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Okechukwu CE. The neurophysiologic basis of the human sleep–wake cycle and the physiopathology of the circadian clock: a narrative review. THE EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF NEUROLOGY, PSYCHIATRY AND NEUROSURGERY 2022. [DOI: 10.1186/s41983-022-00468-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractThe objectives of this review were to explain the neurologic processes that control the human sleep–wake cycle as well as the pathophysiology of the human circadian clock. Non-rapid eye movement and rapid eye movement sleep are the two main phases of sleep. When triggered by circadian input from the anterior hypothalamus and sleep–wake homeostatic information from endogenous chemical signals (example, adenosine), the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus initiates the onset of sleep. Arousal in which there is a conscious monitoring of the surroundings and the ability to respond to external stimuli is known as wakefulness. It contrasts the state of sleep, in which receptivity to external stimuli is reduced. The higher the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons, the longer the brain has been awake. Sleep–wake disturbances induced by endogenous circadian system disruptions or desynchronization between internal and external sleep–wake cycles are known as circadian rhythm sleep–wake disorder (CRSWD). Patients with CRSWD usually report chronic daytime drowsiness and/or insomnia, which interferes with their activities. CRSWD is diagnosed based on the results of some functional evaluations, which include measuring the circadian phase using core body temperature, melatonin secretion timing, sleep diaries, actigraphy, and subjective experiences (example, using the Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire). CRSWD is classified as a dyssomnia in the second edition of the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, with six subtypes: advanced sleep phase, delayed sleep phase, irregular sleep–wake, free running, jet lag, and shift work types. CRSWD can be temporary (due to jet lag, shift work, or illness) or chronic (due to delayed sleep–wake phase disorder, advanced sleep–wake phase disorder, non-24-h sleep–wake disorder, or irregular sleep–wake rhythm disorder). The inability to fall asleep and wake up at the desired time is a common symptom of all CRSWDs.
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Pourbagher-Shahri AM, Farkhondeh T, Talebi M, Kopustinskiene DM, Samarghandian S, Bernatoniene J. An Overview of NO Signaling Pathways in Aging. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26154533. [PMID: 34361685 PMCID: PMC8348219 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric Oxide (NO) is a potent signaling molecule involved in the regulation of various cellular mechanisms and pathways under normal and pathological conditions. NO production, its effects, and its efficacy, are extremely sensitive to aging-related changes in the cells. Herein, we review the mechanisms of NO signaling in the cardiovascular system, central nervous system (CNS), reproduction system, as well as its effects on skin, kidneys, thyroid, muscles, and on the immune system during aging. The aging-related decline in NO levels and bioavailability is also discussed in this review. The decreased NO production by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) was revealed in the aged cardiovascular system. In the CNS, the decline of the neuronal (n)NOS production of NO was related to the impairment of memory, sleep, and cognition. NO played an important role in the aging of oocytes and aged-induced erectile dysfunction. Aging downregulated NO signaling pathways in endothelial cells resulting in skin, kidney, thyroid, and muscle disorders. Putative therapeutic agents (natural/synthetic) affecting NO signaling mechanisms in the aging process are discussed in the present study. In summary, all of the studies reviewed demonstrate that NO plays a crucial role in the cellular aging processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Mohammad Pourbagher-Shahri
- Medical Toxicology and Drug Abuse Research Center (MTDRC), Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand 9717853577, Iran;
| | - Tahereh Farkhondeh
- Cardiovascular Diseases Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand 9717853577, Iran;
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand 9717853577, Iran
| | - Marjan Talebi
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1991953381, Iran;
| | - Dalia M. Kopustinskiene
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technologies, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Sukileliu Pr. 13, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania;
| | - Saeed Samarghandian
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Neyshabur University of Medical Sciences, Neyshabur 9318614139, Iran
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (J.B.)
| | - Jurga Bernatoniene
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technologies, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Sukileliu Pr. 13, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania;
- Department of Drug Technology and Social Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Sukileliu Pr. 13, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (J.B.)
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Thomas RJ, Kim H, Maillard P, DeCarli CS, Heckman EJ, Karjadi C, Ang TFA, Au R. Digital sleep measures and white matter health in the Framingham Heart Study. EXPLORATION OF MEDICINE 2021; 2:253-267. [PMID: 34927164 PMCID: PMC8682916 DOI: 10.37349/emed.2021.00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM Impaired sleep quality and sleep oxygenation are common sleep pathologies. This study assessed the impact of these abnormalities on white matter (WM) integrity in an epidemiological cohort. METHODS The target population was the Framingham Heart Study Generation-2/Omni-1 Cohorts. Magnetic resonance imaging (diffusion tensor imaging) was used to assess WM integrity. Wearable digital devices were used to assess sleep quality: the (M1-SleepImage™ system) and the Nonin WristOx for nocturnal oxygenation. The M1 device collects trunk actigraphy and the electrocardiogram (ECG); sleep stability indices were computed using cardiopulmonary coupling using the ECG. Two nights of recording were averaged. RESULTS Stable sleep was positively associated with WM health. Actigraphic periods of wake during the sleep period were associated with increased mean diffusivity. One marker of sleep fragmentation which covaries with respiratory chemoreflex activation was associated with reduced fractional anisotropy and increased mean diffusivity. Both oxygen desaturation index and oxygen saturation time under 90% were associated with pathological directions of diffusion tensor imaging signals. Gender differences were noted across most variables, with female sex showing the larger and significant impact. CONCLUSIONS Sleep quality assessed by a novel digital analysis and sleep hypoxia was associated with WM injury, especially in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Joseph Thomas
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Hyun Kim
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, and Framingham Heart Study, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Pauline Maillard
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Charles S. DeCarli
- Department of Neurology, University of California Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Eric James Heckman
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Cody Karjadi
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, and Framingham Heart Study, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Ting Fang Alvin Ang
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, and Framingham Heart Study, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Rhoda Au
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, and Framingham Heart Study, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Department of Neurology and Epidemiology, Boston University School of Medicine and Public Health, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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Biological and Functional Biomarkers of Aging: Definition, Characteristics, and How They Can Impact Everyday Cancer Treatment. Curr Oncol Rep 2020; 22:115. [PMID: 32827112 PMCID: PMC7442549 DOI: 10.1007/s11912-020-00977-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Purpose of Review Recognize which are the elements that predict why a person is aging faster or slower and which intervention we can arrange to slow down the process, which permits to prevent or delay the progression of multimorbidity and disability. Recent Findings Aging is a complex process that leads to changes in all the systems of the body and all the functions of the person; however, aging develops at different rates in different people, and chronological age is not always consistent with biological age. Summary Gerontologists are focused not only on finding the best theory able to explain aging but also on identifying one or more markers, which are able to describe aging processes. These biomarkers are necessary to better define the aging-related pathologies, manage multimorbidity, and improve the quality of life. The aim of this paper is to review the most recent evidence on aging biomarkers and the clusters related to them for personalization of treatments.
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Acute and Chronic Sleep Deprivation-Related Changes in N-methyl-D-aspartate Receptor-Nitric Oxide Signalling in the Rat Cerebral Cortex with Reference to Aging and Brain Lateralization. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20133273. [PMID: 31277281 PMCID: PMC6651230 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20133273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging and chronic sleep deprivation (SD) are well-recognized risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD), with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA) and downstream nitric oxide (NO) signalling implicated in the process. Herein, we investigate the impact of the age- and acute or chronic SD-dependent changes on the expression of NMDA receptor subunits (NR1, NR2A, and NR2B) and on the activities of NO synthase (NOS) isoforms in the cortex of Wistar rats, with reference to cerebral lateralization. In young adult controls, somewhat lateralized seasonal variations in neuronal and endothelial NOS have been observed. In aged rats, overall decreases in NR1, NR2A, and NR2B expression and reduction in neuronal and endothelial NOS activities were found. The age-dependent changes in NR1 and NR2B significantly correlated with neuronal NOS in both hemispheres. Changes evoked by chronic SD (dysfunction of endothelial NOS and the increasing role of NR2A) differed from those evoked by acute SD (increase in inducible NOS in the right side). Collectively, these results demonstrate age-dependent regulation of the level of NMDA receptor subunits and downstream NOS isoforms throughout the rat brain, which could be partly mimicked by SD. As described herein, age and SD alterations in the prevalence of NMDA receptors and NOS could contribute towards cognitive decline in the elderly, as well as in the pathobiology of AD and the neurodegenerative process.
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Young adults are more vulnerable to chronic sleep deficiency and recurrent circadian disruption than older adults. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11052. [PMID: 30038272 PMCID: PMC6056541 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29358-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
More than a third of US adults report fewer than 6 hours of sleep a night, making chronic sleep restriction a growing public health concern. Sleep curtailment is associated with an increase in industrial accidents, motor vehicle accidents, medical and other occupational errors. Young adults are more vulnerable to acute sleep deprivation than older adults, but less is known about how young vs. older adults respond to the more commonly experienced chronic sleep restriction. To test the hypothesis that young adults are more vulnerable to chronic sleep loss than older adults, we compared data from young and older adults who underwent three weeks of chronic sleep restriction (equivalent to 5.6 hours/24 hours) combined with recurrent circadian disruption in an experiment that enabled us to separate the influences of the sleep-wake homeostatic process, the circadian timing system, and the chronic sleep deficit. We found that while young and older adults reported similar levels of subjective sleepiness, objective measures of sleepiness revealed that young adults were more vulnerable and had more attentional failures than the older adults. These results have important public health implications, particularly related to prevention of sleep-related motor vehicle crashes in young drivers. Further research is needed to understand the neurobiological basis of these age-related differences.
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Yujra VQ, Antunes HKM, Mônico‐Neto M, Pisani LP, Santamarina AB, Quintana HT, de Oliveira F, Oshima CTF, Ribeiro DA. Sleep deprivation induces pathological changes in rat masticatory muscles: Role of Toll like signaling pathway and atrophy. J Cell Biochem 2017; 119:2269-2277. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.26389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Q. Yujra
- Department of PathologyFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Hanna K. M. Antunes
- Department of BiosciencesFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Marcos Mônico‐Neto
- Department of PshychobiologyFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Luciana P. Pisani
- Department of BiosciencesFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Aline B. Santamarina
- Department of BiosciencesFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Hananiah T. Quintana
- Department of BiosciencesFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Flavia de Oliveira
- Department of BiosciencesFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Celina T. F. Oshima
- Department of BiosciencesFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
| | - Daniel A. Ribeiro
- Department of BiosciencesFederal University of São Paulo, UNIFESPSao PauloBrazil
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da Costa JP, Vitorino R, Silva GM, Vogel C, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. A synopsis on aging-Theories, mechanisms and future prospects. Ageing Res Rev 2016; 29:90-112. [PMID: 27353257 PMCID: PMC5991498 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Answering the question as to why we age is tantamount to answering the question of what is life itself. There are countless theories as to why and how we age, but, until recently, the very definition of aging - senescence - was still uncertain. Here, we summarize the main views of the different models of senescence, with a special emphasis on the biochemical processes that accompany aging. Though inherently complex, aging is characterized by numerous changes that take place at different levels of the biological hierarchy. We therefore explore some of the most relevant changes that take place during aging and, finally, we overview the current status of emergent aging therapies and what the future holds for this field of research. From this multi-dimensional approach, it becomes clear that an integrative approach that couples aging research with systems biology, capable of providing novel insights into how and why we age, is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Pinto da Costa
- CESAM and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Rui Vitorino
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute for Biomedicine-iBiMED, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Department of Physiology and Cardiothoracic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Gustavo M Silva
- Department of Biology, Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, NY, NY 10003, USA
| | - Christine Vogel
- Department of Biology, Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, NY, NY 10003, USA
| | - Armando C Duarte
- CESAM and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Teresa Rocha-Santos
- CESAM and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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Ventskovska O, Porkka-Heiskanen T, Karpova NN. Spontaneous sleep-wake cycle and sleep deprivation differently induce Bdnf1, Bdnf4 and Bdnf9a DNA methylation and transcripts levels in the basal forebrain and frontal cortex in rats. J Sleep Res 2014; 24:124-30. [PMID: 25223586 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.12242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) regulates neuronal plasticity, slow wave activity and sleep homeostasis. Environmental stimuli control Bdnf expression through epigenetic mechanisms, but there are no data on epigenetic regulation of Bdnf by sleep or sleep deprivation. Here we investigated whether 5-methylcytosine (5mC) DNA modification at Bdnf promoters p1, p4 and p9 influences Bdnf1, Bdnf4 and Bdnf9a expression during the normal inactive phase or after sleep deprivation (SD) (3, 6 and 12 h, end-times being ZT3, ZT6 and ZT12) in rats in two brain areas involved in sleep regulation, the basal forebrain and cortex. We found a daytime variation in cortical Bdnf expression: Bdnf1 expression was highest at ZT6 and Bdnf4 lowest at ZT12. Such variation was not observed in the basal forebrain. Also Bdnf p1 and p9 methylation levels differed only in the cortex, while Bdnf p4 methylation did not vary in either area. Factorial analysis revealed that sleep deprivation significantly induced Bdnf1 and Bdnf4 with the similar pattern for Bdnf9a in both basal forebrain and cortex; 12 h of sleep deprivation decreased 5mC levels at the cortical Bdnf p4 and p9. Regression analysis between the 5mC promoter levels and the corresponding Bdnf transcript expression revealed significant negative correlations for the basal forebrain Bdnf1 and cortical Bdnf9a transcripts in only non-deprived rats, while these correlations were lost after sleep deprivation. Our results suggest that Bdnf transcription during the light phase of undisturbed sleep-wake cycle but not after SD is regulated at least partially by brain site-specific DNA methylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olena Ventskovska
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kharkov, Ukraine
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Porkka-Heiskanen T, Zitting KM, Wigren HK. Sleep, its regulation and possible mechanisms of sleep disturbances. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2013; 208:311-28. [PMID: 23746394 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The state of sleep consists of different phases that proceed in successive, tightly regulated order through the night forming a physiological program, which for each individual is different but stabile from one night to another. Failure to accomplish this program results in feeling of unrefreshing sleep and tiredness in the morning. The program core is constructed by genetic factors but regulated by circadian rhythm and duration and intensity of day time brain activity. Many environmental factors modulate sleep, including stress, health status and ingestion of vigilance-affecting nutrients or medicines (e.g. caffeine). Acute sleep loss results in compromised cognitive performance, memory deficits, depressive mood and involuntary sleep episodes during the day. Moreover, prolonged sleep curtailment has many adverse health effects, as evidenced by both epidemiological and experimental studies. These effects include increased risk for depression, type II diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular diseases. In addition to voluntary restriction of sleep, shift work, irregular working hours, jet lag and stress are important factors that induce curtailed or bad quality sleep and/or insomnia. This review covers the current theories on the function of normal sleep and describes current knowledge on the physiologic effects of sleep loss. It provides insights into the basic mechanisms of the regulation of wakefulness and sleep creating a theoretical background for understanding different disturbances of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - K.-M. Zitting
- Institute of Biomedicine; University of Helsinki; Helsinki; Finland
| | - H.-K. Wigren
- Institute of Biomedicine; University of Helsinki; Helsinki; Finland
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Landolt HP, Rétey JV, Adam M. Reduced neurobehavioral impairment from sleep deprivation in older adults: contribution of adenosinergic mechanisms. Front Neurol 2012; 3:62. [PMID: 22557989 PMCID: PMC3338069 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2012.00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A night without sleep is followed by enhanced sleepiness, increased low-frequency activity in the waking EEG, and reduced vigilant attention. The magnitude of these changes is highly variable among healthy individuals. Findings in young men of low and high subjective caffeine sensitivity suggest that adenosinergic mechanisms contribute to inter-individual differences in sleep deprivation-induced changes in EEG theta activity, as well as optimal performance on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT). In comparison to young subjects, healthy adults of older age typically feel less sleepy after sleep deprivation, and show fewer response lapses, and faster reaction times on the PVT, especially in the morning after the night without sleep. We hypothesized that age-related changes in adenosine signal transmission underlie reduced vulnerability to sleep deprivation in older individuals. To test this hypothesis, the combined effects of prolonged wakefulness and the adenosine receptor antagonist, caffeine, on an antero-posterior power gradient in EEG theta activity and PVT performance were analyzed in healthy older and caffeine-insensitive and -sensitive young men. The results show that age-related differences in sleep loss-induced changes in brain rhythmic activity and neurobehavioral functions are mirrored in young individuals of low and high sensitivity to the stimulant effects of caffeine. Moreover, the effects of sleep deprivation and caffeine on regional theta power and vigilant attention are inversely correlated across older and young age groups. Genetic variants of the adenosine A2A receptor gene contribute to individual differences in neurobehavioral performance in rested and sleep deprived state, and modulate the actions of caffeine in wakefulness and sleep. Based upon this evidence, we propose that age-related differences in A2A receptor-mediated signal transduction could be involved in age-related changes in the vulnerability to acute sleep deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Peter Landolt
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zürich Zürich, Switzerland
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Cespuglio R, Amrouni D, Meiller A, Buguet A, Gautier-Sauvigné S. Nitric oxide in the regulation of the sleep-wake states. Sleep Med Rev 2012; 16:265-79. [PMID: 22406306 DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2012.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Revised: 01/19/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) production involves four different NO-synthases (NOSs) that are either constitutive (neuronal, nNOS; endothelial, eNOS; mitochondrial, mNOS) or inducible (iNOS) in nature. Three main processes regulate NO/NOSs output, i.e., the L-arginine/arginase substrate-competing system, the L-citrulline/arginosuccinate-recycling system and the asymmetric dimethyl-/monomethyl-L-arginine-inhibiting system. In adult animals, nNOS exhibits a dense innervation intermingled with pontine sleep structures. It is well established that the NO/nNOS production makes a key contribution to daily homeostatic sleep (slow-wave sleep, SWS; rapid eye movement sleep, REM sleep). In the basal hypothalamus, the NO/nNOS production further contributes to the REM sleep rebound that takes place after a sleep deprivation (SD). This production may also contribute to the sleep rebound that is associated with an immobilization stress (IS). In adult animals, throughout the SD time-course, an additional NO/iNOS production takes place in neurons. Such production mediates a transitory SD-related SWS rebound. A transitory NO/iNOS production is also part of the immune system. Such a production contributes to the SWS increase that accompanies inflammatory events and is ensured by microglial cells and astrocytes. Finally, with aging, the iNOS expression becomes permanent and the corresponding NO/iNOS production is important to ensure an adequate maintenance of REM sleep and, to a lesser extent, SWS. Despite such maintenance, aged animals, however, are not able to elicit a sleep rebound to deal with the challenge of SD or IS. Sleep regulatory processes in adult animals thus become impaired with age. Reduced iNOS expression during aging may contribute to accelerated senescence, as observed in senescence-accelerated mice (SAMP-8 mice).
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Cespuglio
- University of Lyon, Faculty of Medicine, Neurosciences Research Center of Lyon, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon, France.
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Kalinchuk AV, McCarley RW, Porkka-Heiskanen T, Basheer R. The time course of adenosine, nitric oxide (NO) and inducible NO synthase changes in the brain with sleep loss and their role in the non-rapid eye movement sleep homeostatic cascade. J Neurochem 2011; 116:260-72. [PMID: 21062286 PMCID: PMC3042163 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07100.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Both adenosine and nitric oxide (NO) are known for their role in sleep homeostasis, with the basal forebrain (BF) wakefulness center as an important site of action. Previously, we reported a cascade of homeostatic events, wherein sleep deprivation (SD) induces the production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-dependent NO in BF, leading to enhanced release of extracellular adenosine. In turn, increased BF adenosine leads to enhanced sleep intensity, as measured by increased non-rapid eye movement sleep EEG delta activity. However, the presence and time course of similar events in cortex has not been studied, although a frontal cortical role for the increase in non-rapid eye movement recovery sleep EEG delta power is known. Accordingly, we performed simultaneous hourly microdialysis sample collection from BF and frontal cortex (FC) during 11 h SD. We observed that both areas showed sequential increases in iNOS and NO, followed by increases in adenosine. BF increases began at 1 h SD, whereas FC increases began at 5 h SD. iNOS and Fos-double labeling indicated that iNOS induction occurred in BF and FC wake-active neurons. These data support the role of BF adenosine and NO in sleep homeostasis and indicate the temporal and spatial sequence of sleep homeostatic cascade for NO and adenosine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna V Kalinchuk
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, VA Boston Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, Massachusetts, USA.
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Wigren HK, Rytkönen KM, Porkka-Heiskanen T. Basal forebrain lactate release and promotion of cortical arousal during prolonged waking is attenuated in aging. J Neurosci 2009; 29:11698-707. [PMID: 19759316 PMCID: PMC6665766 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5773-08.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2008] [Revised: 07/23/2009] [Accepted: 08/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The wake-promoting basal forebrain (BF) is critically involved in sustaining cortical arousal. In the present study, we investigated how aging affects the capacity of the BF to cope with continuous activation during prolonged waking. Increased neuronal activity induces lactate release in the activated brain area, and BF stimulation increases cortical arousal. We used in vivo microdialysis to measure lactate levels in the BF, and electroencephalography (EEG) to measure cortical arousal, during 3 h sleep deprivation (SD) in three age groups of rats. Lactate increased during SD in young but not in aged (middle-aged and old) rats. The increase in high-frequency (HF) EEG theta power (7-9 Hz), a marker of cortical arousal and active waking, was attenuated in the aged. Furthermore, a positive correlation between BF lactate release and HF EEG theta increase was found in young but not in aged rats. We hypothesized that these age-related attenuations result from reduced capacity of the BF to respond to increased neuronal activation. This was tested by stimulating the BF with glutamate receptor agonist NMDA. Whereas BF stimulation increased waking in young and old rats, lactate increase and the HF EEG theta increase were attenuated in the old. Also, the homeostatic increase in sleep intensity after SD was attenuated in aged rats. Our results suggest that an age-related attenuation in BF function reduces cortical arousal during prolonged waking. As the quality of waking is important in regulating the subsequent sleep, reduced cortical arousal during SD may contribute to the age-related reduction in sleep intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henna-Kaisa Wigren
- Institute of Biomedicine/Physiology, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
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