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Ikegami R, Inoue T, Takamatsu Y, Nishio T, Fukuchi M, Haga S, Ozaki M, Maejima H. In vivo bioluminescence imaging revealed the change of the time window of BDNF expression in the brain elicited by a single bout of exercise following repeated exercise. Neurosci Lett 2024; 834:137830. [PMID: 38788795 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2024.137830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 05/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Exercise increases the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the brain and contributes to cognitive and sensorimotor functions. This study aimed to elucidate how repeated exercise modifies BDNF expression elicited by a single bout of exercise in the brain using in vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI). Bdnf-luciferase (Luc) mice with the firefly luciferase gene inserted at the translation start point of the Bdnf gene were used for BLI to monitor changes in BDNF expression in the brain. The treadmill exercise at a speed of 10 m/s for 60 min was repeated 5 days a week for 4 weeks. BLI in individual subjects was repeated four times: before the exercise intervention, on the first exercise day, and 14 and 28 days after the start of the intervention. Each BLI was performed after a single bout of exercise and monitored for 8 h after exercise. Repetitive BLI showed that the exercise regimen enhanced BDNF expression in the brain, specifically at 4-8 h after a single bout of exercise. Repeated exercise for 2 weeks accelerated the start of enhancement after a single bout of exercise, but not after 4 weeks of repeated exercise. This study showed that repeated exercise modulated the time window of exercise-enhanced BDNF expression, suggesting that repeated exercise could change the sensitivity of gene expression to a single bout of exercise. These findings can be attributed to the advantages of in vivo BLI, which allowed us to precisely measure the time course of BDNF expression after repeated exercise in individual subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ikegami
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Takahiro Inoue
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Takamatsu
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Taichi Nishio
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Mamoru Fukuchi
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Faculty of Pharmacy, Takasaki University of Health and Welfare, 60 Nakaorui-machi, Takasaki, Gunma 370-0033, Japan
| | - Sanae Haga
- Department of Biological Response and Regulation, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Michitaka Ozaki
- Department of Biological Response and Regulation, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Maejima
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
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Khan MB, Alam H, Siddiqui S, Shaikh MF, Sharma A, Rehman A, Baban B, Arbab AS, Hess DC. Exercise Improves Cerebral Blood Flow and Functional Outcomes in an Experimental Mouse Model of Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Dementia (VCID). Transl Stroke Res 2024; 15:446-461. [PMID: 36689081 PMCID: PMC10363247 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-023-01124-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID) are a growing threat to public health without any known treatment. The bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) mouse model is valid for VCID. Previously, we have reported that remote ischemic postconditioning (RIPostC) during chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) induced by BCAS increases cerebral blood flow (CBF), improves cognitive function, and reduces white matter damage. We hypothesized that physical exercise (EXR) would augment CBF during CCH and prevent cognitive impairment in the BCAS model. BCAS was performed in C57/B6 mice of both sexes to establish CCH. One week after the BCAS surgery, mice were randomized to treadmill exercise once daily or no EXR for four weeks. CBF was monitored with an LSCI pre-, post, and 4 weeks post-BCAS. Cognitive testing was performed for post-BCAS after exercise training, and brain tissue was harvested for histopathology and biochemical test. BCAS led to chronic hypoperfusion resulting in impaired cognitive function and other functional outcomes. Histological examination revealed that BCAS caused changes in neuronal morphology and cell death in the cortex and hippocampus. Immunoblotting showed that BCAS was associated with a significant downregulate of AMPK and pAMPK and NOS3 and pNOS3. BCAS also decreased red blood cell (RBC) deformability. EXR therapy increased and sustained improved CBF and cognitive function, muscular strength, reduced cell death, and loss of white matter. EXR is effective in the BCAS model, improving CBF and cognitive function, reducing white matter damage, improving RBC deformability, and increasing RBC NOS3 and AMPK. The mechanisms by which EXR improves CBF and attenuates tissue damage need further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Badruzzaman Khan
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15thStreet, CA 1053, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA.
| | - Haroon Alam
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15thStreet, CA 1053, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Shahneela Siddiqui
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15thStreet, CA 1053, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Muhammad Fasih Shaikh
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15thStreet, CA 1053, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Abhinav Sharma
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15thStreet, CA 1053, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Amna Rehman
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15thStreet, CA 1053, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Babak Baban
- Department of Oral Biology, Dental College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Ali S Arbab
- Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - David C Hess
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, 1120 15thStreet, CA 1053, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
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Zhang R, Liu S, Mousavi SM. Cognitive Dysfunction and Exercise: From Epigenetic to Genetic Molecular Mechanisms. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-03970-7. [PMID: 38286967 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-03970-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Maintaining good health is crucial, and exercise plays a vital role in achieving this goal. It offers a range of positive benefits for cognitive function, regardless of age. However, as our population ages and life expectancy increases, cognitive impairment has become a prevalent issue, often coexisting with age-related neurodegenerative conditions. This can result in devastating consequences such as memory loss, difficulty speaking, and confusion, greatly hindering one's ability to lead an ordinary life. In addition, the decrease in mental capacity has a significant effect on an individual's physical and emotional well-being, greatly reducing their overall level of contentment and causing a significant financial burden for communities. While most current approaches aim to slow the decline of cognition, exercise offers a non-pharmacological, safe, and accessible solution. Its effects on cognition are intricate and involve changes in the brain's neural plasticity, mitochondrial stability, and energy metabolism. Moreover, exercise triggers the release of cytokines, playing a significant role in the body-brain connection and its impact on cognition. Additionally, exercise can influence gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms, leading to lasting improvements in brain function and behavior. Herein, we summarized various genetic and epigenetic mechanisms that can be modulated by exercise in cognitive dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runhong Zhang
- Department of Physical Education, Luliang University, Lishi, 033000, Shanxi, China.
| | - Shangwu Liu
- Department of Physical Education, Luliang University, Lishi, 033000, Shanxi, China
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Gladkova MG, Leidmaa E, Anderzhanova EA. Epidrugs in the Therapy of Central Nervous System Disorders: A Way to Drive on? Cells 2023; 12:1464. [PMID: 37296584 PMCID: PMC10253154 DOI: 10.3390/cells12111464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The polygenic nature of neurological and psychiatric syndromes and the significant impact of environmental factors on the underlying developmental, homeostatic, and neuroplastic mechanisms suggest that an efficient therapy for these disorders should be a complex one. Pharmacological interventions with drugs selectively influencing the epigenetic landscape (epidrugs) allow one to hit multiple targets, therefore, assumably addressing a wide spectrum of genetic and environmental mechanisms of central nervous system (CNS) disorders. The aim of this review is to understand what fundamental pathological mechanisms would be optimal to target with epidrugs in the treatment of neurological or psychiatric complications. To date, the use of histone deacetylases and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors (HDACis and DNMTis) in the clinic is focused on the treatment of neoplasms (mainly of a glial origin) and is based on the cytostatic and cytotoxic actions of these compounds. Preclinical data show that besides this activity, inhibitors of histone deacetylases, DNA methyltransferases, bromodomains, and ten-eleven translocation (TET) proteins impact the expression of neuroimmune inflammation mediators (cytokines and pro-apoptotic factors), neurotrophins (brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF)), ion channels, ionotropic receptors, as well as pathoproteins (β-amyloid, tau protein, and α-synuclein). Based on this profile of activities, epidrugs may be favorable as a treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. For the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders, drug addiction, as well as anxiety disorders, depression, schizophrenia, and epilepsy, contemporary epidrugs still require further development concerning a tuning of pharmacological effects, reduction in toxicity, and development of efficient treatment protocols. A promising strategy to further clarify the potential targets of epidrugs as therapeutic means to cure neurological and psychiatric syndromes is the profiling of the epigenetic mechanisms, which have evolved upon actions of complex physiological lifestyle factors, such as diet and physical exercise, and which are effective in the management of neurodegenerative diseases and dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina G. Gladkova
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Este Leidmaa
- Institute of Molecular Psychiatry, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany
- Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, Department of Physiology, University of Tartu, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
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The Influence of Conventional and Innovative Rehabilitation Methods on Brain Plasticity Induction in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis. J Clin Med 2023; 12:jcm12051880. [PMID: 36902665 PMCID: PMC10003891 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12051880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Physical rehabilitation and physical activity are known non-pharmacological methods of treating multiple sclerosis. Both lead to an improvement in physical fitness in patients with movement deficits while improving cognitive function and coordination. These changes occur through the induction of brain plasticity. This review presents the basics of the induction of brain plasticity in response to physical rehabilitation. It also analyzes the latest literature evaluating the impact of traditional physical rehabilitation methods, as well as innovative virtual reality-based rehabilitation methods, on the induction of brain plasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis.
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Behmadi H, Samiei F, Noruzi M, Halvaei Khankahdani Z, Hassani S, Mehdizadeh M, Pourahmad J, Taghizadeh G, Sharifzadeh M. The Effect of Physical Exercise Pretreatment on Spatial Memory and Learning and Function of Mitochondria in the Brain in Type 2 Diabetic Rats. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH : IJPR 2023; 22:e135315. [PMID: 38148890 PMCID: PMC10750786 DOI: 10.5812/ijpr-135315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Background The prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is increasing worldwide, and this issue is one of the major concerns in the pending years. T2DM causes numerous complications, including cognition, learning, and memory impairments. The positive effect of physical exercise as a popular approach has been shown in many chronic diseases. Further, the improvement effects of exercise on cognition and memory impairment have been noticed. Objectives This study examines the possible preventative effects of physical exercise on spatial memory attenuation and brain mitochondrial dysfunction caused by T2DM. Methods Male Wistar rats received treadmill exercise (30 min per day, five days per week for two or four weeks). Then, T2DM was induced by a high-fat diet and an injection of streptozotocin (30 mg/kg). Spatial learning and memory were assessed by the Morris water maze test. Further, brain mitochondrial function, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial swelling, outer membrane damage, cytochrome c release, and ADP/ATP ratio, were measured. Results Impaired spatial memory in T2DM rats was observed. Furthermore, brain mitochondrial dysfunction was demonstrated proved by increased ROS generation, MMP collapse, mitochondrial swelling, outer membrane damage, cytochrome c release, and ADP/ATP ratio. Conversely, physical exercise, before diabetes onset, significantly ameliorated spatial memory impairment and brain mitochondrial dysfunction. Conclusions This study reveals that physical exercise could prevent diabetes-induced spatial memory impairment. Moreover, it could ameliorate brain mitochondrial dysfunction as one of the possible underlying mechanisms of spatial memory impairment in T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Homayoon Behmadi
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Samiei
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Marzieh Noruzi
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Shokoufeh Hassani
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Mehdizadeh
- Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jalal Pourahmad
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ghorban Taghizadeh
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Rehabilitation Research Center, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sharifzadeh
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Jun Q, Youhong L, Yuan Z, Xi Y, Wang B, Xinyi S, Fu Y, Kedan C, Lian J, Jianqing Z. Histone modification of endothelial-mesenchymal transition in cardiovascular diseases. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 9:1022988. [PMID: 36568553 PMCID: PMC9768231 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.1022988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) is a differentiation process in which endothelial cells lose their own characteristics and acquire mesenchymal-like characteristics, which contributes to the formation and development of atherosclerotic plaques. Until now, there is still a lack of effective measures to treat atherosclerosis (AS), so there is an urgent need to understand the underlying mechanisms of AS. In addition, although various studies have shown that EndMT is involved in the pathological stages of cardiovascular diseases, such as myocardial fibrosis, myocardial hypertrophy, and hypertension, the specific molecular mechanisms driving EndMT are still in the exploratory stage. In this review, we review the role of histone modifications (methylation, demethylation and acetylation, deacetylation) on EndMT in cardiovascular disease, aiming to target histone-modifying enzymes to guide cardiovascular disease therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiu Jun
- Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Li Youhong
- Li Huili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Zhong Yuan
- Ningbo Medical-Industrial Integration Innovation Research Institute, Ningbo, China
| | - Yang Xi
- Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Bingyu Wang
- Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Sun Xinyi
- Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Yin Fu
- Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Cen Kedan
- Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jiangfang Lian
- Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China,Jiangfang Lian,
| | - Zhou Jianqing
- Li Huili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China,Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China,*Correspondence: Zhou Jianqing,
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8
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Li JM, Yang FH, Chao MW, Tseng CY. Swimming exercise prevents hippocampal dendritic spine changes and memory loss caused by aging: An application of a new semi-automated spine analysis software. Mol Cell Neurosci 2022; 121:103755. [PMID: 35850447 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2022.103755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic spines are small, ratchet-like protrusions on neuronal dendrites that form synapses for receiving neuronal messages. Dendritic spine morphology is associated with synapse function. If neurons degrade or are damaged, the spine morphology of neurons changes. Given that most commercially available spine analysis software is expensive and complex, this study investigated a semi-automated spine analysis software, CTSpine, and used previously published data to verify the accuracy of the analysis results of this software. We also applied CTSpine to understand whether aging causes alterations in the hippocampal spine morphology and whether physical exercise can impede dendritic spine changes in 20 male Sprague Dawley rats. The spines of pyramidal cells in the hippocampal Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) region in the aging group were more enriched in filopodium type pattern than those in the control group, whereas the spines of the exercised aging group showed a similar pattern to that of the control. No significant changes were observed in neuronal dendritic spines in other hippocampal regions. However, long-term hippocampal memory was considerably decreased in the aging group, which was reversed to some extent in the exercised aging group. CTSpine, a self-developed semi-automatic spine analysis software, showed results similar to those noted in published data and can be effectively applied to the study of dendritic patterns, including neurodevelopment and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ming Li
- Psychiatry Department, Taoyuan Armed Forces General Hospital, No. 168, Zhongxing Rd., Longtan Dist, Taoyuan City 32551, Taiwan.
| | - Fu-Hua Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan.
| | - Ming-Wei Chao
- Department of Bioscience Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan.
| | - Chia-Yi Tseng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan.
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9
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Farhani F, Shahrbanian S, Auais M, Hekmatikar AHA, Suzuki K. Effects of Aerobic Training on Brain Plasticity in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12060732. [PMID: 35741616 PMCID: PMC9221120 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12060732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2022] [Revised: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to systematically review to find if aerobic exercise compared to no exercise or any other intervention affects brain plasticity among people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Searches were conducted in the Scopus, SciELO, PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar databases. The included studies were randomized control trials (RCTs) written in English comprising individuals with MCI that evaluated the effects of aerobic training on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), brain structures, or brain activity. The quality of trials was evaluated using the PEDro scale for RCTs. Twelve studies with medium to high quality were included, of which five studies focused on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (four articles reported elevation and one article reported no changes in BDNF levels following the aerobic exercise), two studies focused on brain structures (both reported increases in hippocampus volume following the aerobic exercise), and five studies focused on brain activity (four articles reported positive changes, and one article reported no changes in brain activity following the aerobic exercise). Research regarding the effects of aerobic training on brain plasticity in people with MCI is in its infancy. Still, aerobic exercise seems to be a promising therapy in people with MCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farid Farhani
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran P.O. Box 14115-111, Iran; (F.F.); (A.H.A.H.)
| | - Shahnaz Shahrbanian
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran P.O. Box 14115-111, Iran; (F.F.); (A.H.A.H.)
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (K.S.); Tel.: +98(21)82885063 (S.S.); +81-4-2947-6898 (K.S.)
| | - Mohammad Auais
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Rehabilitation Therapy, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada;
| | - Amir Hossein Ahmadi Hekmatikar
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran P.O. Box 14115-111, Iran; (F.F.); (A.H.A.H.)
| | - Katsuhiko Suzuki
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa 359-1192, Japan
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (K.S.); Tel.: +98(21)82885063 (S.S.); +81-4-2947-6898 (K.S.)
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10
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Babaei P, Azari HB. Exercise Training Improves Memory Performance in Older Adults: A Narrative Review of Evidence and Possible Mechanisms. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 15:771553. [PMID: 35153701 PMCID: PMC8829997 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.771553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Graphical AbstractExercise, neurotransmitters, growth factors, myokines, and potential effects on the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parvin Babaei
- Neuroscience Research Center, School of Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, School of Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
- *Correspondence: Parvin Babaei,
| | - Helya Bolouki Azari
- Neuroscience Research Center, School of Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
- Department of Physiology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Ohtomo R, Ishikawa H, Kinoshita K, Chung KK, Hamanaka G, Ohtomo G, Takase H, Wrann CD, Katsuki H, Iwata A, Lok J, Lo EH, Arai K. Treadmill Exercise During Cerebral Hypoperfusion Has Only Limited Effects on Cognitive Function in Middle-Aged Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Dementia Mice. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 13:756537. [PMID: 34992525 PMCID: PMC8724785 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.756537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical and basic research suggests that exercise is a safe behavioral intervention and is effective for improving cognitive function in cerebrovascular diseases, including subcortical ischemic vascular dementia (SIVD). However, most of the basic research uses young animals to assess the effects of exercise, although SIVD is an age-related disease. In this study, therefore, we used middle-aged mice to examine how treadmill exercise changes the cognitive function of SIVD mice. As a mouse model of SIVD, prolonged cerebral hypoperfusion was induced in 8-month-old male C57BL/6J mice by bilateral common carotid artery stenosis. A week later, the mice were randomly divided into two groups: a group that received 6-week treadmill exercise and a sedentary group for observation. After subjecting the mice to multiple behavioral tests (Y-maze, novel object recognition, and Morris water maze tests), the treadmill exercise training was shown to only be effective in ameliorating cognitive decline in the Y-maze test. We previously demonstrated that the same regimen of treadmill exercise was effective in young hypoperfused-SIVD mice for all three cognitive tests. Therefore, our study may indicate that treadmill exercise during cerebral hypoperfusion has only limited effects on cognitive function in aging populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ohtomo
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States.,Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidehiro Ishikawa
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Keita Kinoshita
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States.,Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Kelly K Chung
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Gen Hamanaka
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Gaku Ohtomo
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hajime Takase
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Christiane D Wrann
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States.,McCance Center for Brain Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Hiroshi Katsuki
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Atsushi Iwata
- Department of Neurology, Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Medical Center Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Josephine Lok
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States.,Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Eng H Lo
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Ken Arai
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
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12
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Plaza-Diaz J, Izquierdo D, Torres-Martos Á, Baig AT, Aguilera CM, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ. Impact of Physical Activity and Exercise on the Epigenome in Skeletal Muscle and Effects on Systemic Metabolism. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10010126. [PMID: 35052805 PMCID: PMC8773693 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10010126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Exercise and physical activity induces physiological responses in organisms, and adaptations in skeletal muscle, which is beneficial for maintaining health and preventing and/or treating most chronic diseases. These adaptations are mainly instigated by transcriptional responses that ensue in reaction to each individual exercise, either resistance or endurance. Consequently, changes in key metabolic, regulatory, and myogenic genes in skeletal muscle occur as both an early and late response to exercise, and these epigenetic modifications, which are influenced by environmental and genetic factors, trigger those alterations in the transcriptional responses. DNA methylation and histone modifications are the most significant epigenetic changes described in gene transcription, linked to the skeletal muscle transcriptional response to exercise, and mediating the exercise adaptations. Nevertheless, other alterations in the epigenetics markers, such as epitranscriptomics, modifications mediated by miRNAs, and lactylation as a novel epigenetic modification, are emerging as key events for gene transcription. Here, we provide an overview and update of the impact of exercise on epigenetic modifications, including the well-described DNA methylations and histone modifications, and the emerging modifications in the skeletal muscle. In addition, we describe the effects of exercise on epigenetic markers in other metabolic tissues; also, we provide information about how systemic metabolism or its metabolites influence epigenetic modifications in the skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Plaza-Diaz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (D.I.); (C.M.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria IBS.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain;
- Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L1, Canada;
- Correspondence: (J.P.-D.); (F.J.R.-O.); Tel.: +34-9-5824-1000 (ext. 20314) (F.J.R.-O.)
| | - David Izquierdo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (D.I.); (C.M.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria IBS.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain;
| | - Álvaro Torres-Martos
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria IBS.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain;
| | - Aiman Tariq Baig
- Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L1, Canada;
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 85M, Canada
| | - Concepción M. Aguilera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (D.I.); (C.M.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria IBS.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain;
- Center of Biomedical Research, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology “José Mataix”, University of Granada, Avda. del Conocimiento s/n., 18016 Granada, Spain
- CIBEROBN (CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Ruiz-Ojeda
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; (D.I.); (C.M.A.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria IBS.GRANADA, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada, 18014 Granada, Spain;
- RG Adipocytes and Metabolism, Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center at Helmholtz, Center Munich, Neuherberg, 85764 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: (J.P.-D.); (F.J.R.-O.); Tel.: +34-9-5824-1000 (ext. 20314) (F.J.R.-O.)
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13
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Soda K. Overview of Polyamines as Nutrients for Human Healthy Long Life and Effect of Increased Polyamine Intake on DNA Methylation. Cells 2022; 11:cells11010164. [PMID: 35011727 PMCID: PMC8750749 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyamines, spermidine and spermine, are synthesized in every living cell and are therefore contained in foods, especially in those that are thought to contribute to health and longevity. They have many physiological activities similar to those of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory substances such as polyphenols. These include antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, cell and gene protection, and autophagy activation. We have first reported that increased polyamine intake (spermidine much more so than spermine) over a long period increased blood spermine levels and inhibited aging-associated pathologies and pro-inflammatory status in humans and mice and extended life span of mice. However, it is unlikely that the life-extending effect of polyamines is exerted by the same bioactivity as polyphenols because most studies using polyphenols and antioxidants have failed to demonstrate their life-extending effects. Recent investigations revealed that aging-associated pathologies and lifespan are closely associated with DNA methylation, a regulatory mechanism of gene expression. There is a close relationship between polyamine metabolism and DNA methylation. We have shown that the changes in polyamine metabolism affect the concentrations of substances and enzyme activities involved in DNA methylation. I consider that the increased capability of regulation of DNA methylation by spermine is a key of healthy long life of humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuniyasu Soda
- Department Cardiovascular Institute for Medical Research, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, 1-847, Amanuma, Saitama-City 330-0834, Saitama, Japan
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Ribeiro D, Petrigna L, Pereira FC, Muscella A, Bianco A, Tavares P. The Impact of Physical Exercise on the Circulating Levels of BDNF and NT 4/5: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168814. [PMID: 34445512 PMCID: PMC8396229 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: One mechanism through which physical activity (PA) provides benefits is by triggering activity at a molecular level, where neurotrophins (NTs) are known to play an important role. However, the expression of the circulating levels of neurotrophic factors, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-4 (NT-4/5), in response to exercise, is not fully understood. Therefore, the aim was to provide an updated overview on the neurotrophin (NT) variation levels of BDNF and NT-4/5 as a consequence of a long-term aerobic exercise intervention, and to understand and describe whether the upregulation of circulating NT levels is a result of neurotrophic factors produced and released from the brain, and/or from neurotrophic secreting peripheral organs. (2) Methods: The articles were collected from PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, MEDLINE, and Embase. Data were analyzed through a narrative synthesis. (3) Results: 30 articles studied humans who performed training protocols that ranged from 4 to 48 weeks; 22 articles studied rodents with an intervention period that ranged from 4 to 64 weeks. (4) Conclusions: There is no unanimity between the upregulation of BDNF in humans; conversely, concerning both BDNF and NT-4/5 in animal models, the results are heterogeneous. Whilst BDNF upregulation appears to be in relative agreement, NT-4/5 seems to display contradictory and inconsistent conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ribeiro
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (D.R.); (P.T.)
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal;
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luca Petrigna
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90144 Palermo, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Frederico C. Pereira
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal;
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- University of Coimbra, Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Antonella Muscella
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90144 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Paula Tavares
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (D.R.); (P.T.)
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal;
- University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
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15
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Jafarzadeh G, Shakerian S, Farbood Y, Ghanbarzadeh M. Effects of Eight Weeks of Resistance Exercises on Neurotrophins and Trk Receptors in Alzheimer Model Male Wistar Rats. Basic Clin Neurosci 2021; 12:349-359. [PMID: 34917294 PMCID: PMC8666928 DOI: 10.32598/bcn.2021.2067.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This study evaluates the effects of 8 weeks of resistance exercises on the expression of neurotrophins and Trk receptors in Alzheimer model male Wistar rats. METHODS For this purpose, 32 mature male Wistar rats with a mean weight of 230-280 g were chosen and divided into Alzheimer and Sham groups. The rats in the sham group received normal saline, while the ones in the Alzheimer group received streptomycin via intraventricular injection. These rats were then divided into the following four subgroups: 1) resting sham, 2) exercising sham, 3) resting Alzheimer, and 4) exercising Alzheimer. The two exercising rat subgroups exercised three times a week for 8 weeks. A weight was attached to their tails, and they had to carry it on a 26-step ladder in each cycle. Resting groups were handled every day to minimize the effects of stress. At the end of the eighth week and 24 hours after the last exercise session (to avoid the effects of the last exercise session), the rats were put under deep anesthesia and beheaded. Hippocampus tissues were precisely extracted, and samples were sent to the laboratory for molecular and cellular tests. To investigate gene expression, quantitative RTPCR was used. RESULTS The tests for comparing the mean values of BDNF, NT3, NGF, TrkA, and TrkB in two rat groups showed that with error levels of less than 5%, there is a significant difference in the amounts of BDNF, NT3, NGF, TrkA, and TrkB between exercising rats and resting ones. These amounts were much higher in the exercising Alzheimer rats group. CONCLUSION Eight weeks of resistance exercises increased the expression of BDNF, NT3, and NGF genes and TrkA and TrkB receptors in Alzheimer model Wistar rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gholamhasan Jafarzadeh
- Department of Sport Physiology, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Saeid Shakerian
- Department of Sport Physiology, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Yaghoob Farbood
- Department of Physiology, Khalij Fars Physiology Research Center, School of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mohsen Ghanbarzadeh
- Department of Sport Physiology, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
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16
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Liang J, Wang H, Zeng Y, Qu Y, Liu Q, Zhao F, Duan J, Jiang Y, Li S, Ying J, Li J, Mu D. Physical exercise promotes brain remodeling by regulating epigenetics, neuroplasticity and neurotrophins. Rev Neurosci 2021; 32:615-629. [PMID: 33583156 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2020-0099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Exercise has been shown to have beneficial effects on brain functions in humans and animals. Exercise can improve memory and learning in age-related neurodegenerative diseases. In animal models, physical exercise regulates epigenetics, promotes synaptic plasticity and hippocampal neurogenesis, regulates the expression levels of neurotrophic factors, and improves cognitive function. Therefore, exercise is very important for brain rehabilitation and remodeling. The purpose of this review is to explore the mechanisms by which exercise exerts positive effects on brain function. This knowledge implies that physical exercise can be used as a non-drug therapy for neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Liang
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Huiqing Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Yan Zeng
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Yi Qu
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Fengyan Zhao
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Jianan Duan
- West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Yin Jiang
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Shiping Li
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Junjie Ying
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Jinhui Li
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
| | - Dezhi Mu
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China.,Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Ministry of Education), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu610041, China
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17
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Maejima H, Kitahara M, Takamatsu Y, Mani H, Inoue T. Effects of exercise and pharmacological inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs) on epigenetic regulations and gene expressions crucial for neuronal plasticity in the motor cortex. Brain Res 2020; 1751:147191. [PMID: 33152341 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to examine the effect of epigenetic treatment using an histone deacetylases (HDAC) inhibitor in addition to aerobic exercise on the epigenetic markers and neurotrophic gene expressions in the motor cortex, to find a more enriched brain pre-conditioning for motor learning in neurorehabilitation. ICR mice were divided into four groups based on two factors: HDAC inhibition and exercise. Intraperitoneal administration of an HDAC inhibitor (1.2 g/kg sodium butyrate, NaB) and treadmill exercise (approximately at 10 m/min for 60 min) were conducted five days a week for four weeks. NaB administration inhibited total HDAC activity and enhanced acetylation level of histones specifically in histone H4, accompanying the increase of transcription levels of immediate-early genes (IEGs) (c-fos and Arc) and neurotrophins (BDNF and NT-4) crucial for neuroplasticity in the motor cortex. However, exercise enhanced HDAC activity and acetylation level of histone H4 and H3 without the modification of transcription levels. In addition, there were no synergic effects between HDAC inhibition and the exercise regime on the gene expressions. This study showed that HDAC inhibition could present more enriched condition for neuroplasticity to the motor cortex. However, exercise-induced neurotrophic gene expressions could depend on exercise regimen based on the intensity, the term etc. Therefore, this study has a novelty suggesting that pharmacological HDAC inhibition could be an alternative potent approach to present a neuronal platform with enriched neuroplasticity for motor learning and motor recovery, however, an appropriate exercise regimen is expected in this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Maejima
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
| | - Mika Kitahara
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Takamatsu
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Hiroki Mani
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Takahiro Inoue
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan; Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, 5-3-1 Kojimachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0083, Japan
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18
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Sanders CL, Rattinger GB, Deberard MS, Hammond AG, Wengreen H, Kauwe JSK, Buhusi M, Tschanz JT. Interaction Between Physical Activity and Genes Related to Neurotrophin Signaling in Late-Life Cognitive Performance: The Cache County Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2020; 75:1633-1642. [PMID: 31504225 PMCID: PMC7494026 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glz200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Research indicates that lifestyle and genetic factors influence the course of cognitive impairment in aging, but their interactions have not been well-examined. This study examined the relationship between physical activity and genotypes related to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in predicting cognitive performance in a sample of older adults with up to 12 years of follow-up. Physical activity levels (sedentary, light, and moderate/vigorous) were determined for the sample of 3,591 participants (57% female) without dementia. The genotypes examined included BDNF gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs6265 and rs56164415) and receptor gene SNPs (NTRK2 rs2289656 and NGFR rs2072446). Cognition was assessed triennially using the Modified Mini-Mental State Exam. Unadjusted linear mixed models indicated that sedentary (β = -5.05) and light (β = -2.41) groups performed worse than moderate-vigorous (p < .001). Addition of interaction effects showed significant differences in rate of decline between activity levels, particularly among males (p = .006). A three-way interaction with sex, NGFR SNP rs2072446, and physical activity suggested that the C/C allele was associated with better cognitive performance among males engaging in light activity only (p = .004). Physical activity and sex, but not BDNF-related SNPs, predicted rate of cognitive decline in older adults, while NGFR rs2072446 may modify main effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gail B Rattinger
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Binghamton University, New York
| | | | | | - Heidi Wengreen
- Dietetics and Food Sciences Department, Utah State University, Logan
| | - John S K Kauwe
- Biology Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
| | - Mona Buhusi
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan
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De la Rosa A, Olaso-Gonzalez G, Arc-Chagnaud C, Millan F, Salvador-Pascual A, García-Lucerga C, Blasco-Lafarga C, Garcia-Dominguez E, Carretero A, Correas AG, Viña J, Gomez-Cabrera MC. Physical exercise in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2020; 9:394-404. [PMID: 32780691 PMCID: PMC7498620 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2020.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Dementia is one of the greatest global challenges for health and social care in the 21st century. Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia, is by no means an inevitable consequence of growing old. Several lifestyle factors may increase, or reduce, an individual's risk of developing AD. Much has been written over the ages about the benefits of exercise and physical activity. Among the risk factors associated with AD is a low level of physical activity. The relationship between physical and mental health was established several years ago. In this review, we discuss the role of exercise (aerobic and resistance) training as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment and prevention of AD. Older adults who exercise are more likely to maintain cognition. We address the main protective mechanism on brain function modulated by physical exercise by examining both human and animal studies. We will pay especial attention to the potential role of exercise in the modulation of amyloid β turnover, inflammation, synthesis and release of neurotrophins, and improvements in cerebral blood flow. Promoting changes in lifestyle in presymptomatic and predementia disease stages may have the potential for delaying one-third of dementias worldwide. Multimodal interventions that include the adoption of an active lifestyle should be recommended for older populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian De la Rosa
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - Gloria Olaso-Gonzalez
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - Coralie Arc-Chagnaud
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain; INRA, UMR866 Muscle dynamics and metabolism, University of Montpellier, F-34060, Montpellier, France
| | - Fernando Millan
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - Andrea Salvador-Pascual
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | | | | | - Esther Garcia-Dominguez
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - Aitor Carretero
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - Angela G Correas
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - Jose Viña
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain.
| | - Mari Carmen Gomez-Cabrera
- Freshage Research Group, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valencia, and CIBERFES, Insitute of Health Research-INCLIVA, Valencia 46010, Spain.
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20
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Maternal Treadmill Exercise Reduces the Neurotoxicity of Prenatal Sevoflurane Exposure in Rats via Activation of p300 Histone Acetyltransferase. Neurochem Res 2020; 45:1626-1635. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03023-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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21
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Hall SE, Lawal OA, Clark CM, Tyndall AV, Hill MD, Sajobi TT, Poulin MJ. Novel Approach to Characterize Heterogeneity in an Aerobic Exercise Intervention. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 51:1506-1516. [PMID: 30694976 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Exercise intervention studies for brain health can be difficult to interpret due to heterogeneity in exercise intensity, exercise duration, and in adherence to the exercise intervention. This study aimed to characterize heterogeneity in these components in a cohort of healthy middle-age and older adults who participated in a prescribed 6-month supervised aerobic exercise intervention as part of the Brain in Motion study. METHODS AND RESULTS Group-based multitrajectory analysis (GBMTA) was used to characterize variation in the trajectory of exercise intensity and duration for male and female participants in the first 3 months of the exercise program. The GBMTA for males and females revealed two distinct trajectory subgroups, namely, "high-increasing" (HI) and "low-increasing" (LI). Logistic regression was used to assess the association between the identified latent subgroups and (i) demographic characteristics; (ii) physiological characteristics, including cardiovascular and cerebrovascular function; (iii) genetic characteristics; and (iv) adherence with American College of Sports Medicine guidelines on exercise for older adults. Of the 196 participants, 54.1% met the American College of Sports Medicine aerobic exercise targets for intensity and duration during the intervention. Aerobic fitness (maximal oxygen uptake; odds ratio, 1.27; P < 0.01) was significantly different between these trajectory subgroups in males, and cerebrovascular function (cerebrovascular resistance; odds ratio, 0.14; P < 0.01) was significantly different between these trajectory subgroups in females. CONCLUSION This novel approach to tracking a prespecified exercise program highlights that there are individual and group-specific variations within a prescribed exercise intervention. Characterizing exercise adherence in this way holds promise in developing optimized exercise prescriptions tailored to individual baseline characteristics, and additionally highlighting those participants at greatest risk of not meeting minimum dosage requirements for physiological and/or cognitive health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha E Hall
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA
| | - Oluwaseyi A Lawal
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA
| | - Cameron M Clark
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA
| | - Amanda V Tyndall
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA
| | - Michael D Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Department of Community Health Sciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA
| | - Tolulope T Sajobi
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Department of Community Health Sciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA
| | - Marc J Poulin
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA.,Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA
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22
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Rajizadeh MA, Esmaeilpour K, Haghparast E, Ebrahimi MN, Sheibani V. Voluntary exercise modulates learning & memory and synaptic plasticity impairments in sleep deprived female rats. Brain Res 2019; 1729:146598. [PMID: 31866363 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have indicated that forced exercise plays a preventive role in synaptic plasticity deficits in the hippocampus and behavioral impairments in sleep-deprived male and female rats. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of voluntary exercise on early long-term potentiation (E-LTP) at the Cornu Ammonis (CA1) area of the hippocampus and behavioral functions by barnes maze and novel location tests in sleep-deprived female rats. Intact female Wistar rats were used in the present study. The exercise protocol was four weeks wheel running and the multiple platform method was applied to induce 72 h Sleep deprivation (SD). We examine the effect of exercise and/or SD on synaptic plasticity using in vivo extracellular recording in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. Spatial learning and memory examined by Barnes maze and recognition memory assessed by novel location test. Field potential recording indicated that the induction and maintenance phase of E-LTP impaired in the sleep deprived animals compared to the other groups. After 72 h SD, LTP impairments were reduced by 4 weeks of voluntary exercise but do not go back to control values. SD impairs learning and memory and exercise could improve these deficits. In conclusion, the synaptic plasticity deficit in sleep-deprived female rats was improved by voluntary exercise. Further studies are suggested to evaluate the possible underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Amin Rajizadeh
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Esmaeilpour
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
| | - Elham Haghparast
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Navid Ebrahimi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Vahid Sheibani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
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23
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Treadmill Exercise Suppresses Cognitive Decline and Increases White Matter Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cells in a Mouse Model of Prolonged Cerebral Hypoperfusion. Transl Stroke Res 2019; 11:496-502. [PMID: 31606888 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-019-00734-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Clinical evidence suggests that patients with subcortical ischemic vascular dementia (SIVD) perform better at cognitive tests after exercise. However, the underlying mechanism for this effect is largely unknown. Here, we examined how treadmill exercise changes the cognitive function and white matter cellular pathology in a mouse model of SIVD. Prolonged cerebral hypoperfusion was induced in 2-month-old male C57BL/6J mice by bilateral common carotid artery stenosis. A week later, the mice were randomly divided into a group that received 6-week treadmill exercise and a sedentary group for observation. In multiple behavioral tests (Y-maze, novel object recognition, and Morris water maze tests), the treadmill exercise training was shown to ameliorate cognitive decline in the hypoperfused SIVD mice. In addition, immunohistological analyses confirmed that there was a larger population of oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the subventricular zone of exercised versus sedentary mice. Although further investigations are needed to confirm a causal link between these findings, our study establishes a model and cellular foundation for investigating the mechanisms through which exercise preserves cognitive function in SIVD.
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24
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Kwak SE, Cho SC, Bae JH, Lee J, Shin HE, Di Zhang D, Lee YI, Song W. Effects of exercise-induced apelin on muscle function and cognitive function in aged mice. Exp Gerontol 2019; 127:110710. [PMID: 31473200 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2019.110710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seong Eun Kwak
- Institute of Sport Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sung Chun Cho
- Well Aging Research Center, DGIST, Daegu, South Korea
| | - Jun Hyun Bae
- Institute of Sport Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jihyun Lee
- Institute of Sport Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyung Eun Shin
- Institute of Sport Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Di Di Zhang
- Institute of Sport Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yun-Il Lee
- Well Aging Research Center, DGIST, Daegu, South Korea; Department of New Biology, DGIST, Daegu, South Korea.
| | - Wook Song
- Institute of Sport Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea; Institue on Aging, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
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25
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Maurus I, Hasan A, Röh A, Takahashi S, Rauchmann B, Keeser D, Malchow B, Schmitt A, Falkai P. Neurobiological effects of aerobic exercise, with a focus on patients with schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2019; 269:499-515. [PMID: 31115660 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-019-01025-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe neuropsychiatric disease that is associated with neurobiological alterations in multiple brain regions and peripheral organs. Negative symptoms and cognitive deficits are present in about half of patients and are difficult to treat, leading to an unfavorable functional outcome. To investigate the impact of aerobic exercise on various neurobiological parameters, we conducted a narrative review. Add-on aerobic exercise was shown to be effective in improving negative and general symptoms, cognition, global functioning, and quality of life in schizophrenia patients. Based on findings in healthy individuals and animal models, this qualitative review gives an overview of different lines of evidence on how aerobic exercise impacts brain structure and function and molecular mechanisms in patients with schizophrenia and how its effects could be related to clinical and functional outcomes. Structural magnetic resonance imaging studies showed a volume increase in the hippocampus and cortical regions in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls after endurance training. However, results are inconsistent and individual risk factors may influence neuroplastic processes. Animal studies indicate that alterations in epigenetic mechanisms and synaptic plasticity are possible underlying mechanisms, but that differentiation of glial cells, angiogenesis, and possibly neurogenesis may also be involved. Clinical and animal studies also revealed effects of aerobic exercise on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, growth factors, and immune-related mechanisms. Some findings indicate effects on neurotransmitters and the endocannabinoid system. Further research is required to clarify how individual risk factors in schizophrenia patients mediate or moderate the neurobiological effects of exercise on brain and cognition. Altogether, aerobic exercise is a promising candidate in the search for pathophysiology-based add-on interventions in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Maurus
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany.
| | - Alkomiet Hasan
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Astrid Röh
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Shun Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany.,Department of Neuropsychiatry, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Boris Rauchmann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Daniel Keeser
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany.,Department of Radiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Berend Malchow
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Andrea Schmitt
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany.,Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM27), Institute of Psychiatry, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Peter Falkai
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Nussbaumstrasse 7, 80336, Munich, Germany
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26
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Li X, Inoue T, Hayashi M, Maejima H. Exercise enhances the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the hippocampus accompanied by epigenetic alterations in senescence-accelerated mice prone 8. Neurosci Lett 2019; 706:176-181. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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27
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Maejima H, Inoue T, Takamatsu Y. Therapeutic exercise accompanied by neuronal modulation to enhance neurotrophic factors in the brain with central nervous system disorders. Phys Ther Res 2019; 22:38-43. [PMID: 31289711 DOI: 10.1298/ptr.r0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Exercise is a primary therapeutic regimen in physical therapy to rehabilitate the motor function of patients with central nervous system (CNS) disorders such as cerebrovascular accident (CVA). Furthermore, exercise positively contributes to cognitive function related to neuroplasticity and neuroprotection in the hippocampus. Neurotrophins play a crucial role in neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, and neuroprotection in the CNS. Exercise enhances the expression of neurotrophins in the brain. Thus, novel regimens for kinesiotherapy in CNS disorders to further enhance exercise-induced expression are expected. In this review, we described three novel regimens for kinesiotherapy in CNS disorders based on the interaction between exercise and pharmacological treatment with the idea of "inhibition of inhibition" in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Maejima
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University
| | | | - Yasuyuki Takamatsu
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University
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28
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Soda K. Spermine and gene methylation: a mechanism of lifespan extension induced by polyamine-rich diet. Amino Acids 2019; 52:213-224. [PMID: 31004229 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-019-02733-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The polyamines spermidine and spermine are synthesized in almost all organisms and are also contained in food. Polyamine synthesis decreases with aging, but no significant decrease in polyamine concentrations were found in organs, tissues, and blood of adult animals and humans. We found that healthy dietary patterns were associated with a preference for polyamine-rich foods, and first reported that increased polyamine intake extended the lifespan of mice and decreased the incidence of colon cancer induced by repeated administration of moderate amounts of a carcinogen. Recent investigations have revealed that changes in DNA methylation status play an important role in lifespan and aging-associated pathologies. The methylation of DNA is regulated by DNA methyltransferases in the presence of S-adenosylmethionine. Decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine, converted from S-adenosylmethionine by S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, provides an aminopropyl group to synthesize spermine and spermidine and acts to inhibit DNMT activity. Long-term increased polyamine intake were shown to elevate blood spermine levels in mice and humans. In vitro studies demonstrated that spermine reversed changes induced by the inhibition of ornithine decarboxylase (e.g., increased decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine, decreased DNA methyltransferase activity, increased aberrant DNA methylation), whose activity decreases with aging. Further, aged mice fed high-polyamine chow demonstrated suppression of aberrant DNA methylation and a consequent increase in protein levels of lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1, which plays a pivotal role on inflammatory process. This review discusses the relation between polyamine metabolism and DNA methylation, as well as the biological mechanism of lifespan extension induced by increased polyamine intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuniyasu Soda
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, 1-847 Amanuma, Omiya, Saitama-City, Saitama, Japan.
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29
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Barros L, Eichwald T, Solano AF, Scheffer D, da Silva RA, Gaspar JM, Latini A. Epigenetic modifications induced by exercise: Drug-free intervention to improve cognitive deficits associated with obesity. Physiol Behav 2019; 204:309-323. [PMID: 30876771 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Obesity and metabolic disorders are increasing worldwide and are associated with brain atrophy and dysfunction, which are risk factors for late-onset dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Epidemiological studies demonstrated that changes in lifestyle, including the frequent practice of physical exercise are able to prevent and treat not only obesity/metabolic disorders, but also to improve cognitive function and dementia. Several biochemical pathways and epigenetic mechanisms have been proposed to understand the beneficial effects of physical exercise on cognition. This manuscript revised central ongoing research on epigenetic mechanisms induced by exercise and the beneficial effects on obesity-associated cognitive decline, highlighting potential mechanistic mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Barros
- Laboratório de Bioenergética e Estresse Oxidativo (LABOX), Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Tuany Eichwald
- Laboratório de Bioenergética e Estresse Oxidativo (LABOX), Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Francisco Solano
- Laboratório de Bioenergética e Estresse Oxidativo (LABOX), Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Débora Scheffer
- Laboratório de Bioenergética e Estresse Oxidativo (LABOX), Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Augusto da Silva
- Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Laboratório de Bioensaios e Dinâmica Celular, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Instituto de Biociências, Campus Botucatu, Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Joana M Gaspar
- Laboratório de Bioenergética e Estresse Oxidativo (LABOX), Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica, UFSC, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Alexandra Latini
- Laboratório de Bioenergética e Estresse Oxidativo (LABOX), Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil.
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30
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Spindler C, Segabinazi E, de Meireles ALF, Piazza FV, Mega F, dos Santos Salvalaggio G, Achaval M, Elsner VR, Marcuzzo S. Paternal physical exercise modulates global DNA methylation status in the hippocampus of male rat offspring. Neural Regen Res 2019; 14:491-500. [PMID: 30539818 PMCID: PMC6334599 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.245473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is widely known that maternal physical exercise is able to induce beneficial improvements in offspring cognition; however, the effects of paternal exercise have not been explored in detail. The present study was designed to evaluate the impact of paternal physical exercise on memory and learning, neuroplasticity and DNA methylation levels in the hippocampus of male offspring. Adult male Wistar rats were divided into two groups: sedentary or exercised fathers. The paternal preconception exercise protocol consisted of treadmill running, 20 minutes daily, 5 consecutive days per week for 22 days, while the mothers were not trained. After mating, paternal sperm was collected for global DNA methylation analysis. At postnatal day 53, the offspring were euthanized, and the hippocampus was dissected to measure cell survival by 5-bromo-2'-deoxiuridine and to determine the expression of synaptophysin, reelin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and global DNA methylation levels. To measure spatial memory and learning changes in offspring, the Morris water maze paradigm was used. There was an improvement in spatial learning, as well as a significant decrease in hippocampal global DNA methylation levels in the offspring from exercised fathers compared with those from sedentary ones; however, no changes were observed in neuroplasticity biomarkers brain-derived neurotrophic factor, reelin and 5-bromo-2'-deoxiuridine. Finally, the global DNA methylation of paternal sperm was not significantly changed by physical exercise. These results suggest a link between paternal preconception physical activity and cognitive benefit, which may be associated with hippocampal epigenetic programming in male offspring. However, the biological mechanisms of this modulation remain unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiano Spindler
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ethiane Segabinazi
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - André Luís Ferreira de Meireles
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Francele Valente Piazza
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Filipe Mega
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Gabriela dos Santos Salvalaggio
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Matilde Achaval
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Viviane Rostirola Elsner
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências e Reabilitação, Centro Universitário Metodista-IPA, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Simone Marcuzzo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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31
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Sharma A, Muresanu DF, Ozkizilcik A, Tian ZR, Lafuente JV, Manzhulo I, Mössler H, Sharma HS. Sleep deprivation exacerbates concussive head injury induced brain pathology: Neuroprotective effects of nanowired delivery of cerebrolysin with α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2019; 245:1-55. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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32
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Wang R, Holsinger RMD. Exercise-induced brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression: Therapeutic implications for Alzheimer's dementia. Ageing Res Rev 2018; 48:109-121. [PMID: 30326283 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that moderate intensity aerobic exercise is positively correlated with cognitive function and memory. However, the exact mechanisms underlying such improvements remain unclear. Recent research in animal models allows proposition of a pathway in which brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a key mediator. This perspective draws upon evidence from animal and human studies to highlight such a mechanism whereby exercise drives synthesis and accumulation of neuroactive metabolites such as myokines and ketone bodies in the periphery and in the hippocampus to enhance BDNF expression. BDNF is a neurotrophin with well-established properties of promoting neuronal survival and synaptic integrity, while its influence on energy transduction may provide the crucial link between inherent vascular and metabolic benefits of exercise with enhanced brain function. Indeed, BDNF mRNA and protein is robustly elevated in rats following periods of voluntary exercise. This was also correlated with improved spatial memory, while such benefits were abolished upon inhibition of BDNF signaling. Similarly, both BDNF and cardiovascular fitness arising from aerobic exercise have been positively associated with hippocampal volume and function in humans. We postulate that exercise will attenuate cortical atrophy and synaptic loss inherent to neurodegenerative disorders - many of which also exhibit aberrant down-regulation of BDNF. Thus, the proposed link between BDNF, exercise and cognition may have critical therapeutic implications for the prevention and amelioration of memory loss and cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease and associated dementias.
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33
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Soda K. Polyamine Metabolism and Gene Methylation in Conjunction with One-Carbon Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E3106. [PMID: 30309036 PMCID: PMC6213949 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19103106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent investigations have revealed that changes in DNA methylation status play an important role in aging-associated pathologies and lifespan. The methylation of DNA is regulated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3a, and DNMT3b) in the presence of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), which serves as a methyl group donor. Increased availability of SAM enhances DNMT activity, while its metabolites, S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine (SAH) and decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine (dcSAM), act to inhibit DNMT activity. SAH, which is converted from SAM by adding a methyl group to cytosine residues in DNA, is an intermediate precursor of homocysteine. dcSAM, converted from SAM by the enzymatic activity of adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, provides an aminopropyl group to synthesize the polyamines spermine and spermidine. Increased homocysteine levels are a significant risk factor for the development of a wide range of conditions, including cardiovascular diseases. However, successful homocysteine-lowering treatment by vitamins (B6, B12, and folate) failed to improve these conditions. Long-term increased polyamine intake elevated blood spermine levels and inhibited aging-associated pathologies in mice and humans. Spermine reversed changes (increased dcSAM, decreased DNMT activity, aberrant DNA methylation, and proinflammatory status) induced by the inhibition of ornithine decarboxylase. The relation between polyamine metabolism, one-carbon metabolism, DNA methylation, and the biological mechanism of spermine-induced lifespan extension is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuniyasu Soda
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Saitama Medical Center, Jichi Medical University, 1-847 Amanuma, Omiya, Saitama-city, Saitama Prefecture 330-8503, Japan.
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34
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Maejima H, Ninuma S, Okuda A, Inoue T, Hayashi M. Exercise and low-level GABAA receptor inhibition modulate locomotor activity and the expression of BDNF accompanied by changes in epigenetic regulation in the hippocampus. Neurosci Lett 2018; 685:18-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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35
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Mandolesi L, Polverino A, Montuori S, Foti F, Ferraioli G, Sorrentino P, Sorrentino G. Effects of Physical Exercise on Cognitive Functioning and Wellbeing: Biological and Psychological Benefits. Front Psychol 2018; 9:509. [PMID: 29755380 PMCID: PMC5934999 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 365] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Much evidence shows that physical exercise (PE) is a strong gene modulator that induces structural and functional changes in the brain, determining enormous benefit on both cognitive functioning and wellbeing. PE is also a protective factor for neurodegeneration. However, it is unclear if such protection is granted through modifications to the biological mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration or through better compensation against attacks. This concise review addresses the biological and psychological positive effects of PE describing the results obtained on brain plasticity and epigenetic mechanisms in animal and human studies, in order to clarify how to maximize the positive effects of PE while avoiding negative consequences, as in the case of exercise addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mandolesi
- Department of Movement Sciences and Wellbeing, Parthenope University of Naples, Naples, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Arianna Polverino
- Department of Movement Sciences and Wellbeing, Parthenope University of Naples, Naples, Italy.,Istituto di Diagnosi e Cura Hermitage Capodimonte, Naples, Italy
| | - Simone Montuori
- Department of Movement Sciences and Wellbeing, Parthenope University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Francesca Foti
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giampaolo Ferraioli
- Department of Science and Technology, Parthenope University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Sorrentino
- Department of Movement Sciences and Wellbeing, Parthenope University of Naples, Naples, Italy.,Istituto di Diagnosi e Cura Hermitage Capodimonte, Naples, Italy.,Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems, CNR, Pozzuoli, Italy
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36
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Jasiulionis MG. Abnormal Epigenetic Regulation of Immune System during Aging. Front Immunol 2018; 9:197. [PMID: 29483913 PMCID: PMC5816044 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Epigenetics refers to the study of mechanisms controlling the chromatin structure, which has fundamental role in the regulation of gene expression and genome stability. Epigenetic marks, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, are established during embryonic development and epigenetic profiles are stably inherited during mitosis, ensuring cell differentiation and fate. Under the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as metabolic profile, hormones, nutrition, drugs, smoke, and stress, epigenetic marks are actively modulated. In this sense, the lifestyle may affect significantly the epigenome, and as a result, the gene expression profile and cell function. Epigenetic alterations are a hallmark of aging and diseases, such as cancer. Among biological systems compromised with aging is the decline of immune response. Different regulators of immune response have their promoters and enhancers susceptible to the modulation by epigenetic marks, which is fundamental to the differentiation and function of immune cells. Consistent evidence has showed the regulation of innate immune cells, and T and B lymphocytes by epigenetic mechanisms. Therefore, age-dependent alterations in epigenetic marks may result in the decline of immune function and this might contribute to the increased incidence of diseases in old people. In order to maintain health, we need to better understand how to avoid epigenetic alterations related to immune aging. In this review, the contribution of epigenetic mechanisms to the loss of immune function during aging will be discussed, and the promise of new means of disease prevention and management will be pointed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam G Jasiulionis
- Laboratory of Ontogeny and Epigenetics, Pharmacology Department, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Mecca C, Giambanco I, Donato R, Arcuri C. Microglia and Aging: The Role of the TREM2-DAP12 and CX3CL1-CX3CR1 Axes. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E318. [PMID: 29361745 PMCID: PMC5796261 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Depending on the species, microglial cells represent 5-20% of glial cells in the adult brain. As the innate immune effector of the brain, microglia are involved in several functions: regulation of inflammation, synaptic connectivity, programmed cell death, wiring and circuitry formation, phagocytosis of cell debris, and synaptic pruning and sculpting of postnatal neural circuits. Moreover, microglia contribute to some neurodevelopmental disorders such as Nasu-Hakola disease (NHD), and to aged-associated neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and others. There is evidence that human and rodent microglia may become senescent. This event determines alterations in the microglia activation status, associated with a chronic inflammation phenotype and with the loss of neuroprotective functions that lead to a greater susceptibility to the neurodegenerative diseases of aging. In the central nervous system (CNS), Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2-DNAX activation protein 12 (TREM2-DAP12) is a signaling complex expressed exclusively in microglia. As a microglial surface receptor, TREM2 interacts with DAP12 to initiate signal transduction pathways that promote microglial cell activation, phagocytosis, and microglial cell survival. Defective TREM2-DAP12 functions play a central role in the pathogenesis of several diseases. The CX3CL1 (fractalkine)-CX3CR1 signaling represents the most important communication channel between neurons and microglia. The expression of CX3CL1 in neurons and of its receptor CX3CR1 in microglia determines a specific interaction, playing fundamental roles in the regulation of the maturation and function of these cells. Here, we review the role of the TREM2-DAP12 and CX3CL1-CX3CR1 axes in aged microglia and the involvement of these pathways in physiological CNS aging and in age-associated neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Mecca
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Ileana Giambanco
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Rosario Donato
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
- Centro Universitario per la Ricerca sulla Genomica Funzionale, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Cataldo Arcuri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Perugia Medical School, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy.
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