on the following systems: reproductive, hepatic, musculoskeletal, endocrine, renal, immunological, infectious, cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and hematological. Neuropsychiatric and behavioral effects as a result of AAS abuse are well known and described in the literature. Mounting evidence exists suggesting that in addition to psychiatric and behavioral effects, non-medical use of AAS carries neurodegenerative potential. Although, the nature of this association remains largely unexplored, recent animal studies have shown the recurrence of this AAS effect, ranging from neurotrophin unbalance to increased neuronal susceptibility to apoptotic stimuli. Experimental and animal studies strongly suggest that apoptotic mechanisms are at least in part involved in AAS-induced neurotoxicity. Furthermore, a great body of evidence is emerging suggesting that increased susceptibility to cellular oxidative stress could play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative disorders and cognitive impairment. As in other drug-evoked encephalopathies, the key mechanisms involved in AAS - induced neuropathology could represent a target for future neuroprotective strategies. Progress in the understanding of these mechanisms will provide important insights into the complex pathophysiology of AAS-induced neurodegeneration, and will pave the way for forthcoming studies. Supplementary to abandoning the drug abuse that represents the first step in reducing the possibility of irreversible brain damage in AAS abusers, neuroprotective strategies have to be developed and implemented in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristoforo Pomara
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
- Department of Anatomy, University of Malta. Msida, Malta
| | - Margherita Neri
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Stefania Bello
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Carmela Fiore
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Irene Riezzo
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Emanuela Turillazzi
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
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Purves-Tyson TD, Owens SJ, Double KL, Desai R, Handelsman DJ, Weickert CS. Testosterone induces molecular changes in dopamine signaling pathway molecules in the adolescent male rat nigrostriatal pathway. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91151. [PMID: 24618531 PMCID: PMC3949980 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescent males have an increased risk of developing schizophrenia, implicating testosterone in the precipitation of dopamine-related psychopathology. Evidence from adult rodent brain indicates that testosterone can modulate nigrostriatal dopamine. However, studies are required to understand the role testosterone plays in maturation of dopamine pathways during adolescence and to elucidate the molecular mechanism(s) by which testosterone exerts its effects. We hypothesized that molecular indices of dopamine neurotransmission [synthesis (tyrosine hydroxylase), breakdown (catechol-O-methyl transferase; monoamine oxygenase), transport [vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT), dopamine transporter (DAT)] and receptors (DRD1-D5)] would be changed by testosterone or its metabolites, dihydrotestosterone and 17β-estradiol, in the nigrostriatal pathway of adolescent male rats. We found that testosterone and dihydrotestosterone increased DAT and VMAT mRNAs in the substantia nigra and that testosterone increased DAT protein at the region of the cell bodies, but not in target regions in the striatum. Dopamine receptor D2 mRNA was increased and D3 mRNA was decreased in substantia nigra and/or striatum by androgens. These data suggest that increased testosterone at adolescence may change dopamine responsivity of the nigrostriatal pathway by modulating, at a molecular level, the capacity of neurons to transport and respond to dopamine. Further, dopamine turnover was increased in the dorsal striatum following gonadectomy and this was prevented by testosterone replacement. Gene expression changes in the dopaminergic cell body region may serve to modulate both dendritic dopamine feedback inhibition and reuptake in the dopaminergic somatodendritic field as well as dopamine release and re-uptake dynamics at the presynaptic terminals in the striatum. These testosterone-induced changes of molecular indices of dopamine neurotransmission in males are primarily androgen receptor-driven events as estradiol had minimal effect. We conclude that nigrostriatal responsivity to dopamine may be modulated by testosterone acting via androgen receptors to alter gene expression of molecules involved in dopamine signaling during adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tertia D. Purves-Tyson
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Samantha J. Owens
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kay L. Double
- Discipline of Biomedical Science, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Reena Desai
- ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Concord Hospital, Concord, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David J. Handelsman
- ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Concord Hospital, Concord, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Cynthia Shannon Weickert
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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20
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Cunningham RL, Lumia AR, McGinnis MY. Androgenic anabolic steroid exposure during adolescence: ramifications for brain development and behavior. Horm Behav 2013; 64:350-6. [PMID: 23274699 PMCID: PMC3633688 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Puberty and Adolescence". Puberty is a critical period for brain maturation that is highly dependent on gonadal sex hormones. Modifications in the gonadal steroid environment, via the use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), have been shown to affect brain development and behavior. Studies in both humans and animal models indicate that AAS exposure during adolescence alters normal brain remodeling, including structural changes and neurotransmitter function. The most commonly reported behavioral effect is an increase in aggression. Evidence has been presented to identify factors that influence the effect of AAS on the expression of aggression. The chemical composition of the AAS plays a major role in determining whether aggression is displayed, with testosterone being the most effective. The hormonal context, the environmental context, physical provocation and the perceived threat during the social encounter have all been found to influence the expression of aggression and sexual behavior. All of these factors point toward an altered behavioral state that includes an increased readiness to respond to a social encounter with heightened vigilance and enhanced motivation. This AAS-induced state may be defined as emboldenment. The evidence suggests that the use of AAS during this critical period of development may increase the risk for maladaptive behaviors along with neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Cunningham
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Centre at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA.
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Tanehkar F, Rashidy-Pour A, Vafaei AA, Sameni HR, Haghighi S, Miladi-Gorji H, Motamedi F, Akhavan MM, Bavarsad K. Voluntary exercise does not ameliorate spatial learning and memory deficits induced by chronic administration of nandrolone decanoate in rats. Horm Behav 2013; 63:158-65. [PMID: 23068768 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Revised: 09/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Chronic exposure to the anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) nandrolone decanoate (ND) in supra-physiological doses is associated with learning and memory impairments. Given the well-known beneficial effects of voluntary exercise on cognitive functions, we examined whether voluntary exercise would improve the cognitive deficits induced by chronic administration of ND. We also investigated the effects of ND and voluntary exercise on hippocampal BDNF levels. The rats were randomly distributed into 4 experimental groups: the vehicle-sedentary group, the ND-sedentary group, the vehicle-exercise group, and the ND-exercise group. The vehicle-exercise and the ND-exercise groups were allowed to freely exercise in a running wheel for 15 days. The vehicle-sedentary and the ND-sedentary groups were kept sedentary for the same period. Vehicle or ND injections were started 14 days prior to the voluntary exercise and continued throughout the 15 days of voluntary exercise. After the 15-day period, the rats were trained and tested on a water maze spatial task using four trials per day for 5 consecutive days followed by a probe trial two days later. Exercise significantly improved performance during both the training and retention of the water maze task, and enhanced hippocampal BDNF. ND impaired spatial learning and memory, and this effect was not rescued by exercise. ND also potentiated the exercise-induced increase in hippocampal BDNF levels. These results seem to indicate that voluntary exercise is unable to improve the disruption of cognitive functions by chronic ND. Moreover, increased levels of BDNF may play a role in ND-induced impairments in learning and memory. The harmful effects of ND and other AAS on learning and memory should be taken into account when athletes decide to use AAS for performance or body image improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Tanehkar
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center and Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
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Nyberg F, Hallberg M. Interactions between opioids and anabolic androgenic steroids: implications for the development of addictive behavior. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2012; 102:189-206. [PMID: 22748831 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-386986-9.00008-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decades, research on doping agents, such as anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), has revealed that these compounds are often used in combination with other drugs of abuse. It seems that misuse of AAS probably involves more than a desire to enhance appearance or sports performance and studies have revealed that steroids are commonly connected with alcohol, opioids, tobacco, and psychotropic drugs. We have observed that AAS may interact with the endogenous opioids, excitatory amino acids, and dopaminergic pathways involved in the brain reward system. Furthermore, our studies provide evidence that AAS may induce an imbalance in these signal systems leading to an increased sensitivity toward opioid narcotics and central stimulants. In fact, studies performed in various clinics have shown that individuals taking AAS are likely to get addicted to opioids like heroin. This chapter reviews current knowledge on interactions between AAS and endogenous as well as exogenous opioids based not only on research in our laboratory but also on research carried out by several other clinical and preclinical investigators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred Nyberg
- Division of Biological Research on Drug Dependence, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 591, Uppsala, Sweden
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Maior AS, Carvalho AR, Marques-Neto SR, Menezes P, Soares PP, Nascimento JHM. Cardiac autonomic dysfunction in anabolic steroid users. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2012; 23:548-55. [PMID: 22257181 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01436.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate if androgenic-anabolic steroids (AAS) abuse may induce cardiac autonomic dysfunction in recreational trained subjects. Twenty-two men were volunteered for the study. The AAS group (n = 11) utilized AAS at mean dosage of 410 ± 78.6 mg/week. All of them were submitted to submaximal exercise testing using an Astrand-Rhyming protocol. Electrocardiogram (ECG) and respired gas analysis were monitored at rest, during, and post-effort. Mean values of VO2 , VCO2 , and VE were higher in AAS group only at rest. The heart rate variability variables were calculated from ECG using MATLAB-based algorithms. At rest, AAS group showed lower values of the standard deviation of R-R intervals, the proportion of adjacent R-R intervals differing by more than 50 ms (pNN50), the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), and the total, the low-frequency (LF) and the high-frequency (HF) spectral power, as compared to Control group. After submaximal exercise testing, pNN50, RMSSD, and HF were lower, and the LF/HF ratio was higher in AAS group when compared to control group. Thus, the use of supraphysiological doses of AAS seems to induce dysfunction in tonic cardiac autonomic regulation in recreational trained subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Maior
- School of Physical Education and Sports, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Cui R, Zhang G, Kang Y, Cheng Q, Tan H, Cui H, Shi G. Amelioratory effects of testosterone propionate supplement on behavioral, biochemical and morphological parameters in aged rats. Exp Gerontol 2012; 47:67-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2011.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2011] [Revised: 10/20/2011] [Accepted: 10/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Menéndez-Delmestre R, Segarra AC. Testosterone is essential for cocaine sensitization in male rats. Physiol Behav 2010; 102:96-104. [PMID: 20932851 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Revised: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Most studies agree that males and females respond differently to drugs of abuse. In females, estradiol enhances the behavioral response to cocaine. However, studies on the role of testosterone and the locomotor response to psychostimulants in the male rat are inconclusive. Our study was designed to determine the behavioral effects of testosterone on the development and persistence of cocaine sensitization in male rats. We tested different doses of cocaine (10, 15 and 30mg/kg) to determine which dose induced locomotor sensitization in intact (INT) and gonadectomized (GDX) animals. We also investigated if GDX males with testosterone replacement (GDX-T) showed a similar locomotor response to cocaine as INT males. Our data showed that gonadectomy enhanced the locomotor response to a single cocaine injection. This effect was not observed in gonadectomized rats that received testosterone replacement. However, GDX rats did not show a progressive increase in their locomotor response to repeated cocaine administration (15 and 30mg/kg) (sensitization) as did INT and GDX-T animals. It is possible that in GDX males, the initial high locomotor response to cocaine creates a ceiling effect that limits further increase in cocaine-induced hyperactivity. These findings indicate that testosterone not only modulates the behavioral response to a single and to repeated cocaine injections, but is also essential for male rats to become sensitized to cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raissa Menéndez-Delmestre
- Physioogy Department, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936-5067
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Frahm KA, Lumia AR, Fernandez E, Strong R, Roberts JL, McGinnis MY. Effects of anabolic androgenic steroids and social subjugation on behavior and neurochemistry in male rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2010; 97:416-22. [PMID: 20932994 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2010.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2010] [Revised: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Early abuse and anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) both increase aggression. We assessed the behavioral and neurochemical consequences of AAS, alone or in combination with social subjugation (SS), an animal model of child abuse. On P26, gonadally intact male rats began SS consisting of daily pairings with an adult male for 2 weeks followed by daily injections of the AAS, testosterone on P40. As adults, males were tested for sexual and aggressive behaviors towards females in various hormonal conditions and inter-male aggression in a neutral setting using home or opponent bedding. Neurotransmitter levels were assessed using HPLC. Results showed that AAS males displayed significantly more mounts toward sexually receptive, vaginally obstructed females (OBS) and displayed significantly more threats towards ovariectomized females. SS males mounted OBS females significantly less and were not aggressive toward females. The role of olfactory cues in a neutral setting did not affect aggression regardless of treatment. AAS significantly increased brainstem DOPAC and NE. SS decreased 5HIAA, DA, DOPAC, and NE in brainstem. 5HIAA was significantly increased in the prefrontal cortex of all experimental groups. We conclude that AAS and SS differentially affect behavior towards females as well as neurotransmitter levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystle A Frahm
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG. Illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Horm Behav 2010; 58:111-21. [PMID: 19769977 PMCID: PMC2883629 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2009] [Revised: 09/07/2009] [Accepted: 09/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are a family of hormones that includes testosterone and its derivatives. These substances have been used by elite athletes since the 1950s, but they did not become widespread drugs of abuse in the general population until the 1980s. Thus, knowledge of the medical and behavioral effects of illicit AAS use is still evolving. Surveys suggest that many millions of boys and men, primarily in Western countries, have abused AAS to enhance athletic performance or personal appearance. AAS use among girls and women is much less common. Taken in supraphysiologic doses, AAS show various long-term adverse medical effects, especially cardiovascular toxicity. Behavioral effects of AAS include hypomanic or manic symptoms, sometimes accompanied by aggression or violence, which usually occur while taking AAS, and depressive symptoms occurring during AAS withdrawal. However, these symptoms are idiosyncratic and afflict only a minority of illicit users; the mechanism of these idiosyncratic responses remains unclear. AAS users may also ingest a range of other illicit drugs, including both "body image" drugs to enhance physical appearance or performance, and classical drugs of abuse. In particular, AAS users appear particularly prone to opioid use. There may well be a biological basis for this association, since both human and animal data suggest that AAS and opioids may share similar brain mechanisms. Finally, AAS may cause a dependence syndrome in a substantial minority of users. AAS dependence may pose a growing public health problem in future years but remains little studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Kanayama
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02478, USA
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Melloni RH, Ricci LA. Adolescent exposure to anabolic/androgenic steroids and the neurobiology of offensive aggression: a hypothalamic neural model based on findings in pubertal Syrian hamsters. Horm Behav 2010; 58:177-91. [PMID: 19914254 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2009] [Revised: 11/04/2009] [Accepted: 11/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Considerable public attention has been focused on the issue of youth violence, particularly that associated with drug use. It is documented that anabolic steroid use by teenagers is associated with a higher incidence of aggressive behavior and serious violence, yet little is known about how these drugs produce the aggressive phenotype. Here we discuss work from our laboratory on the relationship between the development and activity of select neurotransmitter systems in the anterior hypothalamus and anabolic steroid-induced offensive aggression using pubertal male Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) as an adolescent animal model, with the express goal of synthesizing these data into an cogent neural model of the developmental adaptations that may underlie anabolic steroid-induced aggressive behavior. Notably, alterations in each of the neural systems identified as important components of the anabolic steroid-induced aggressive response occurred in a sub-division of the anterior hypothalamic brain region we identified as the hamster equivalent of the latero-anterior hypothalamus, indicating that this sub-region of the hypothalamus is an important site of convergence for anabolic steroid-induced neural adaptations that precipitate offensive aggression. Based on these findings we present in this review a neural model to explain the neurochemical regulation of anabolic steroid-induced offensive aggression showing the hypothetical interaction between the arginine vasopressin, serotonin, dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and glutamate neural systems in the anterior hypothalamic brain region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard H Melloni
- Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, 125 Nightingale Hall, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Kurling-Kailanto S, Kankaanpää A, Seppälä T. Subchronic nandrolone administration reduces cocaine-induced dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine outflow in the rat nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2010; 209:271-81. [PMID: 20186395 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-1796-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Accepted: 02/08/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) is not only a problem in the world of sports but is associated with the polydrug use of nonathletes. Investigations of the neurochemical effects of AAS have focused in part on the monoaminergic systems, involving, among other things, the development of dependence. We have previously shown that pretreatment with nandrolone decanoate attenuates dose-dependently the increase in extracellular dopamine (DA) concentration evoked by amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioyxymethamphetamine in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate whether the nandrolone pre-exposure modulates the acute neurochemical and behavioral effects of cocaine in rats and whether the effects are long lasting. METHODS DA, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and their metabolites were measured from samples collected from the NAc by microdialysis. The behavior of the animals was recorded. RESULTS The present study demonstrates that five injections of nandrolone (5 and 20 mg/kg) inhibited cocaine-evoked DA and 5-HT outflow in the NAc, locomotor activity (LMA), and stereotyped behavior in experimental animals, and that these effects are seen even after elimination of nandrolone from bloodstream. CONCLUSIONS Given that accumbal outflow of DA and 5-HT, as well as LMA and stereotyped behavior, is related to gratification of stimulant drugs, this study suggests that nandrolone, at the doses tested, has a significant effect on the pleasurable properties of cocaine. Furthermore, because neurochemical and behavioral responses were still attenuated after a fairly long recovery period, it seems that nandrolone may induce long-lasting changes in the brains of rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanna Kurling-Kailanto
- Department of Alcohol, Drugs and Addiction, National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 30, 00271, Helsinki, Finland.
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Salas-Ramirez KY, Montalto PR, Sisk CL. Anabolic steroids have long-lasting effects on male social behaviors. Behav Brain Res 2009; 208:328-35. [PMID: 20036695 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2009.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2009] [Revised: 09/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use by adolescents is steadily increasing. Adolescence involves remodeling of steroid-sensitive neural circuits that mediate social behaviors, and previous studies using animal models document effects of AAS on male social behaviors. The present experiments tested whether AAS have persistent and more pronounced behavioral consequences when drug exposure occurs during adolescence as compared to exposure in adulthood. Male Syrian hamsters were injected daily for 14 days with either vehicle or an AAS cocktail containing testosterone cypionate (2 mg/kg), nandrolone decanoate (2 mg/kg), and boldenone undecylenate (1 mg/kg), either during adolescence (27-41 days of age) or adulthood (63-77 days of age). As adults, subjects were tested two or four weeks after the last injection for either sexual behavior with a receptive female or male-male agonistic behavior in a resident-intruder test. Compared with vehicle-treated males, AAS-treated males, regardless of age of treatment, displayed fewer long intromissions and a significant increase in latency to the first long intromission, indicative of reduced potential to reach sexual satiety. Increased aggression was observed in males exposed to AAS compared with males treated with vehicle, independently of age of AAS treatment. However, unlike hamsters exposed to AAS in adulthood, hamsters exposed to AAS during adolescence did not display any submissive or risk-assessment behaviors up to 4 weeks after discontinuation of AAS treatment. Thus, AAS have long-lasting effects on male sexual and agonistic behaviors, with AAS exposure during adolescence resulting in a more pronounced reduction in submissive behavior compared to AAS exposure in adulthood.
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Abstract
AIMS Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are widely used illicitly to gain muscle and lose body fat. Here we review the accumulating human and animal evidence showing that AAS may cause a distinct dependence syndrome, often associated with adverse psychiatric and medical effects. METHOD We present an illustrative case of AAS dependence, followed by a summary of the human and animal literature on this topic, based on publications known to us or obtained by searching the PubMed database. RESULTS About 30% of AAS users appear to develop a dependence syndrome, characterized by chronic AAS use despite adverse effects on physical, psychosocial or occupational functioning. AAS dependence shares many features with classical drug dependence. For example, hamsters will self-administer AAS, even to the point of death, and both humans and animals exhibit a well-documented AAS withdrawal syndrome, mediated by neuroendocrine and cortical neurotransmitter systems. AAS dependence may particularly involve opioidergic mechanisms. However, AAS differ from classical drugs in that they produce little immediate reward of acute intoxication, but instead a delayed effect of muscle gains. Thus standard diagnostic criteria for substance dependence, usually crafted for acutely intoxicating drugs, must be adapted slightly for cumulatively acting drugs such as AAS. CONCLUSIONS AAS dependence is a valid diagnostic entity, and probably a growing public health problem. AAS dependence may share brain mechanisms with other forms of substance dependence, especially opioid dependence. Future studies are needed to characterize AAS dependence more clearly, identify risk factors for this syndrome and develop treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Kanayama
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG. Features of men with anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence: A comparison with nondependent AAS users and with AAS nonusers. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 102:130-7. [PMID: 19339124 PMCID: PMC2694450 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2009] [Revised: 02/17/2009] [Accepted: 02/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) dependence has been a recognized syndrome for some 20 years, but remains poorly understood. METHODS We evaluated three groups of experienced male weightlifters: (1) men reporting no history of AAS use (N=72); (2) nondependent AAS users reporting no history of AAS dependence (N=42); and (3) men meeting adapted DSM-IV criteria for current or past AAS dependence (N=20). We assessed demographic indices, lifetime history of psychiatric disorders by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, variables related to AAS use, and results from drug tests of urine and hair. RESULTS Nondependent AAS users showed no significant differences from AAS nonusers on any variable assessed. Dependent AAS users, however, differed substantially from both other groups on many measures. Notably, they reported a more frequent history of conduct disorder than nondependent AAS users (odds ratio [95% CI]: 8.0 [1.7, 38.0]) or AAS nonusers (13.1 [2.8, 60.4]) and a much higher lifetime prevalence of opioid abuse and dependence than either comparison group (odds ratios 6.3 [1.2, 34.5] and 18.6 [3.0, 116.8], respectively). CONCLUSIONS Men with AAS dependence, unlike nondependent AAS users or AAS nonusers, showed a distinctive pattern of comorbid psychopathology, overlapping with that of individuals with other forms of substance dependence. AAS dependence showed a particularly strong association with opioid dependence - an observation that recalls recent animal data suggesting similarities in AAS and opioid brain reward mechanisms. Individuals with AAS dependence and individuals with "classical" substance dependence may possibly harbor similar underlying biological and neuropsychological vulnerabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Harrison G. Pope
- Corresponding author. Telephone +1-617-855-2911; Fax +1-617-855-3585; e-mail address:
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Nandrolone abuse decreases anxiety and impairs memory in rats via central androgenic receptors. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 11:925-34. [PMID: 18405416 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145708008754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) affect areas of the central nervous system, which are involved in emotional and cognitive responses such as sexuality, anxiety, and memory. In the present study we imitated the abuse of AASs by administering high doses of the AAS nandrolone decanoate (ND) to rats. Thereafter rats were exposed to an elevated plus-maze and an olfactory social memory test to evaluate their anxiety-like and cognitive behaviour. To reveal whether these emotional and cognitive changes evoked by ND were caused via direct activation of androgenic receptors (ARs) in the brain, the AR antagonist flutamide (FL) was administered intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.). Male rats were randomly divided in four groups, one group received 15 mg/kg ND subcutaneously, once daily for 6 wk (ND group). In the second group, in addition to ND, a daily dose of 5 microg FL was injected i.c.v. also for 6 wk (ND+FL group). The third group of rats received only FL and in the control group the vehicle was injected. The ND group clearly spent more time investigating the open arms in the maze test and recognizing the juvenile during the olfactory social memory test in comparison to the control group. In the ND+FL group rats showed similar emotional behaviour and cognitive ability to that of the control group. Injection of FL alone did not affect either anxiety or memory. These results indicate that repeated, high-dose administration of ND decreases anxiety and impairs memory in rats via direct activation of central ARs.
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Birgner C, Kindlundh-Högberg AMS, Alsiö J, Lindblom J, Schiöth HB, Bergström L. The anabolic androgenic steroid nandrolone decanoate affects mRNA expression of dopaminergic but not serotonergic receptors. Brain Res 2008; 1240:221-8. [PMID: 18809391 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2008] [Revised: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 09/06/2008] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) at supratherapeutic doses is a problem not only in the world of sports, but also among non-athletes using AASs to improve physical appearance and to become more bold and courageous. Investigations of the possible neurochemical effects of AAS have focused partially on the monoaminergic systems, which are involved in aggressive behaviours and the development of drug dependence. In the present study, we administered nandrolone decanoate (3 or 15 mg/kg/day for 14 days) and measured mRNA expression of dopaminergic and serotonergic receptors, transporters and enzymes in the male rat brain using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Expression of the dopamine D1-receptor transcript was elevated in the amygdala and decreased in the hippocampus while the transcript level of the dopamine D4-receptor was increased in the nucleus accumbens. No changes in transcriptional levels were detected among the serotonin-related genes examined in this study. The altered mRNA expression of the dopamine receptors may contribute to some of the behavioural changes often reported in AAS abusers of increased impulsivity, aggression and drug-seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Birgner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Uppsala University, Box 591 Biomedical Centre, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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Nandrolone decreases mu opioid receptor expression in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Neuroreport 2008; 19:1131-5. [DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0b013e328305639d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Birgner C, Kindlundh-Högberg AMS, Oreland L, Alsiö J, Lindblom J, Schiöth HB, Bergström L. Reduced activity of monoamine oxidase in the rat brain following repeated nandrolone decanoate administration. Brain Res 2008; 1219:103-10. [PMID: 18539264 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2008] [Revised: 05/01/2008] [Accepted: 05/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are known as doping agents within sports and body-building, but are currently also abused by other groups in society in order to promote increased courage and aggression. We previously showed that 14 days of daily intramuscular injections of the AAS nandrolone decanoate (15 mg/kg) reduced the extracellular levels of the dopaminergic metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA) in the nucleus accumbens shell using microdialysis. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the same dose regimen of nandrolone decanoate may affect the activities of the dopamine-metabolizing enzymes monoamine oxidases A and B (MAO-A and MAO-B). A radiometric assay was used to determine the activities of MAO-A and MAO-B in rat brain tissues after 14 days of daily i.m. nandrolone decanoate injections at the doses 3 and 15 mg/kg. Gene transcript contents of MAO-A, MAO-B and cathecol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) were measured with quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR. 3 mg/kg of nandrolone decanoate significantly reduced the activity of both MAO-A and -B in the caudate putamen. 15 mg/kg of nandrolone decanoate significantly reduced the activity of MAO-A in the amygdala and increased the gene transcript level of MAO-B in the substantia nigra. In conclusion, imbalanced MAO activities may contribute to explain the impulsive and aggressive behaviour often described in AAS abusers. The reduced MAO activities observed are in line with our previously presented findings of decreased extracellular levels of DOPAC and HVA in the rat brain, indicating decreased monoaminergic activity following repeated AAS administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Birgner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Uppsala University, Box 591 Biomedical Centre, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Kurling S, Kankaanpää A, Seppälä T. Sub-chronic nandrolone treatment modifies neurochemical and behavioral effects of amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in rats. Behav Brain Res 2008; 189:191-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2007] [Accepted: 12/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Triemstra JL, Sato SM, Wood RI. Testosterone and nucleus accumbens dopamine in the male Syrian hamster. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008; 33:386-94. [PMID: 18249072 PMCID: PMC2275113 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2007] [Revised: 12/14/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Most drugs of abuse increase dopamine (DA) in nucleus accumbens (Acb). However, the effects of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) on Acb DA have not been examined. We determined the effects of subcutaneous (sc) testosterone (T) on Acb DA in male hamsters. The effects of sc amphetamine were also examined for comparison. In addition, Acb DA was evaluated during intracerebroventricular (ICV) T infusion, designed to mimic T intake during ICV T self-administration in drug-naïve and drug-preexposed animals. Acb DA was measured using in vivo microdialysis and HPLC-EC. T (7.5 or 37.5 mg/kg), amphetamine (1 or 5 mg/kg), or vehicle was injected sc and Acb DA monitored for 4h. In the ICV experiment, T (1 or 2 microg/infusion) or vehicle was infused ICV every 6 min for 4h and Acb DA monitored. ICV T preexposure was accomplished by repeating the same ICV T infusion (1 microg/infusion) daily for 14 days, and T infusion was accompanied by microdialysis on 15th day. Neither sc nor ICV T administration increased Acb DA. At high dose (2 microg/infusion), ICV T decreased Acb DA. Likewise, daily ICV infusion of T for 15 days did not alter Acb DA. In contrast, sc amphetamine significantly increased Acb DA at both doses. Therefore, unlike many drugs of abuse, AAS does not increase Acb DA levels. The reduction in DA at high T doses is likely due to autonomic depressant effects of AAS. We suggest that AAS act via mechanism distinct from those of stimulants, but may share neural substrates with other drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ruth I. Wood
- *Address all reprint requests and correspondence to: Ruth I. Wood, Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo St. BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, Telephone (323) 442-1980, Fax: (323) 442-3466, e-mail:
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Vastenhouw B, van der Have F, van der Linden AJA, von Oerthel L, Booij J, Burbach JPH, Smidt MP, Beekman FJ. Movies of dopamine transporter occupancy with ultra-high resolution focusing pinhole SPECT. Mol Psychiatry 2007; 12:984-7. [PMID: 17957236 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4002028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A pivotal question in neuropharmacology is how the function of neurotransmitter systems relates to psychiatric diseases. In experimental neuropharmacology, we have dreamt about a looking glass that would allow us to see neurotransmitter systems in action, and about animals that would faithfully serve us as models for human psychiatric disease. Analysis of animal models has been limited by the availability of methods to study in vivo neurotransmitter dynamics. Now, a single photon emission computed tomography system called U-SPECT can localize dopamine transporters in sub-compartments of the mouse brain during a range of points in time. Applied to the midbrain dopamine system of different models of disease, this will aid the understanding of dynamic processes of this neurotransmitter that underlie brain functions and human brain pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Vastenhouw
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Image Sciences Institute, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Birgner C, Kindlundh-Högberg AMS, Nyberg F, Bergström L. Altered extracellular levels of DOPAC and HVA in the rat nucleus accumbens shell in response to sub-chronic nandrolone administration and a subsequent amphetamine challenge. Neurosci Lett 2006; 412:168-72. [PMID: 17123707 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2006.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2006] [Revised: 10/30/2006] [Accepted: 11/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Associated with acts of violence and polydrug use, abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) is an increasing problem in society. The aim of the present study was to elucidate whether sub-chronic treatment with the AAS nandrolone decanoate affects dopamine release and dopamine metabolism in the rat nucleus accumbens shell, before and after an amphetamine challenge. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received daily i.m. injections of nandrolone decanoate (15 mg/kg) or vehicle for 14 days. On day 15, the animals were anaesthetized and a microdialysis probe was implanted into the nucleus accumbens shell. Extracellular fluid was collected 1h before and 3h after a single amphetamine injection (5 mg/kg). The samples were then analyzed regarding the content of dopamine, and its metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA), using HPLC with electrochemical detection. Two weeks of nandrolone decanoate administration caused a significant decrease of the basal DOPAC and HVA levels, which remained low during the first hour following the amphetamine challenge. Dopamine levels did not differ significantly between groups, neither after the nandrolone pre-treatment nor the amphetamine challenge. In conclusion, these novel findings indicate that AAS alter the metabolism of dopamine in a brain region involved in the development of drug dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Birgner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology, Uppsala University, Box 591 Biomedical Centre, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Anabolic Steroid Abuse. J Addict Dis 2006. [DOI: 10.1300/j069v25s01_04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Pereira-Junior PP, Chaves EA, Costa-E-Sousa RH, Masuda MO, de Carvalho ACC, Nascimento JHM. Cardiac autonomic dysfunction in rats chronically treated with anabolic steroid. Eur J Appl Physiol 2006; 96:487-94. [PMID: 16344939 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-005-0111-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/17/2005] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
To date no published data exist regarding the effects of chronic high-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid administration on tonic cardiac autonomic control. The aim of this study was to evaluate, by power spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV), the effects of chronic treatment with supraphysiological doses of nandrolone decanoate (DECA) on tonic cardiac autonomic regulation in sedentary rats. Male Wistar rats were treated weekly with 10 mg kg(-1) of DECA (n=7) or vehicle (CONTROL, n=7) for 10 weeks. At the 8th week of treatment, electrocardiogram was recorded in the conscious state, for time- and frequency-domain HRV analysis. Parasympathetic indexes were reduced in DECA group: high-frequency power (CONTROL=11.1+/-3.0 ms2 vs. DECA=3.8+/-0.6 ms2, P<0.05), RMSSD (CONTROL=5.9+/-0.9 ms vs. DECA 3.5+/-0.3 ms; P<0.05) and pNN5 (CONTROL=31.5+/-7.5 ms vs. DECA=13.2+/-2.6 ms; P<0.05). The sympathetic index LF/HF tended to be higher in DECA group (CONTROL=0.65+/-0.15 vs. DECA=1.17+/-0.26, P=0.0546). In conclusion, chronic treatment with DECA, in rats, impairs tonic cardiac autonomic regulation, which may provide a key mechanism for anabolic steroid-induced arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro P Pereira-Junior
- Laboratório de Eletrofisiologia Cardíaca Antonio Paes de Carvalho, Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, UFRJ, CCS, Bloco G, Ilha do Fundao, 21949-900, Rio de Janeiro RJ, Brazil
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Steensland P, Blakely G, Nyberg F, Fahlke C, Pohorecky LA. Anabolic androgenic steroid affects social aggression and fear-related behaviors in male pair-housed rats. Horm Behav 2005; 48:216-24. [PMID: 15878576 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2004] [Revised: 12/09/2004] [Accepted: 02/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examines the effect of chronic administration of the anabolic androgenic steroid nandrolone decanoate (ND) on dominant and subordinate male rats in a pair-housed condition. Pair-housed rats were assessed for dominance status based on their behavior and alterations in body weights. Throughout the study the rats were allowed limited social interactions on a daily basis. At all other times, a Plexiglas divider kept the rats separated, allowing olfactory and visual contact between the cage mates while preventing significant physical contact. One week into the study all subjects were subcutaneously implanted with a pellet that continuously infused either ND (15 mg/kg/day) or placebo for 21 days. Following the pellet implant, behavioral tests including reassessment for dominance status, and a conditioned fear test were conducted over a period of approximately 2 months to investigate possible long-term changes. The main finding is that during the allowed social interactions, the dominant ND-pretreated rats spent more time on highly aggressive behaviors than the dominant placebo-treated rats. In addition, the probability for highly aggressive behaviors was maintained for the ND-treated rats throughout the study, whereas it was decreased for the placebo-treated rats. The ND-treated subordinate rats showed less fear in a potential threatening situation compared to placebo-treated controls. These findings support the relatively long-term behavioral changes that have been seen in humans after abuse of ND and other anabolic androgenic steroid compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Steensland
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Division of Biological Research on Drug Dependence, Uppsala University, PO Box 591, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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Kurling S, Kankaanpää A, Ellermaa S, Karila T, Seppälä T. The effect of sub-chronic nandrolone decanoate treatment on dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal systems in the brains of rats. Brain Res 2005; 1044:67-75. [PMID: 15862791 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.02.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2004] [Revised: 02/21/2005] [Accepted: 02/24/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are widely abused by adolescents, although persistent AAS use can cause several adverse physical and mental effects, including drug dependence. The first aim of the present study was to study the action of nandrolone decanoate on dopaminergic and serotonergic activities in the brains of rats. In order to evaluate the anabolic or toxic effects of the dosing regimens used, selected peripheral effects were monitored as well. Male Wistar rats were treated for 2 weeks. Injections containing nandrolone (5 and 20 mg/kg, i.m.) or vehicle were given once daily, 5 days a week. The levels of dopamine (DA), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and their metabolites were assayed from dissected brain regions 3 days after the last injection. Blood was collected for chemical assays before, after 1 week treatment and at decapitation. Both doses of nandrolone significantly increased the levels of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), a metabolite of DA in the cerebral cortex, and the higher dose of nandrolone increased the concentrations of 5-HT in the cerebral cortex compared with the vehicle. In addition, after nandrolone treatment, the levels of hemoglobin and erythrocytes increased, and reticulocyte levels decreased. The results suggest that nandrolone at supraphysiological doses, high enough to induce erythropoiesis, induces changes in the dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal system in the brains of rats. These phenomena may account to some of the observed central stimulatory properties that have been reported following AAS abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanna Kurling
- Department of Mental Health and Alcohol Research, National Public Health Institute, Mannerheimintie 166, FIN-00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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