Exposure to enriched environment restores the survival and differentiation of new born cells in the hippocampus and ameliorates depressive symptoms in chronically stressed rats

Anxiety-, and depression-like behavior following short-term finasteride administration is associated with impaired synaptic plasticity and cognitive behavior in male rats

Finasteride, a 5α-Reductase inhibitor, is used to treat male pattern baldness and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Several clinical studies show that chronic finasteride treatment induces persistent depression, suicidal thoughts and cognitive impairment and these symptoms are persistent even after its withdrawal. Previous results from our lab showed that repeated administration of finasteride for six days induces depression-like behavior. However, whether short-term finasteride administration induces anxiety-like behavior and memory impairment and alters synaptic plasticity are not known, which formed the basis of this study. Finasteride was administered to 2-2.5 months old male Wistar rats for six days and subjected to behavioral evaluation, biochemical estimation and synaptic plasticity assessment. Anxiety-like behavior was evaluated in the elevated plus maze (EPM), open field test (OFT), light/dark test (LDT), and novelty suppressed feeding test (NSFT), and learning and memory using novel object recognition test (NORT) and novel object location test (NOLT) and depression-like behavior in the sucrose preference test (SPT). Synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal Schaffer collateral-CA1 was evaluated using slice field potential recordings. Plasma corticosterone levels were estimated using ELISA. Finasteride administration induced anxiety-like behavior in the EPM, OFT, LDT and NSFT, and depression-like behavior in the SPT. Further, finasteride induced hippocampal dependent spatial learning and memory impairment in the NOLT. In addition, finasteride decreased basal synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus. A trend of increased plasma corticosterone levels was observed following repeated finasteride administration. These results indicate the potential role of corticosterone and synaptic plasticity in finasteride-induced effects and further studies will pave way for the development of novel neurosteroid-based therapeutics in neuropsychiatric diseases.

Association Between Trajectory of Socioeconomic Position and Regional Brain Volumes Related to Dementia: Results From the NEIGE Study

BACKGROUND

Low socioeconomic position (SEP) has been linked to an increased risk of dementia. However, little is known about the association between SEP trajectory and regional brain volumes related to dementia.

METHODS

A random sample of community-dwelling older adults (n = 428, age = 73.1 ± 5.5) living in Tokamachi City (Niigata Prefecture, Japan) without medical histories of dementia, Parkinson's disease, and depression who underwent automated assessment of brain volumes on magnetic resonance imaging and responded to a self-administered questionnaire survey in 2017. We measured SEP in childhood (household SEP at age 15), young adulthood (education), mid-adulthood (the longest occupation), and late adulthood (current wealth), and further performed group-based trajectory analysis to identify lifetime trajectory patterns on SEP. Multivariate regression models were employed to investigate the association between SEP trajectories and 4 regional brain volumes related to the development of Alzheimer's disease (ie, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and the parahippocampus), the most common type of dementia.

RESULTS

We found 3 distinct SEP trajectories (stable middle class [68%], downward [23%], and upward [9%]). Compared to those who experienced stable middle class, older adults who experienced the upward SEP mobility had significantly larger hippocampus (β: 213.2, 95% confidence interval: 14.7, 411.8). On the other hand, older adults who experienced downward SEP mobility showed no significant differences in any of the 4 brain structural volumes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that upward life-course SEP mobility is associated with larger volumes of hippocampus in old age. SEP trajectory may offer us a useful lens to enhance our understanding of the etiology of dementia.

Dentate Gyrus Microstructure Is Associated With Resilience After Exposure to Maternal Stress Across Two Human Cohorts

BACKGROUND

Maternal stress (MS) is a well-documented risk factor for impaired emotional development in offspring. Rodent models implicate the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus in the effects of MS on offspring depressive-like behaviors, but mechanisms in humans remain unclear. Here, we tested whether MS was associated with depressive symptoms and DG micro- and macrostructural alterations in offspring across 2 independent cohorts.

METHODS

We analyzed DG diffusion tensor imaging-derived mean diffusivity (DG-MD) and volume in a three-generation family risk for depression study (TGS; n = 69, mean age = 35.0 years) and in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (n = 5196, mean age = 9.9 years) using generalized estimating equation models and mediation analysis. MS was assessed by the Parenting Stress Index (TGS) and a measure compiled from the Adult Response Survey from the ABCD Study. The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and rumination scales (TGS) and the Child Behavior Checklist (ABCD Study) measured offspring depressive symptoms at follow-up. The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Lifetime interview was used to assign depression diagnoses.

RESULTS

Across cohorts, MS was associated with future symptoms and higher DG-MD (indicating disrupted microstructure) in offspring. Higher DG-MD was associated with higher symptom scores measured 5 years (in the TGS) and 1 year (in the ABCD Study) after magnetic resonance imaging. In the ABCD Study, DG-MD was increased in high-MS offspring who had depressive symptoms at follow-up, but not in offspring who remained resilient or whose mother had low MS.

CONCLUSIONS

Converging results across 2 independent samples extend previous rodent studies and suggest a role for the DG in exposure to MS and offspring depression.

Environmental enrichment initiated in adolescence restores the reduced expression of synaptophysin and GFAP in the hippocampus of chronically stressed rats in a sex-specific manner

This study aims at investigating whether environmental enrichment (EE) initiated in adolescence can alter chronic unpredictable stress (CUS)-associated changes in astroglial and synaptic plasticity markers in male and female rats. To this end, we studied possible alterations in hippocampal glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and synaptophysin (SYN) in CUS rats previously housed in EE. Wistar rats on postnatal day (PND) 23 were housed for 10 weeks in standard housing (SH) or enriched conditions. On PND 66, animals were exposed to CUS for 4 weeks. SYN and GFAP expressions were evaluated in CA1 and CA3 subfields and dentate gyrus (DG). CUS reduced the expression of SYN in all hippocampal areas, whereas lower GFAP expression was evident only in CA1 and CA3. The reduced expression of SYN in DG and CA3 was evident to male SH/CUS rats, whereas the reduced GFAP expression in CA1 and CA3 was limited to SH/CUS females. EE housing increased the hippocampal expression of both markers and protected against CUS-associated decreases. Our findings indicate that the decreases in the expression of SYN and GFAP following CUS are region and sex-specific and underline the neuroprotective role of EE against these CUS-associated changes.

Reduction of restricted repetitive behavior by environmental enrichment: Potential neurobiological mechanisms

Restricted repetitive behaviors (RRB) are one of two diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder and common in other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. The term restricted repetitive behavior refers to a wide variety of inflexible patterns of behavior including stereotypy, self-injury, restricted interests, insistence on sameness, and ritualistic and compulsive behavior. However, despite their prevalence in clinical populations, their underlying causes remain poorly understood hampering the development of effective treatments. Intriguingly, numerous animal studies have demonstrated that these behaviors are reduced by rearing in enriched environments (EE). Understanding the processes responsible for the attenuation of repetitive behaviors by EE should offer insights into potential therapeutic approaches, as well as shed light on the underlying neurobiology of repetitive behaviors. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the relationship between EE and RRB and discusses potential mechanisms for EE's attenuation of RRB based on the broader EE literature. Existing gaps in the literature and future directions are also discussed.

Τhe neuroprotective role of environmental enrichment against behavioral, morphological, neuroendocrine and molecular changes following chronic unpredictable mild stress: A systematic review

Environmental factors interact with biological and genetic factors influencing the development and well-being of an organism. The interest in better understanding the role of environment on behavior and physiology led to the development of animal models of environmental manipulations. Environmental enrichment (EE), an environmental condition that allows cognitive and sensory stimulation as well as social interaction, improves cognitive function, reduces anxiety and depressive-like behavior and promotes neuroplasticity. In addition, it exerts protection against neurodegenerative disorders, cognitive aging and deficits aggravated by stressful experiences. Given the beneficial effects of EE on the brain and behavior, preclinical studies have focused on its protective role as an alternative, non-invasive manipulation, to help an organism to cope better with stress. A valid, reliable and effective animal model of chronic stress that enhances anxiety and depression-like behavior is the chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). The variety of stressors and the unpredictability in the time and sequence of exposure to prevent habituation, render CUMS an ethologically relevant model. CUMS has been associated with dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, elevation in the basal levels of stress hormones, reduction in brain volume, dendritic atrophy and alterations in markers of synaptic plasticity. Although numerous studies have underlined the compensatory role of EE against the negative effects of various chronic stress regimens (e.g. restraint and social isolation), research concerning the interaction between EE and CUMS is sparse. The purpose of the current systematic review is to present up-to-date research findings regarding the protective role of EE against the negative effects of CUMS.

Mifepristone blocks the anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects of allopregnanolone in male rats

BACKGROUND

Allopregnanolone (3α, 5α-tetrahydroprogesterone) is an inhibitory neurosteroid synthesized from progesterone via 5α-reductase activity in the brain and has anxiolytic, antidepressant, sedative, anticonvulsant, and analgesic activity. Altered levels of allopregnanolone cause anxiety, depression, premenstrual syndrome, and psychiatric disorders. Although allopregnanolone exerts most of its actions by modulating GABAA receptor, NMDA receptor, BDNF expression, and PXR activity, a recent study showed its effects are blocked by mifepristone on lordosis behavior which indicates the involvement of progestin or glucocorticoid receptors in the effects of allopregnanolone since mifepristone blocks both these receptors. However, whether these receptors are involved in acute anxiolytic or antidepressant-like effects is unknown.

METHODS

Adult male Wistar rats were used to study whether the prior administration of mifepristone would alter the effects of allopregnanolone in the elevated plus maze (EPM) and forced swim test (FST) was evaluated.

RESULTS

10 mg/Kg dose of allopregnanolone increased percent open arm entries in the EPM, whereas 3 mg/Kg dose of allopregnanolone decreased percent immobility in the FST. Mifepristone administration resulted in a U-shaped response in the FST (with 1 mg/Kg, s.c., decreasing the immobility time) without significantly impacting the behavior in the EPM. In combination studies, mifepristone blocked the anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of allopregnanolone.

CONCLUSION

The current study provides evidence for the first time that progestin or glucocorticoid receptors are involved in the acute anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of allopregnanolone. Understanding the mechanism of action of allopregnanolone will help us design better therapeutic strategies to treat neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression and anxiety.

Beneficial effects and neurobiological aspects of environmental enrichment associated to major depressive disorder and autism spectrum disorder

A suitable enriched environment favors development but can also influence behavior and neuronal circuits throughout development. Studies have shown that environmental enrichment (EE) can be used as an essential tool or combined with conventional treatments to improve psychiatric and neurological symptoms, including major depressive disorder (MDD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Both disorders affect a significant percentage of the world's population and have complex pathophysiology. Moreover, the available treatments for MDD and ASD are still inadequate for many affected individuals. Experimental models demonstrate that EE has significant positive effects on behavioral modulation. In addition, EE has effects on neurobiology, including improvement in synaptic connections and neuroplasticity, modulation of neurotransmissions, a decrease in inflammation and oxidative stress, and other neurobiology effects that can be involved in the pathophysiology of MDD and ASD. Thus, this review aims to describe the leading behavioral and neurobiological effects associated with EE in MDD and ASD.

Olfactory loss is a predisposing factor for depression, while olfactory enrichment is an effective treatment for depression

The loss of olfactory stimulation correlates well with at least 68 widely differing neurological disorders, including depression, and we raise the possibility that this relationship may be causal. That is, it seems possible that olfactory loss makes the brain vulnerable to expressing the symptoms of these neurological disorders, while daily olfactory enrichment may decrease the risk of expressing these symptoms. This situation resembles the cognitive reserve that is thought to protect people with Alzheimer’s neuropathology from expressing the functional deficit in memory through the cumulative effect of intellectual stimulation. These relationships also resemble the functional response of animal models of human neurological disorders to environmental enrichment, wherein the animals continue to have the induced neuropathology, but do not express the symptoms as they do in a standard environment with restricted sensorimotor stimulation.

Poor body condition is associated with lower hippocampal plasticity and higher gut methanogen abundance in adult laying hens from two housing systems

It is still unclear which commercial housing system provides the best quality of life for laying hens. In addition, there are large individual differences in stress levels within a system. Hippocampal neurogenesis or plasticity may provide an integrated biomarker of the stressors experienced by an individual. We selected 12 adult hens each with good and poor body condition (based on body size, degree of feather cover and redness of the comb) from a multi-tier free range system containing H&N strain hens, and from an enriched cage system containing Hy-Line hens (n = 48 total). Immature neurons expressing doublecortin (DCX) were quantified in the hippocampus, contents of the caecal microbiome were sequenced, and expression of inflammatory cytokines was measured in the spleen. DCX⁺ cell densities did not differ between the housing systems. In both systems, poor condition hens had lower DCX⁺ cell densities, exhibited elevated splenic expression of interleukin-6 (IL6) mRNA, and had a higher relative caecal abundance of methanogenic archea Methanomethylophilaceae. The findings suggest poor body condition is an indicator that individual hens have experienced a comparatively greater degree of cumulative chronic stress, and that a survey of the proportion of hens with poor body conditions might be one way to evaluate the impact of housing systems on hen welfare.

The roles, mechanism, and mobilization strategy of endogenous neural stem cells in brain injury

Brain injury poses a heavy disease burden in the world, resulting in chronic deficits. Therapies for brain injuries have been focused on pharmacologic, small molecule, endocrine and cell-based therapies. Endogenous neural stem cells (eNSCs) are a group of stem cells which can be activated in vivo by damage, neurotrophic factors, physical factor stimulation, and physical exercise. The activated eNSCs can proliferate, migrate and differentiate into neuron, oligodendrocyte and astrocyte, and play an important role in brain injury repair and neural plasticity. The roles of eNSCs in the repair of brain injury include but are not limited to ameliorating cognitive function, improving learning and memory function, and promoting functional gait behaviors. The activation and mobilization of eNSCs is important to the repair of injured brain. In this review we describe the current knowledge of the common character of brain injury, the roles and mechanism of eNSCs in brain injury. And then we discuss the current mobilization strategy of eNSCs following brain injury. We hope that a comprehensive awareness of the roles and mobilization strategy of eNSCs in the repair of cerebral ischemia may help to find some new therapeutic targets and strategy for treatment of stroke.

Encore: Behavioural animal models of stress, depression and mood disorders

Animal studies over the past two decades have led to extensive advances in our understanding of pathogenesis of depressive and mood disorders. Among these, rodent behavioural models proved to be of highest informative value. Here, we present a comprehensive overview of the most popular behavioural models with respect to physiological, circuit, and molecular biological correlates. Behavioural stress paradigms and behavioural tests are assessed in terms of outcomes, strengths, weaknesses, and translational value, especially in the domain of pharmacological studies.

Differential effects of levetiracetam on hippocampal CA1 synaptic plasticity and molecular changes in the dentate gyrus in epileptic rats

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form of focal epilepsies. Pharmacological treatment with anti-seizure drugs (ASDs) remains the mainstay in epilepsy management. Levetiracetam (LEV) is a second-generation ASD with a novel SV2A protein target and is indicated for treating focal epilepsies. While there is considerable literature in acute models, its effect in chronic epilepsy is less clear. Particularly, its effects on neuronal excitability, synaptic plasticity, adult hippocampal neurogenesis, and histological changes in chronic epilepsy have not been evaluated thus far, which formed the basis of the present study. Six weeks post-lithium-pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE), epileptic rats were injected with levetiracetam (54mg/kg b.w. i.p.) once daily for two weeks. Following LEV treatment, Schaffer collateral - CA1 (CA3-CA1) synaptic plasticity and structural changes in hippocampal subregions CA3 and CA1 were evaluated. The number of doublecortin (DCX⁺) and reelin (RLN⁺) positive neurons was estimated. Further, mossy fiber sprouting was evaluated in DG by Timm staining, and splash test was performed to assess the anxiety-like behavior. Chronic epilepsy resulted in decreased basal synaptic transmission and increased paired-pulse facilitation without affecting post-tetanic potentiation and long-term potentiation. Moreover, chronic epilepsy decreased hippocampal subfields volume, adult hippocampal neurogenesis, and increased reelin expression and mossy fiber sprouting with increased anxiety-like behavior. LEV treatment restored basal synaptic transmission and paired-pulse facilitation ratio in CA3-CA1 synapses. LEV also restored the CA1 subfield volume in chronic epilepsy. LEV did not affect epilepsy-induced abnormal adult hippocampal neurogenesis, ectopic migration of newborn granule cells, mossy fiber sprouting in DG, and anxiety-like behavior. Our results indicate that in addition to reducing seizures, LEV has favorable effects on synaptic transmission and structural plasticity in chronic epilepsy. These findings add new dimensions to the use of LEV in chronic epilepsy and paves way for further research into its effects on cognition and affective behavior.

Application of Green Technologies in Design-Based Extraction of Celastrus paniculatus (Jyotishmati) Seeds, SEM, GC-MS Analysis, and Evaluation for Memory Enhancing Potential

Background

The Celastrus paniculatus (CP), commonly known as Jyotishmati, is considered as “elixir of life” by Indian people for the prevention or management of many ailments. The seed powder and its extract have widely used commercially for the preparation of various Ayurvedic formulations for the improvement of memory. CP seeds were generally extracted by conventional extraction methods (CEMs) which are assumed to impact environment burden and also produce low extract yield. Green extraction with possible improvement in extract yield has always been the need of hour for selected medicinal plant.

Objective

In the present research, we aimed to optimize the different extraction factors in microwave and ultrasound-based extraction. The various extracts obtained in conventional and green methods are also evaluated for the possible improvement in memory enhancing potential.

Materials and Methods

The selected medicinal herb was extracted by CEM (maceration and percolation). In green methods such microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasound assisted-extraction (UAE), various parameters were optimized using Box-Behnken design coupled with response surface methodology. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analyses were also done to confirm the possible improvement in concentration of plant actives. The Swiss albino mice were used to evaluate memory enhancing potential of different extracts.

Results

At the optimized conditions MAE and UAE the extraction yield, total phenolic content (TPC) and Total flavonoid content (TFC) are significantly improved. The GC-MS analysis further confirms the improvement in concentration of certain fatty acid esters, pilocarpine, and steroidal compounds in optimized extracts. The optimized extracts also exhibited the significant improvement in behavioral parameters, oxidative stress-induced parameters, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory potential.

Discussion and Conclusion

From the results, we can say that the application of green technologies in design-based extraction of selected herb not only significantly reduces the extraction time but also improves the extract yield and concentration of plant actives. In nutshell, it can be concluded that the green approaches for extraction of seeds of Celastrus paniculatus could be scale up at a commercial level to meet the rising demand for herbal extract.

Steroid hormones and hippocampal neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain

Hippocampal neurogenesis persists across the lifespan in many species, including rodents and humans, and is associated with cognitive performance and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disease and psychiatric disorders. Neurogenesis is modulated by steroid hormones that change across development and differ between the sexes in rodents and humans. Here, we discuss the effects of stress and glucocorticoid exposure from gestation to adulthood as well as the effects of androgens and estrogens in adulthood on neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Throughout the review we highlight sex differences in the effects of steroid hormones on neurogenesis and how they may relate to hippocampal function and disease. These data highlight the importance of examining age and sex when evaluating the effects of steroid hormones on hippocampal neurogenesis.

Short Daily Exposure to Environmental Enrichment, Fluoxetine, or Their Combination Reverses Deterioration of the Coat and Anhedonia Behaviors with Differential Effects on Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Chronically Stressed Mice

Depression is a neuropsychiatric disorder with a high impact on the worldwide population. To overcome depression, antidepressant drugs are the first line of treatment. However, pre-clinical studies have pointed out that antidepressants are not entirely efficacious and that the quality of the living environment after stress cessation may play a relevant role in increasing their efficacy. As it is unknown whether a short daily exposure to environmental enrichment during chronic stress and antidepressant treatment will be more effective than just the pharmacological treatment, this study analyzed the effects of fluoxetine, environmental enrichment, and their combination on depressive-associated behavior. Additionally, we investigated hippocampal neurogenesis in mice exposed to chronic mild stress. Our results indicate that fluoxetine reversed anhedonia. Besides, fluoxetine reversed the decrement of some events of the hippocampal neurogenic process caused by chronic mild stress. Conversely, short daily exposure to environmental enrichment changed the deterioration of the coat and anhedonia. Although, this environmental intervention did not produce significant changes in the neurogenic process affected by chronic mild stress, fluoxetine plus environmental enrichment showed similar effects to those caused by environmental enrichment to reverse depressive-like behaviors. Like fluoxetine, the combination reversed the declining number of Ki67, doublecortin, calretinin cells and mature newborn neurons. Finally, this study suggests that short daily exposure to environmental enrichment improves the effects of fluoxetine to reverse the deterioration of the coat and anhedonia in chronically stressed mice. In addition, the combination of fluoxetine with environmental enrichment produces more significant effects than those caused by fluoxetine alone on some events of the neurogenic process. Thus, environmental enrichment improves the benefits of pharmacological treatment by mechanisms that need to be clarified.

Environmental enrichment rescues survival and function of adult-born neurons following early life stress

Adverse experiences early in life are associated with the development of psychiatric illnesses. The hippocampus is likely to play pivotal role in generating these effects: it undergoes significant development during childhood and is extremely reactive to stress. In rodent models, stress in the pre-pubertal period impairs adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) and behaviours which rely on this process. In normal adult animals, environmental enrichment (EE) is a potent promoter of AHN and hippocampal function. Whether exposure to EE during adolescence can restore normal hippocampal function and AHN following pre-pubertal stress (PPS) is unknown. We investigated EE as a treatment for reduced AHN and hippocampal function following PPS in a rodent model. Stress was administered between post-natal days (PND) 25-27, EE from PND 35 to early adulthood, when behavioural testing and assessment of AHN took place. PPS enhanced fear reactions to a conditioned stimulus (CS) following a trace fear protocol and reduced the survival of 4-week-old adult-born neurons throughout the adult hippocampus. Furthermore, we show that fewer adult-born neurons were active during recall of the CS stimulus following PPS. All effects were reversed by EE. Our results demonstrate lasting effects of PPS on the hippocampus and highlight the utility of EE during adolescence for restoring normal hippocampal function. EE during adolescence is a promising method of enhancing impaired hippocampal function resulting from early life stress, and due to multiple benefits (low cost, few side effects, widespread availability) should be more thoroughly explored as a treatment option in human sufferers of childhood adversity.

Enriched environment ameliorates chronic temporal lobe epilepsy-induced behavioral hyperexcitability and restores synaptic plasticity in CA3-CA1 synapses in male Wistar rats

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form of focal epilepsies. Pharmacoresistance and comorbidities pose significant challenges to its treatment necessitating the development of non-pharmacological approaches. In an earlier study, exposure to enriched environment (EE) reduced seizure frequency and duration and ameliorated chronic epilepsy-induced depression in rats. However, the cellular basis of beneficial effects of EE remains unknown. Accordingly, in the current study, we evaluated the effects of EE in chronic epilepsy-induced changes in behavioral hyperexcitability, synaptic transmission, synaptophysin (SYN), and calbindin (CB) expression, hippocampal subfield volumes and cell density in male Wistar rats. Epilepsy was induced by lithium-pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. Chronic epilepsy resulted in behavioral hyperexcitability, decreased basal synaptic transmission, increased paired-pulse facilitation ratio, decreased hippocampal subfields volumes. Moreover, epileptic rats showed decreased synaptophysin and CB expression in the hippocampus. Six weeks post-SE, epileptic rats were exposed to EE for 2 weeks, 6 hr/day. EE significantly reduced the behavioral hyperexcitability and restored basal synaptic transmission correlating with increased expression of SYN and CB. Our results reaffirm the beneficial effects of EE on behavior in chronic epilepsy and establishes some of the putative cellular mechanisms. Since drug resistance and comorbidities are a major concern in TLE, we propose EE as a potent non-pharmacological treatment modality to mitigate these changes in chronic epilepsy.

Gonadotropin levels reduced in seven days immobilization stress-induced depressive-like behavior in female rats

OBJECTIVES

Reproduction is one of the physiological functions that are often negatively affected by chronic stress. We aimed to examine effects of two distinct 7-day chronic immobilization stress (IMO) models on gonadotropins levels and depression-like behaviors in female rats.

METHODS

Adult Wistar albino female rats were divided into three groups as follows (n=7 for each group): control, IMO-1 (45 min daily for 7-day) and IMO-2 (45 min twice a day for 7-day). Neuropsychiatric behaviors were determined by using forced swimming test (FST) and open field test (OFT). Gonadotropins were analyzed using ELISA tests.

RESULTS

In FST, swimming was lower, and immobility was higher in the IMO-1 group and IMO--2 group. Climbing score of the IMO-2 group was higher compared to the control group. In OFT, there was no significant alteration in the mean velocity, total distance, duration of time spent in the central area and duration of latency in the central area between the stress groups and the control group. Final body weight and percentage of body weight change were lower in both stress groups. The follicle-stimulating hormone level was lower only in the IMO-2 group, and the luteinizing hormone concentrations were significantly lower in the IMO-1 group and IMO-2 group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicated that depression-like behaviors increased, and gonadotropins decreased in the female rats exposed to 7-day chronic IMO.

Investigation of Effects of Two Chronic Stress Protocols on Depression-Like Behaviors and Brain Mineral Levels in Female Rats: an Evaluation of 7-Day Immobilization Stress

We aimed to investigate the effects of two different chronic immobilization stress protocols on depression-related behaviors and brain mineral levels. Adult female Wistar albino rats were divided into 3 groups as follows (n = 10/group): control, immobilization stress-1 (45 min daily for 7 days), and immobilization stress-2 (45 min twice a day for 7 day). Stress-related behavior was evaluated by means of the forced swimming test (FST) and open field test (OFT). Minerals were analyzed using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. In the FST, swimming and immobility were significantly lower in the immobilization stress-1 and immobilization stress-2 groups. The climbing duration of the immobilization stress-2 group was higher than the control group. In the OFT, percentage of time spent in the central area was significantly lower in the immobilization stress-1 and immobilization stress-2 groups. Values of latency to center area, rearing, and grooming did not significantly differ between groups. In the immobilization stress-1 group, zinc was lower, and iron, copper, and manganese were higher than the control group. In the immobilization stress-2 group, copper and manganese were higher, and phosphate was lower than the control group. Our results showed that depression-related behaviors were more dominant in the immobilization stress-1 group. A decrease in the brain zinc level was valid only for the immobilization stress-1 group. These results point to the role of low brain zinc levels in the pathophysiology of depression.

Altered Dentate Gyrus Microstructure in Individuals at High Familial Risk for Depression Predicts Future Symptoms

BACKGROUND

Offspring of individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) are at increased risk for developing MDD themselves. Altered hippocampal, and specifically dentate gyrus (DG), structure and function may be involved in depression development. However, hippocampal abnormalities could also be a consequence of the disease. For the first time, we tested whether abnormal DG micro- and macrostructure were present in offspring of individuals with MDD and whether these abnormalities predicted future symptomatology.

METHODS

We measured the mean diffusivity of gray matter, a measure of microstructure, via diffusion tensor imaging and volume of the DG via structural magnetic resonance imaging in 102 generation 2 and generation 3 offspring at high and low risk for depression, defined by the presence or absence, respectively, of moderate to severe MDD in generation 1. Prior, current, and future depressive symptoms were tested for association with hippocampal structure.

RESULTS

DG mean diffusivity was higher in individuals at high risk for depression, regardless of a lifetime history of MDD. While DG mean diffusivity was not associated with past or current depressive symptoms, higher mean diffusivity predicted higher symptom scores 8 years later. DG microstructure partially mediated the association between risk and future symptoms. DG volume was smaller in high-risk generation 2 but not in high-risk generation 3.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these findings suggest that the DG has a role in the development of depression. Furthermore, DG microstructure, more than macrostructure, is a sensitive risk marker for depression and partially mediates future depressive symptoms.

Modulatory action of environmental enrichment on hormonal and behavioral responses induced by chronic stress in rats: Hypothalamic renin-angiotensin system components

Environmental enrichment (EE) has been studied as a protocol that can improve brain plasticity and may protect against negative insults such as chronic stress. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of EE on the hormonal and behavioral responses induced by chronic mild unpredictable stress (CMS) in rats, considering the involvement of the renin-angiotensin system. Male adult rats were divided into 4 groups: control, CMS, EE, and CMS + EE, and the experimental protocol lasted for 7 weeks. EE was performed during 7 weeks, 5 days per week, 2 h per day. CMS was applied during weeks 3, 4, and 5. After the CMS (week 6), depression-like behavior was evaluated by forced swimming and sucrose consumption tests, anxiety level was evaluated using the elevated plus-maze test, and memory was evaluated using the Y-maze test. On week 7, the animals were euthanized and basal plasma levels of corticosterone and catecholamines were determined. The hypothalamus was isolated and tissue levels of angiotensin peptides were evaluated. CMS increased plasma corticosterone, norepinephrine, and epinephrine basal concentrations, induced depression-like behaviors, impaired memory, and increased hypothalamic angiotensin I, II, and IV concentrations. EE decreased stress hormones secretion, depression-like behaviors, memory impairment, and hypothalamic angiotensin II induced by stress. Reductions of anxiety-like behavior and norepinephrine secretion were observed in both stressed and unstressed groups. The results indicated that EE seemed to protect adult rats against hormonal and behavioral CMS effects, and that the reduction of angiotensin II could contribute to these effects.

Differential impact of stress and environmental enrichment on corticolimbic circuits

Stress exposure can produce profound changes in physiology and behavior that can impair health and well-being. Of note, stress exposure is linked to anxiety disorders and depression in humans. The widespread impact of these disorders warrants investigation into treatments to mitigate the harmful effects of stress. Pharmacological treatments fail to help many with these disorders, so recent work has focused on non-pharmacological alternatives. One of the most promising of these alternatives is environmental enrichment (EE). In rodents, EE includes social, physical, and cognitive stimulation for the animal, in the form of larger cages, running wheels, and toys. EE successfully reduces the maladaptive effects of various stressors, both as treatment and prophylaxis. While we know that EE can have beneficial effects under stress conditions, the morphological and molecular mechanisms underlying these behavioral effects are still not well understood. EE is known to alter neurogenesis, dendrite development, and expression of neurotrophic growth factors, effects that vary by type of enrichment, age, and sex. To add to this complexity, EE has differential effects in different brain regions. Understanding how EE exerts its protective effects on morphological and molecular levels could hold the key to developing more targeted pharmacological treatments. In this review, we summarize the literature on the morphological and molecular consequences of EE and stress in key emotional regulatory pathways in the brain, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala. The similarities and differences among these regions provide some insight into stress-EE interaction that may be exploited in future efforts toward prevention of, and intervention in, stress-related diseases.

Stress-Induced Microstructural Alterations Correlate With the Cognitive Performance of Rats: A Longitudinal in vivo Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study

Background: Stress-induced cellular changes in limbic brain structures contribute to the development of various psychopathologies. In vivo detection of these microstructural changes may help us to develop objective biomarkers for psychiatric disorders. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is an advanced neuroimaging technique that enables the non-invasive examination of white matter integrity and provides insights into the microstructure of pathways connecting brain areas.

Objective: Our aim was to examine the temporal dynamics of stress-induced structural changes with repeated in vivo DTI scans and correlate them with behavioral alterations.

Methods: Out of 32 young adult male rats, 16 were exposed to daily immobilization stress for 3 weeks. Four DTI measurements were done: one before the stress exposure (baseline), two scans during the stress (acute and chronic phases), and a last one 2 weeks after the end of the stress protocol (recovery). We used a 4.7T small-animal MRI system and examined 18 gray and white matter structures calculating the following parameters: fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD). T2-weighted images were used for volumetry. Cognitive performance and anxiety levels of the animals were assessed in the Morris water maze, novel object recognition, open field, and elevated plus maze tests.

Results: Reduced FA and increased MD and RD values were found in the corpus callosum and external capsule of stressed rats. Stress increased RD in the anterior commissure and reduced MD and RD in the amygdala. We observed time-dependent changes in several DTI parameters as the rats matured, but we found no evidence of stress-induced volumetric alterations in the brains. Stressed rats displayed cognitive impairments and we found numerous correlations between the cognitive performance of the animals and between various DTI metrics of the inferior colliculus, corpus callosum, anterior commissure, and amygdala.

Conclusions: Our data provide further support to the translational value of DTI studies and suggest that chronic stress exposure results in similar white matter microstructural alterations that have been documented in stress-related psychiatric disorders. These DTI findings imply microstructural abnormalities in the brain, which may underlie the cognitive deficits that are often present in stress-related mental disorders.

LPA1 receptor and chronic stress: Effects on behaviour and the genes involved in the hippocampal excitatory/inhibitory balance

The LPA₁ receptor, one of the six characterized G protein-coupled receptors (LPA_1-6) through which lysophosphatidic acid acts, is likely involved in promoting normal emotional behaviours. Current data suggest that the LPA-LPA_1-receptor pathway may be involved in mediating the negative consequences of stress on hippocampal function. However, to date, there is no available information regarding the mechanisms whereby the LPA₁ receptor mediates this adaptation. To gain further insight into how the LPA-LPA₁ pathway may prevent the negative consequences of chronic stress, we assessed the effects of the continuous delivery of LPA on depressive-like behaviours induced by a chronic restraint stress protocol. Because a proper excitatory/inhibitory balance seems to be key for controlling the stress response system, the gene expression of molecular markers of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission was also determined. In addition, the hippocampal expression of mineralocorticoid receptor genes and glucocorticoid receptor genes and proteins as well as plasma corticosterone levels were determined. Contrary to our expectations, the continuous delivery of LPA in chronically stressed animals potentiated rather than inhibited some (e.g., anhedonia, reduced latency to the first immobility period), though not all, behavioural effects of stress. Furthermore, this treatment led to an alteration in the genes coding for proteins involved in the excitatory/inhibitory balance in the ventral hippocampus and to changes in corticosterone levels. In conclusion, the results of this study reinforce the assumption that LPA is involved in emotional regulation, mainly through the LPA₁ receptor, and regulates the effects of stress on hippocampal gene expression and hippocampus-dependent behaviour.

Early-life stress and inflammation: A systematic review of a key experimental approach in rodents

Repeated maternal separation is the most widely used pre-clinical approach to investigate the relationship between early-life chronic stress and its neuropsychiatric and physical consequences. In this systematic review, we identified 46 studies that conducted repeated maternal separation or single-episode maternal separation and reported measurements of interleukin-1b, interleukin-6, interleukin-10, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, or microglia activation and density. We report that in the short-term and in the context of later-life stress, repeated maternal separation has pro-inflammatory immune consequences in diverse tissues. Repeated maternal separation animals exhibit greater microglial activation and elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine signalling in key brain regions implicated in human psychiatric disorders. Notably, repeated maternal separation generally has no long-term effect on cytokine expression in any tissue in the absence of later-life stress. These observations suggest that the elevated inflammatory signalling that has been reported in humans with a history of early-life stress may be the joint consequence of ongoing stressor exposure together with potentiated neural and/or immune responsiveness to stressors. Finally, our findings provide detailed guidance for future studies interrogating the causal roles of early-life stress and inflammation in disorders such as major depression.

The Rights of Children for Optimal Development and Nurturing Care

Millions of children are subjected to abuse, neglect, and displacement, and millions more are at risk for not achieving their developmental potential. Although there is a global movement to change this, driven by children's rights, progress is slow and impeded by political considerations. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, a global comprehensive commitment to children's rights ratified by all countries in the world except the United States (because of concerns about impingement on sovereignty and parental authority), has a special General Comment on "Implementing Child Rights in Early Childhood." More recently, the World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund have launched the Nurturing Care Framework for Early Childhood Development (ECD), which calls for public policies that promote nurturing care interventions and addresses 5 interrelated components that are necessary for optimal ECD. This move is also complemented by the Human Capital Project of the World Bank, providing a focus on the need for investments in child health and nutrition and their long-term benefits. In this article, we outline children's rights under international law, the underlying scientific evidence supporting attention to ECD, and the philosophy of nurturing care that ensures that children's rights are respected, protected, and fulfilled. We also provide pediatricians anywhere with the policy and rights-based frameworks that are essential for them to care for and advocate for children and families to ensure optimal developmental, health, and socioemotional outcomes. These recommendations do not necessarily reflect American Academy of Pediatrics policy.

Astrocytic plasticity at the dorsal dentate gyrus on an animal model of recurrent depression

Astrocytes are now known to play crucial roles in the central nervous system, supporting and closely interacting with neurons and therefore able to modulate brain function. Both human postmortem studies in brain samples from patients diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder and from animal models of depression reported numerical and morphological astrocytic changes specifically in the hippocampus. In particular, these studies revealed significant reductions in glial cell density denoted by a decreased number of S100B-positive cells and a decrease in GFAP expression in several brain regions including the hippocampus. To reveal plastic astrocytic changes in the context of recurrent depression, we longitudinally assessed dynamic astrocytic alterations (gene expression, cell densities and morphologic variations) in the hippocampal dentate gyrus under repeated exposure to unpredictable chronic mild stress (uCMS) and upon treatment with two antidepressants, fluoxetine and imipramine. Both antidepressants decreased astrocytic complexity immediately after stress exposure. Moreover, we show that astrocytic alterations, particularly an increased number of S100B-positive cells, are observed after recurrent stress exposure. Interestingly, these alterations were prevented at the long-term by either fluoxetine or imipramine treatment.

Assessing the role of toll-like receptor in isolated, standard and enriched housing conditions

Depression is a common psychiatric disorder that has been poorly understood. Consequently, current antidepressant agents have clinical limitations. Until today, most have exhibited the slow onset of therapeutic action and, more importantly, their effect on remission has been minimal. Thus, the need to find new forms of therapeutic intervention is urgent. The inflammation hypothesis of depression is widely acknowledged and is one that theories the relationship between the function of the immune system and its contribution to the neurobiology of depression. In this research, we utilized an environmental isolation (EI) approach as a valid animal model of depression, employing biochemical, molecular, and behavioral studies. The aim was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of etanercept, a tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitor on a toll-like receptor 7 (TLR 7) signaling pathway in a depressive rat model, and compare these actions to fluoxetine, a standard antidepressant agent. The behavioral analysis indicates that depression-related symptoms are reduced after acute administration of fluoxetine and, to a lesser extent, etanercept, and are prevented by enriched environment (EE) housing conditions. Experimental studies were conducted by evaluating immobility time in the force swim test and pleasant feeling in the sucrose preference test. The mRNA expression of the TLR 7 pathway in the hippocampus showed that TLR 7, MYD88, and TRAF6 were elevated in isolated rats compared to the standard group, and that acute treatment with an antidepressant and anti-inflammatory drugs reversed these effects. This research indicates that stressful events have an impact on behavioral well-being, TLR7 gene expression, and the TLR7 pathway. We also found that peripheral administration of etanercept reduces depressive-like behaviour in isolated rats: this could be due to the indirect modulation of the TLR7 pathway and other TLRs in the brain. Furthermore, fluoxetine treatment reversed depressive-like behaviour and molecularly modulated the expression of TLR7, suggesting that fluoxetine exerts antidepressant effects partially by modulating the TLR7 signaling pathway.

Effects of Maternal Physical Exercise on Global DNA Methylation and Hippocampal Plasticity of Rat Male Offspring

Intrauterine exposure to exercise is beneficial to cognition of the offspring. Although it is advisable to start practicing physical exercise during pregnancy, it is probable that practitioners or sedentary women keep their previous habits during gestation. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of maternal aerobic exercise initiated before and maintained during gestation, or performed in these isolated periods, on cognition and plasticity in the hippocampus of offspring. Groups of male pups were categorized by the exposure of their mothers to: treadmill off (sedentary, SS), pregestational exercise (ES), gestational exercise (SE) or combined protocols (EE). Between postnatal day 20 (P20) and P23 the offspring received one daily 5-bromo-2'-deoxiuridine (BrdU) injection and, from P47 to P51, were evaluated by the Morris water maze task. At P53, hippocampal global DNA methylation, survival of progenitor cells (BrdU), Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and reelin levels were measured. The offspring from ES, SE and EE mothers demonstrated improved spatial learning compared to SS, but hippocampal DNA methylation was significantly modified only in the offspring from ES mothers. The offspring from ES and SE mothers presented higher number of BrdU+ and reelin+ hippocampal cells than EE and SS. No differences were observed in the BDNF levels among the groups. The maternal pregestational and gestational isolated exercise protocols showed similar effects for offspring plasticity and spatial cognitive ability, while the combined protocol simply improved their spatial learning. Interestingly, only pregestational exercise was able to induce plasticity in the offspring hippocampus associated with modulation of global DNA methylation.

Repeated finasteride administration induces depression-like behavior in adult male rats

The enzyme 5α-Reductase (5α-R) catalyzes the formation of dihydrotestosterone, which is involved in male pattern hair loss and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Finasteride inhibits 5α-R and is used to treat both these conditions. Several clinical studies show that chronic finasteride treatment induces persistent depression, suicidal thoughts, and cognitive impairment. The neural mechanisms underlying these effects of finasteride are not known and it is imperative that an animal model that mimics the clinical neuropsychiatric effects of finasteride is developed. Accordingly, we evaluated the behavioral effects of acute and repeated finasteride administration. Two months old male Wistar rats were administered with either vehicle (hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin) or different doses of finasteride, subcutaneously, either acutely (30 min or 2 h) or for 1, 3, and 6 days (one dose per day). Behavioral despair and motivational behavior were evaluated in the forced swim test (FST) and splash test, respectively. FST and splash test were video-recorded and analyzed offline. Finasteride did not show any effects in the acute, one day or three days studies in the FST. However, repeated finasteride administration for 6 days significantly increased the immobility time. In the splash test, finasteride (100 mg/kg) administration increased the latency to groom and decreased the grooming duration implying lack of motivation in the three-day study. In the six-day study, latency to groom was significantly increased by the 100 mg/Kg dose. Further, a significant dose dependent decrease in the grooming duration was observed. In summary, our results indicate that repeated finasteride administration induces depression-like behavior in rats. This study provides the evidence that an animal model of finasteride-induced depression is feasible to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms, and the pharmacology underlying the neuropsychiatric effects of finasteride. Further, these results provide insights into the potential involvement of neurosteroids in depression and will lead to the development of novel therapeutics for its treatment.

Molecular aspects of depression: A review from neurobiology to treatment

Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known as unipolar depression, is one of the leading causes of disability and disease worldwide. The signs and symptoms are low self‑esteem, anhedonia, feeling of worthlessness, sense of rejection and guilt, suicidal thoughts, among others. This review focuses on studies with molecular-based approaches involving MDD to obtain an integrated, more detailed and comprehensive view of the brain changes produced by this disorder and its treatment and how the Central Nervous System (CNS) produces neuroplasticity to orchestrate adaptive defensive behaviors. This article integrates affective neuroscience, psychopharmacology, neuroanatomy and molecular biology data. In addition, there are two problems with current MDD treatments, namely: 1) Low rates of responsiveness to antidepressants and too slow onset of therapeutic effect; 2) Increased stress vulnerability and autonomy, which reduces the responses of currently available treatments. In the present review, we encourage the prospection of new bioactive agents for the development of treatments with post-transduction mechanisms, neurogenesis and pharmacogenetics inducers that bring greater benefits, with reduced risks and maximized access to patients, stimulating the field of research on mood disorders in order to use the potential of preclinical studies. For this purpose, improved animal models that incorporate the molecular and anatomical tools currently available can be applied. Besides, we encourage the study of drugs that do not present "classical application" as antidepressants, (e.g., the dissociative anesthetic ketamine and dextromethorphan) and drugs that have dual action mechanisms since they represent potential targets for novel drug development more useful for the treatment of MDD.

Diminished responses to monoaminergic antidepressants but not ketamine in a mouse model for neuropsychiatric lupus

BACKGROUND

A significant proportion of patients suffering from major depression fail to remit following treatment and develop treatment-resistant depression. Developing novel treatments requires animal models with good predictive validity. MRL/lpr mice, an established model of systemic lupus erythematosus, show depression-like behavior.

AIMS

We evaluated responses to classical antidepressants, and associated immunological and biochemical changes in MRL/lpr mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

MRL/lpr mice showed increased immobility in the forced swim test, decreased wheel running and sucrose preference when compared with the controls, MRL/MpJ mice. In MRL/lpr mice, acute fluoxetine (30 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)), imipramine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or duloxetine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) did not decrease the immobility time in the Forced Swim Test. Interestingly, acute administration of combinations of olanzapine (0.03 mg/kg, subcutaneously)+fluoxetine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or bupropion (10 mg/kg, i.p.)+fluoxetine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) retained efficacy. A single dose of ketamine but not three weeks of imipramine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or escitalopram (5 mg/kg, i.p.) treatment in MRL/lpr mice restored sucrose preference. Further, we evaluated inflammatory, immune-mediated and neuronal mechanisms. In MRL/lpr mice, there was an increase in autoantibodies' titers, [3H]PK11195 binding and immune complex deposition. There was a significant infiltration of the brain by macrophages, neutrophils and T-lymphocytes. p11 mRNA expression was decreased in the prefrontal cortex. Further, there was an increase in the 5-HT_2aR expression, plasma corticosterone and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the MRL/lpr mice could be a useful model for Treatment Resistant Depression associated with immune dysfunction with potential to expedite antidepressant drug discovery.

The effects of living in an outdoor enclosure on hippocampal plasticity and anxiety-like behavior in response to nematode infection

The hippocampus of rodents undergoes structural remodeling throughout adulthood, including the addition of new neurons. Adult neurogenesis is sensitive to environmental enrichment and stress. Microglia, the brain's resident immune cells, are involved in adult neurogenesis by engulfing dying new neurons. While previous studies using laboratory environmental enrichment have investigated alterations in brain structure and function, they do not provide an adequate reflection of living in the wild, in which stress and environmental instability are common. Here, we compared mice living in standard laboratory settings to mice living in outdoor enclosures to assess the complex interactions among environment, gut infection, and hippocampal plasticity. We infected mice with parasitic worms and studied their effects on adult neurogenesis, microglia, and functions associated with the hippocampus, including cognition and anxiety regulation. We found an increase in immature neuron numbers of mice living in outdoor enclosures regardless of infection. While outdoor living prevented increases in microglial reactivity induced by infection in both the dorsal and ventral hippocampus, outdoor mice with infection had fewer microglia and microglial processes in the ventral hippocampus. We observed no differences in cognitive performance on the hippocampus-dependent object location task between infected and uninfected mice living in either setting. However, we found that infection caused an increase in anxiety-like behavior in the open field test but only in outdoor mice. These findings suggest that living conditions, as well as gut infection, interact to produce complex effects on brain structure and function.

Long-Term Stress and Concomitant Marijuana Smoke Exposure Affect Physiology, Behavior and Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Marijuana is a widely used recreational drug with increasing legalization worldwide for medical purposes. Most experimental studies use either synthetic or plant-derived cannabinoids to investigate the effect of cannabinoids on anxiety and cognitive functions. The aim of this study was to mimic real life situations where young people smoke cannabis regularly to relax from everyday stress. Therefore, we exposed young adult male NMRI mice to daily stress and concomitant marijuana smoke for 2 months and investigated the consequences on physiology, behavior and adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Animals were restrained for 6-h/day for 5-days a week. During the stress, mice were exposed to cannabis smoke for 2 × 30 min/day. We burned 2 “joints” (2 × 0.8 g marijuana) per occasion in a whole body smoking chamber. Cannabinoid content of the smoke and urine samples was measured by HPLC and SFC-MS/MS. Body weight gain was recorded daily and we did unrestrained, whole body plethysmography to investigate pulmonary functions. The cognitive performance of the animals was evaluated by the novel object recognition and Y maze tests. Anxietyrelated spontaneous locomotor activity and self-grooming were assessed in the open field test (OFT). Adult neurogenesis was quantified post mortem in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. The proliferative activity of the precursor cells was detected by the use of the exogenous marker 5-bromo-20-deoxyuridine. Treatment effects on maturing neurons were studied by the examination of doublecortin-positive neurons. Both stress and cannabis exposure significantly reduced body weight gain. Cannabis smoke had no effect on pulmonary functions, but stress delayed the maturation of several lung functions. Neither stress, nor cannabis smoke affected the cognitive functioning of the animals. Results of the OFT revealed that cannabis had a mild anxiolytic effect and markedly increased self-grooming behavior. Stress blocked cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus, but cannabis had no effect on this parameter. Marijuana smoke however had a pronounced impact on doublecortin-positive neurons influencing their number, morphology and migration. In summary, we report here that long-term stress in combination with cannabis smoke exposure can alter several health-related measures, but the present experimental design could not reveal any interaction between these two treatment factors except for body weight gain.

Isoflurane and the Analgesic Effect of Acupuncture and Electroacupuncture in an Animal Model of Neuropathic Pain

The present study aimed to determine whether isoflurane interferes with the analgesic effects of acupuncture (Ac) and electroacupuncture (EA), using a neuropathic pain (NP) rat model. In total, 140 male Wistar rats were used; isoflurane-induced nociceptive response was evaluated using the von Frey test, serum calcium-binding protein β (S100β) levels and nerve growth factor (NGF) levels in the left sciatic nerve. The NP model was induced by chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve at 14 days after surgery. Treatment was initiated after NP induction with or without isoflurane anesthesia (20 min/day/8 days). The von Frey test was performed at baseline, 14 days postoperatively, and immediately, 24 h, and 48 h after the last treatment. Results of the nociceptive test and three-way analysis of variance were analyzed by generalized estimating equations, the Bonferroni test, followed by Student-Newman-Keuls or Fisher's least significant difference tests for comparing biochemical parameters (significance defined as p ≤ 0.05). At baseline, no difference was noted in the nociceptive response threshold among all groups. Fourteen days after surgery, compared with other groups, NP groups showed a decreased pain threshold, confirming establishment of NP. Ac and EA enhanced the mechanical pain threshold immediately after the last session in the NP groups, without anesthesia. Isoflurane administration caused increased nociceptive threshold in all groups, and this effect persisted for 48 h after the last treatment. There was an interaction between the independent variables: pain, treatments, and anesthesia in serum S100β levels and NGF levels in the left sciatic nerve. Isoflurane enhanced the analgesic effects of Ac and EA and altered serum S100β and left sciatic nerve NGF levels in rats with NP.

Pattern Separation: A Potential Marker of Impaired Hippocampal Adult Neurogenesis in Major Depressive Disorder

Adult neurogenesis involves the generation of new neurons, particularly in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Decreased hippocampal neurogenesis has been implicated in both animal models of depression and in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD), despite some inconsistency in the literature. Here, we build upon current models to generate a new testable hypothesis, linking impaired neurogenesis to downstream psychological outcomes commonly observed in MDD. We contend that disruption in adult neurogenesis impairs pattern separation, a hippocampus-dependent function requiring the careful discrimination and storage of highly similar, but not identical, sensory inputs. This, in turn, can affect downstream processing and response selection, of relevance to emotional wellbeing. Specifically, disrupted pattern separation leads to misperceived stimuli (i.e., stimulus confusion), triggering the selection and deployment of established responses inappropriate for the actual stimuli. We speculate that this may be akin to activation of automatic thoughts, described in the Cognitive Behavior Theory of MDD. Similarly, this impaired ability to discriminate information at a fundamental sensory processing level (e.g., impaired pattern separation) could underlie impaired psychological flexibility, a core component of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy of MDD. We propose that research is needed to test this model by examining the relationship between cognitive functioning (e.g., pattern separation ability), psychological processes (e.g., perseveration and psychological inflexibility), and neurogenesis, taking advantage of emerging magnetic resonance spectroscopy-based imaging that measures neurogenesis in-vivo.

Enriched environment improves behavioral performance and attenuates inflammatory response induced by TNF-α in healthy adult mice

Several studies have demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of enriched environment (EE) and its positive effect on cognitive performance in pathological conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury. However, the immunomodulatory effect of EE in normal rodents is not well characterized. To assess the immunomodulatory effect of EE, we randomly assigned normal mice to EE housing or standard environmental (SE) housing for 3 weeks. Behavioral alterations were evaluated by open field, fear conditioning, and Morris water maze tests. Immunohistochemical staining was performed to assess the expression of behavioral-related proteins, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) was also performed. We also measured the levels of RIP1 and RIP3 proteins using western blotting. EE significantly improved the cognitive performance which was associated with the increased expressions of BDNF, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP); EE did not influence any morphological changes in the brain tissue in adult mice; however, increased resistance to inflammation induced by TNF-α was observed. These findings indicate that EE can positively influence cognitive and behavioral performance in healthy adult mice by exerting environ-immuno effect on neural function.

Environmental enrichment ameliorates chronic immobilisation stress-induced spatial learning deficits and restores the expression of BDNF, VEGF, GFAP and glucocorticoid receptors

Severe and prolonged stress is the main environmental factor that precipitates depression, anxiety and cognitive dysfunctions. On the other hand, exposure to environmental enrichment (EE) has been shown to induce progressive plasticity in the brain and improve learning and memory in various neurological and psychiatric disorders. It is not known whether exposure to enriched environment could ameliorate chronic immobilisation stress-induced cognitive deficits and altered molecular markers. Hence, in the present study we aimed to evaluate the effect of enriched environment on chronic immobilisation stress (CIS) associated changes in spatial learning and memory, behavioural measures of anxiety, depression and molecular markers as well as structural alterations. Male Wistar rats were subjected to chronic immobilisation stress for 2h/day/10days followed by 2weeks of exposure to EE. CIS resulted in weight loss, anhedonia, increased immobility, spatial learning and memory impairment, enhanced anxiety, and reduced expression of BDNF, VEGF, GFAP and glucocorticoid receptors (GR) in discrete brain regions. Interestingly, stressed rats exposed to enrichment ameliorated behavioural depression, spatial learning and memory impairment and reduced anxiety behaviour. In addition, EE restored BDNF, VEGF, GFAP and GR expression and normalized hypotrophy of dentate gyrus and hippocampus in CIS rats. In contrast, EE did not restore hypertrophy of the amygdalar complex. Thus, EE ameliorates stress-induced cognitive deficits by modulating the neurotrophic factors, astrocytes and glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus, frontal cortex and amygdala.

Enriched environment attenuates behavioral seizures and depression in chronic temporal lobe epilepsy

OBJECTIVE

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is commonly associated with depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairment. Despite significant progress in our understanding of the pathophysiology of TLE, it remains the most common form of refractory epilepsy. Enriched environment (EE) has a beneficial effect in many neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the effect of EE on cognitive changes in chronic TLE has not been evaluated. Accordingly, the present study evaluated the effects of EE on chronic epilepsy-induced alterations in cognitive functions, electrophysiology, and cellular changes in the hippocampus.

METHODS

Status epilepticus (SE) was induced in 2-month-old male Wistar rats with lithium and pilocarpine. Six weeks' post SE, epileptic rats were either housed in their respective home cages or in an enrichment cage (6 h/day) for 14 days. Seizure behavior was video-monitored 2 weeks before and during exposure to EE. Depression-like behavior, anxiety-like behavior, and spatial learning and memory were assessed using the sucrose preference test (SPT), elevated plus maze (EPM), and Morris water maze (MWM), respectively. Delta and theta power in the CA1 region of hippocampus was assessed from recordings of local field potentials (LFPs). Cellular changes in hippocampus were assessed by histochemistry followed by unbiased stereologic analysis.

RESULTS

EE significantly reduced seizure episodes and seizure duration in epileptic rats. In addition, EE alleviated depression and hyperactivity, and restored delta and theta power of LFP in the hippocampal CA1 region. However, EE neither ameliorated epilepsy-induced spatial learning and memory deficits nor restored cell density in hippocampus.

SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first study that evaluates the role of EE in a chronic TLE model, where rats were exposed to EE after occurrence of spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS). Given that 30% of TLE patients are refractory to drug treatment, therapeutic strategies that utilize components of EE could be designed to alleviate seizures and psychiatric comorbidities associated with TLE.

Central monoaminergic systems are a site of convergence of signals conveying the experience of exercise to brain circuits involved in cognition and emotional behavior

Physical activity can enhance cognitive function and increase resistance against deleterious effects of stress on mental health. Enhanced cognitive function and stress resistance produced by exercise are conserved among vertebrates, suggesting that ubiquitous mechanisms may underlie beneficial effects of exercise. In the current review, we summarize the beneficial effects of exercise on cognitive function and stress resistance and discuss central and peripheral signaling factors that may be critical for conferring the effects of physical activity to brain circuits involved in cognitive function and stress. Additionally, it is suggested that norepinephrine and serotonin, highly conserved monoamines that are sensitive to exercise and able to modulate behavior in multiple species, could represent a convergence between peripheral and central exercise signals that mediate the beneficial effects of exercise. Finally, we offer the novel hypothesis that thermoregulation during exercise could contribute to the emotional effects of exercise by activating a subset of temperature-sensitive serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus that convey anxiolytic and stress-protective signals to forebrain regions. Throughout the review, we discuss limitations to current approaches and offer strategies for future research in exercise neuroscience.