Repetition enhancement and memory effects for duration

Temporal context modulates cross-modality time discrimination: Electrophysiological evidence for supramodal temporal representation

Although the peripheral nervous system lacks a dedicated receptor, the brain processes temporal information through different sensory channels. A critical question is whether temporal information from different sensory modalities at different times forms modality-specific representations or is integrated into a common representation in a supramodal manner. Behavioral studies on temporal memory mixing and the central tendency effect have provided evidence for supramodal temporal representations. We aimed to provide electrophysiological evidence for this proposal by employing a cross-modality time discrimination task combined with electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings. The task maintained a fixed auditory standard duration, whereas the visual comparison duration was randomly selected from the short and long ranges, creating two different audio-visual temporal contexts. The behavioral results showed that the point of subjective equality (PSE) in the short context was significantly lower than that in the long context. The EEG results revealed that the amplitude of the contingent negative variation (CNV) in the short context was significantly higher (more negative) than in the long context in the early stage, while it was lower (more positive) in the later stage. These results suggest that the audiovisual temporal context is integrated with the auditory standard duration to generate a subjective time criterion. Compared with the long context, the subjective time criterion in the short context was shorter, resulting in earlier decision-making and a preceding decrease in CNV. Our study provides electrophysiological evidence that temporal information from different modalities inputted into the brain at different times can form a supramodal temporal representation.

Contingent magnetic variation and beta-band oscillations in sensorimotor temporal decision-making

The ability to accurately encode the temporal information of sensory events and hence to make prompt action is fundamental to humans' prompt behavioral decision-making. Here we examined the ability of ensemble coding (averaging multiple inter-intervals in a sound sequence) and subsequent immediate reproduction of target duration at half, equal, or double that of the perceived mean interval in a sensorimotor loop. With magnetoencephalography (MEG), we found that the contingent magnetic variation (CMV) in the central scalp varied as a function of the averaging tasks, with a faster rate for buildup amplitudes and shorter peak latencies in the "half" condition as compared to the "double" condition. ERD (event-related desynchronization) -to-ERS (event-related synchronization) latency was shorter in the "half" condition. A robust beta band (15-23 Hz) power suppression and recovery between the final tone and the action of key pressing was found for time reproduction. The beta modulation depth (i.e., the ERD-to-ERS power difference) was larger in motor areas than in primary auditory areas. Moreover, results of phase slope index (PSI) indicated that beta oscillations in the left supplementary motor area (SMA) led those in the right superior temporal gyrus (STG), showing SMA to STG directionality for the processing of sequential (temporal) auditory interval information. Our findings provide the first evidence to show that CMV and beta oscillations predict the coupling between perception and action in time averaging.

The effect of modality and order presentation of emotional stimuli on time perception

Despite human accuracy in perceiving time, many factors can modulate the subjective experience of time. For example, it is widely reported that emotion can expand or shrink our perception of time and that temporal intervals are perceived as longer when marked by auditory stimuli than by visual stimuli. In the present study, we aimed at investigating whether the influence of emotion on time perception can be altered by the order in which emotional stimuli are presented and the sensory modality in which they are presented. Participants were asked to complete a time bisection task in which emotional stimuli were presented either acoustically or visually, and either before or after interval to be estimated. We observed a main effect of modality (longer perceived duration and lower variability in the auditory than in the visual modality) as well as a main effect of emotion (temporal overestimation for negative stimuli compared to neutral). Importantly, the effects of modality and emotion interacted with the order of presentation of the emotional stimuli. In the visual condition, when emotional stimuli were presented after the temporal intervals, participants overestimated time, but no differences between negative and neutral stimuli were observed when emotional stimuli were presented first. In the auditory condition, no significant effect of emotion on perceived duration was found. Results suggest that negative emotions affect our perception of durations acting at the decision-making stage rather than at the pacemaker one. No effect on time perception was observed for emotional auditory stimuli.

Blocked versus interleaved: How range contexts modulate time perception and its EEG signatures

Accurate time perception is a crucial element in a wide range of cognitive tasks, including decision-making, memory, and motor control. One commonly observed phenomenon is that when given a range of time intervals to consider, people's estimates often cluster around the midpoint of those intervals. Previous studies have suggested that the range of these intervals can also influence our judgments, but the neural mechanisms behind this "range effect" are not yet understood. We used both behavioral tests and electroencephalographic (EEG) measures to understand how the range of sample time intervals affects the accuracy of people's subsequent time estimates. Study participants were exposed to two different setups: In the "blocked-range" (BR) session, short and long intervals were presented in separate blocks, whereas in the "interleaved-range" (IR) session, intervals of various lengths were presented randomly. Our findings indicated that the BR context led to more accurate time estimates compared to the IR context. In terms of EEG data, the BR context resulted in quicker buildup of contingent negative variation (CNV), which also reached higher amplitude levels and dissolved more rapidly during the encoding stage. We also observed an enhanced amplitude in the offset P2 component of the EEG signal. Overall, our results suggest that the variability in time intervals, as defined by their range, influences the neural processes that underlie time estimation.

A novel method for estimating properties of attentional oscillators reveals an age-related decline in flexibility

Dynamic attending theory proposes that the ability to track temporal cues in the auditory environment is governed by entrainment, the synchronization between internal oscillations and regularities in external auditory signals. Here, we focused on two key properties of internal oscillators: their preferred rate, the default rate in the absence of any input; and their flexibility, how they adapt to changes in rhythmic context. We developed methods to estimate oscillator properties (Experiment 1) and compared the estimates across tasks and individuals (Experiment 2). Preferred rates, estimated as the stimulus rates with peak performance, showed a harmonic relationship across measurements and were correlated with individuals' spontaneous motor tempo. Estimates from motor tasks were slower than those from the perceptual task, and the degree of slowing was consistent for each individual. Task performance decreased with trial-to-trial changes in stimulus rate, and responses on individual trials were biased toward the preceding trial's stimulus properties. Flexibility, quantified as an individual's ability to adapt to faster-than-previous rates, decreased with age. These findings show domain-specific rate preferences for the assumed oscillatory system underlying rhythm perception and production, and that this system loses its ability to flexibly adapt to changes in the external rhythmic context during aging.

Time for What? Dissociating Explicit Timing Tasks through Electrophysiological Signatures

Estimating durations between hundreds of milliseconds and seconds is essential for several daily tasks. Explicit timing tasks, which require participants to estimate durations to make a comparison (time for perception) or to reproduce them (time for action), are often used to investigate psychological and neural timing mechanisms. Recent studies have proposed that mechanisms may depend on specific task requirements. In this study, we conducted electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings on human participants as they estimated intervals in different task contexts to investigate the extent to which timing mechanisms depend on the nature of the task. We compared the neural processing of identical visual reference stimuli in two different tasks, in which stimulus durations were either perceptually compared or motorically reproduced in separate experimental blocks. Using multivariate pattern analyses, we could successfully decode the duration and the task of reference stimuli. We found evidence for both overlapping timing mechanisms across tasks as well as recruitment of task-dependent processes for comparing intervals for different purposes. Our findings suggest both core and specialized timing functions are recruited to support explicit timing tasks.

Contingent negative variation as an evaluation indicator of neurocognitive disorder after traumatic brain injury

Introduction

Neurocognitive disorders are commonly observed in patients suffering from traumatic brain injury (TBI). Methods to assess neurocognitive disorders have thus drawn the general attention of the public, especially electrophysiology parameter such as contingent negative variation (CNV), which has been given more emphasis as a neurophysiological marker in event-related potentials (ERPs) for diagnosing a neurocognitive disorder and assessing its severity. The present study focused on the correlations between CNV parameters and levels of daily living activities and social function to explore the potential of CNV as an objective assessment tool.

Methods

Thirty-one patients with a diagnosis of neurocognitive disorder after a TBI according to ICD-10 were enrolled as the patient group, and 24 matched healthy volunteers were enrolled as the control group. The activity of daily living scale, functional activities questionnaire, social disability screening schedule, and scale of personality change following TBI were used to assess daily living activity and social function.

Results

The scale scores in patients were significantly higher than those in controls. Maximum amplitudes before S2 and during the post-imperative negative variation (PINV) period were also significantly higher in the patient group compared to the control group and were positively correlated with four scale scores. The duration of PINV at Fz and Cz was significantly shorter in the patient group than in the control group. The CNV return to baseline from a positive wave at electrode Fz and Cz occurred significantly earlier in the control group than in the patient group, while at Pz, the result showed the opposite.

Conclusion

Lower amplitudes of CNV were associated with more severe neurocognitive disorder and greater impairments in daily life abilities and social function. The duration of PINV and the latency of returning to baseline from a positive wave were correlated with the neurocognitive disorder to some extent. CNV could be used as an objective, electrophysiology-based parameter for evaluating the severity of the neurocognitive disorder and personality changes after TBI.

Encoding, working memory, or decision: how feedback modulates time perception

The hypothesis that individuals can accurately represent temporal information within approximately 3 s is the premise of several theoretical models and empirical studies in the field of temporal processing. The significance of accurately representing time within 3 s and the universality of the overestimation contrast dramatically. To clarify whether this overestimation arises from an inability to accurately represent time or a response bias, we systematically examined whether feedback reduces overestimation at the 3 temporal processing stages of timing (encoding), working memory, and decisions proposed by the scalar timing model. Participants reproduced the time interval between 2 circles with or without feedback, while the electroencephalogram (EEG) was synchronously recorded. Behavioral results showed that feedback shortened reproduced times and significantly minimized overestimation. EEG results showed that feedback significantly decreased the amplitude of contingent negative variation (CNV) in the decision stage but did not modulate the CNV amplitude in the encoding stage or the P2-P3b amplitudes in the working memory stage. These results suggest that overestimation arises from response bias when individuals convert an accurate representation of time into behavior. Our study provides electrophysiological evidence to support the conception that short intervals under approximately 3 s can be accurately represented as "temporal gestalt."

Electrophysiological signatures of temporal context in the bisection task

Despite having relatively accurate timing, subjective time can be influenced by various contexts, such as stimulus spacing and sample frequency. Several electroencephalographic (EEG) components have been associated with timing, including the contingent negative variation (CNV), offset P2, and late positive component of timing (LPCt). However, the specific role of these components in the contextual modulation of perceived time remains unclear. In this study, we conducted two temporal bisection experiments to investigate this issue. Participants had to judge whether a test duration was close to a short or long standard. Unbeknownst to them, we manipulated the stimulus spacing (Experiment 1) and sample frequency (Experiment 2) to create short and long contexts while maintaining consistent test ranges and standards across different sessions. The results revealed that the bisection threshold shifted towards the ensemble mean, and both CNV and LPCt were sensitive to context modulation. In the short context, the CNV exhibited an increased climbing rate compared to the long context, whereas the LPCt displayed reduced amplitude and latency. These findings suggest that the CNV represents an expectancy wave preceding a temporal decision process, while the LPCt reflects the decision-making process itself, with both components influenced by the temporal context.

Characteristics of psychological time in patients with depression and potential intervention strategies

Psychological time reveals information about an individual's psychological state and psychopathological traits and, thus, has become a new perspective through which the occurrence and development of depression can be examined. Psychological time includes time perception, time perspective, circadian rhythms, and passage of time. Patients with depression are characterized by inaccurate time interval estimation, habitual negative thoughts about the past and future, evening-type circadian rhythms, and slow passage of time. Habitual negative thoughts about the past and future and evening-type circadian rhythms influence the formation of depression, and poor time interval estimation and slow passage of time may result from depression. Further study is needed accurately exploring psychological time and influencing factors in patients with depression, and prospective cohort studies could further clarify this complex relationship. In addition, the study of psychological time has important implications for developing effective interventions to reduce depression.

What came before: Assimilation effects in the categorization of time intervals

Assimilation is the process by which one judgment tends to approach some aspect of another stimulus or judgment. This effect has been known for over half a century in various domains such as the judgment of weight or sound intensity. However, the assimilation of judgments of durations have been relatively unexplored. In the current article, we present the results of five experiments in which participant s were required to judge the duration of a visual stimulus on each trial. In each experiment, we manipulated the pattern of durations they experienced in order to systematically separate the effects of the objective and subjective duration of stimuli on subsequent judgments. We found that duration judgments were primarily driven by prior judgments, with little, if any, effect of the prior objective stimulus duration. This is in contrast to the findings previously reported in regards to non-temporal judgments. We propose two mechanist explanations of this effect; a representational account in which judgments represent the speed of an underlying pacemaker, and an assimilation account in which judgment is based in prior experience. We further discuss results in terms of predictive coding, in which the previous rating is representative of a prior expectation, which is modified by current experience.

A unitary mechanism underlies adaptation to both local and global environmental statistics in time perception

Our duration estimation flexibly adapts to the statistical properties of the temporal context. Humans and non-human species exhibit a perceptual bias towards the mean of durations previously observed as well as serial dependence, a perceptual bias towards the duration of recently processed events. Here we asked whether those two phenomena arise from a unitary mechanism or reflect the operation of two distinct systems that adapt separately to the global and local statistics of the environment. We employed a set of duration reproduction tasks in which the target duration was sampled from distributions with different variances and means. The central tendency and serial dependence biases were jointly modulated by the range and the variance of the prior, and these effects were well-captured by a unitary mechanism model in which temporal expectancies are updated after each trial based on perceptual observations. Alternative models that assume separate mechanisms for global and local contextual effects failed to capture the empirical results.

The contribution of the supplementary motor area to explicit and implicit timing: A high-definition transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (HD-tRNS) study

It is becoming increasingly accepted that timing tasks, and underlying temporal processes, can be partitioned on the basis of whether they require an explicit or implicit temporal judgement. Most neuroimaging studies of timing associated explicit timing tasks with activation of the supplementary motor area (SMA). However, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies perturbing SMA functioning across explicit timing tasks have generally reported null effects, thus failing to causally link SMA to explicit timing. The present study probed the involvement of SMA in both explicit and implicit timing tasks within a single experiment and using High-Definition transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (HD-tRNS), a previously less used technique in studies of the SMA. Participants performed two tasks that comprised the same stimulus presentation but differed in the received task instructions, which might or might not require explicit temporal judgments. Results showed a significant HD-tRNS-induced shift of perceived durations (i.e., overestimation) in the explicit timing task, whereas there was no modulation of implicit timing by HD-tRNS. Overall, these results provide initial non-invasive brain stimulation evidence on the contribution of the SMA to explicit and implicit timing tasks.

Post-interval potentials in temporal judgements

Research suggests that post-stimulus positive deflections could be associated with timing. We compared offset-locked potentials N1, P2, N1P2, and late positive component (LPC) in temporal generalization and temporal bisection-with visual probe intervals. In both tasks, the LPC amplitude decreased with the duration of the current probe interval. A larger LPC was found after shorter intervals, whereas other ERP amplitudes did not change between tasks or across durations. We also found that the LPC for different responses indicates subjective time. We discussed our findings in relation to theories of human timing.

The Role of Beta Oscillations in Mental Time Travel

The brain processes short-interval timing but also allows people to project themselves into the past and the future (i.e., mental time travel [MTT]). Beta oscillations index seconds-long-interval timing (i.e., higher beta power is associated with longer durations). Here, we used parietal transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) to investigate whether MTT is also supported by parietal beta oscillations and to test the link between MTT and short intervals. Thirty adults performed a novel MTT task while receiving beta and alpha tACS, in addition to no stimulation. Beta tACS corresponded to a temporal underestimation in past but not in future MTT. Furthermore, participants who overestimated seconds-long intervals also overestimated temporal distances in the past-projection MTT condition and showed a stronger effect of beta tACS. These data provide a unique window into temporal perception, showing how beta oscillations may be a common mechanism for short intervals and MTT.

Dissociable effects of emotional stimuli on electrophysiological indices of time and decision-making

Previous research has demonstrated that emotional faces affect time perception, however, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Earlier attempts focus on effects at the different stages of the pacemaker-accumulator model (clock, memory, and/or decision-making) including, an increase in pacemaker rate or accumulation rate via arousal or attention, respectively, or by biasing decision-making. A visual temporal bisection task with sub-second intervals was conducted in two groups to further investigate these effects; one group was strictly behavioral whereas the second included a 64-channel electroencephalogram (EEG). To separate the influence of face and timing responses, participants timed a visual stimulus, temporally flanked (before and after) by two faces, either negative or neutral, creating three trial-types: Neg→Neut, Neut→Neg, or Neut→Neut. We found a leftward shift in bisection point (BP) in Neg→Neut relative to Neut→Neut suggests an overestimation of the temporal stimulus when preceded by a negative face. Neurally, we found the face-responsive N170 was larger for negative faces and the N1 and contingent negative variation (CNV) were larger when the temporal stimulus was preceded by a negative face. Additionally, there was an interaction effect between condition and response for the late positive component of timing (LPCt) and a significant difference between response (short/long) in the neutral condition. We concluded that a preceding negative face affects the clock stage leading to more pulses being accumulated, either through attention or arousal, as indexed by a larger N1, CNV, and N170; whereas viewing a negative face after impacted decision-making mechanisms, as evidenced by the LPCt.

Neural signatures of evidence accumulation in temporal decisions

Cognitive models of interval timing can be formulated as an accumulation-to-bound process.1-5 However, the physiological manifestation of such processes has not yet been identified. We used electroencephalography (EEG) to measure the neural responses of participants while they performed a temporal bisection task in which they were requested to categorize the duration of visual stimuli as short or long.6 We found that the stimulus-offset and response-locked activity depends on both stimulus duration and the participants' decision. To relate this activity to the underlying cognitive processes, we used a drift-diffusion model.7 The model includes a noisy accumulator starting with the stimulus onset and a decision threshold. According to the model, a stimulus duration will be categorized as "long" if the accumulator reaches the threshold during stimulus presentation. Otherwise, it will be categorized as "short." We found that at the offset of stimulus presentation, an EEG response marks the distance of the accumulator from the threshold. Therefore, this model offers an accurate description of our behavioral data as well as the EEG response using the same two model parameters. We then replicated this finding in an identical experiment conducted in the tactile domain. We also extended this finding to two different temporal ranges (sub- and supra-second). Taken together, the work provides a new way to study the cognitive processes underlying temporal decisions, using a combination of behavior, EEG, and modeling.

Rodents monitor their error in self-generated duration on a single trial basis

A fundamental question in neuroscience is what type of internal representation leads to complex, adaptive behavior. When faced with a deadline, individuals' behavior suggests that they represent the mean and the uncertainty of an internal timer to make near-optimal, time-dependent decisions. Whether this ability relies on simple trial-and-error adjustments or whether it involves richer representations is unknown. Richer representations suggest a possibility of error monitoring, that is, the ability for an individual to assess its internal representation of the world and estimate discrepancy in the absence of external feedback. While rodents show timing behavior, whether they can represent and report temporal errors in their own produced duration on a single-trial basis is unknown. We designed a paradigm requiring rats to produce a target time interval and, subsequently, evaluate its error. Rats received a reward in a given location depending on the magnitude of their timing errors. During the test trials, rats had to choose a port corresponding to the error magnitude of their just-produced duration to receive a reward. High-choice accuracy demonstrates that rats kept track of the values of the timing variables on which they based their decision. Additionally, the rats kept a representation of the mapping between those timing values and the target value, as well as the history of the reinforcements. These findings demonstrate error-monitoring abilities in evaluating self-generated timing in rodents. Together, these findings suggest an explicit representation of produced duration and the possibility to evaluate its relation to the desired target duration.

Electrophysiological Evidence for a Common Magnitude Representation of Spatiotemporal Information in Working Memory

Spatiotemporal interference has attracted increasing attention because it provides a window for studying the neural representation of magnitude in the brain. We aimed to identify the neural basis of spatiotemporal interference using a Kappa effect task in which two circles were presented in sequence with two time intervals and three space distances. Participants reproduced the time intervals while ignoring the space distance when electroencephalogram signals were recorded synchronously. The behavior results showed that production time increased with time interval and space distance. Offset of the time intervals elicited typical P2 and P3b components. Larger parietal P2 and P3b amplitudes were elicited by the combination of longer time intervals and longer space distances. The parietal P2 and P3b amplitudes were positively correlated with the production time, and the corresponding neural source was located in the parietal cortex. The results suggest that the parietal P2 and P3b index updates a common representation of spatiotemporal information in working memory, which provides electrophysiological evidence for the mechanisms underlying spatiotemporal interferences. Our study supports a theory of magnitude, in which different dimensions can be integrated into a common magnitude representation in a generalized magnitude system that is localized at the parietal cortex.

Post-interval EEG activity is related to task-goals in temporal discrimination

Studies investigating the neural mechanisms of time perception often measure brain activity while participants perform a temporal task. However, several of these studies are based exclusively on tasks in which time is relevant, making it hard to dissociate activity related to decisions about time from other task-related patterns. In the present study, human participants performed a temporal or color discrimination task of visual stimuli. Participants were informed which magnitude they would have to judge before or after presenting the two stimuli (S1 and S2) in different blocks. Our behavioral results showed, as expected, that performance was better when participants knew beforehand which magnitude they would judge. Electrophysiological data (EEG) was analysed using Linear Discriminant Contrasts (LDC) and a Representational Similarity Analysis (RSA) approach to investigate whether and when information about time and color was encoded. During the presentation of S1, we did not find consistent differences in EEG activity as a function of the task. On the other hand, during S2, we found that temporal and color information was encoded in a task-relevant manner. Taken together, our results suggest that task goals strongly modulate decision-related information in EEG activity.

Temporal Context Actively Shapes EEG Signatures of Time Perception

Our subjective perception of time is optimized to temporal regularities in the environment. This is illustrated by the central tendency effect: When estimating a range of intervals, short intervals are overestimated, whereas long intervals are underestimated to reduce the overall estimation error. Most models of interval timing ascribe this effect to the weighting of the current interval with previous memory traces after the interval has been perceived. Alternatively, the perception of the duration could already be flexibly tuned to its temporal context. We investigated this hypothesis using an interval reproduction task in which human participants (both sexes) reproduced a shorter and longer interval range. As expected, reproductions were biased toward the subjective mean of each presented range. EEG analyses showed that temporal context indeed affected neural dynamics during the perception phase. Specifically, longer previous durations decreased contingent negative variation and P2 amplitude and increased beta power. In addition, multivariate pattern analysis showed that it is possible to decode context from the transient EEG signal quickly after both onset and offset of the perception phase. Together, these results suggest that temporal context creates dynamic expectations which actively affect the perception of duration.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The subjective sense of duration does not arise in isolation, but is informed by previous experiences. This is demonstrated by abundant evidence showing that the production of duration estimates is biased toward previously experienced time intervals. However, it is yet unknown whether this temporal context actively affects perception or only asserts its influence in later, postperceptual stages as proposed by most current formal models of this task. Using an interval reproduction task, we show that EEG signatures flexibly adapt to the temporal context during perceptual encoding. Furthermore, interval history can be decoded from the transient EEG signal even when the current duration was identical. Thus, our results demonstrate that context actively influences perception.

Slowing the body slows down time perception

Interval timing is a fundamental component of action and is susceptible to motor-related temporal distortions. Previous studies have shown that concurrent movement biases temporal estimates, but have primarily considered self-modulated movement only. However, real-world encounters often include situations in which movement is restricted or perturbed by environmental factors. In the following experiments, we introduced viscous movement environments to externally modulate movement and investigated the resulting effects on temporal perception. In two separate tasks, participants timed auditory intervals while moving a robotic arm that randomly applied four levels of viscosity. Results demonstrated that higher viscosity led to shorter perceived durations. Using a drift-diffusion model and a Bayesian observer model, we confirmed these biasing effects arose from perceptual mechanisms, instead of biases in decision making. These findings suggest that environmental perturbations are an important factor in movement-related temporal distortions, and enhance the current understanding of the interactions of motor activity and cognitive processes.

Dissociable neural indices for time and space estimates during virtual distance reproduction

The perception and measurement of spatial and temporal dimensions have been widely studied. Yet, whether these two dimensions are processed independently is still being debated. Additionally, whether EEG components are uniquely associated with time or space, or whether they reflect a more general measure of magnitude quantity remains unknown. While undergoing EEG, subjects performed a virtual distance reproduction task, in which they were required to first walk forward for an unknown distance or time, and then reproduce that distance or time. Walking speed was varied between estimation and reproduction phases, to prevent interference between distance or time in each estimate. Behaviorally, subject performance was more variable when reproducing time than when reproducing distance, but with similar patterns of accuracy. During estimation, EEG data revealed the contingent negative variation (CNV), a measure previously associated with timing and expectation, tracked the probability of the upcoming interval, for both time and distance. However, during reproduction, the CNV exclusively oriented to the upcoming temporal interval at the start of reproduction, with no change across spatial distances. Our findings indicate that time and space are neurally separable dimensions, with the CNV both serving a supramodal role in temporal and spatial expectation, yet an exclusive role in preparing duration reproduction.

Precision Timing with α-β Oscillatory Coupling: Stopwatch or Motor Control?

Precise timing is crucial for many behaviors ranging from conversational speech to athletic performance. The precision of motor timing has been suggested to result from the strength of phase-amplitude coupling (PAC) between the phase of alpha oscillations (α, 8-12 Hz) and the power of beta activity (β, 14-30 Hz), herein referred to as α-β PAC. The amplitude of β oscillations has been proposed to code for temporally relevant information and the locking of β power to the phase of α oscillations to maintain timing precision. Motor timing precision has at least two sources of variability: variability of timekeeping mechanism and variability of motor control. It is ambiguous to which of these two factors α-β PAC should be ascribed: α-β PAC could index precision of stopwatch-like internal timekeeping mechanisms, or α-β PAC could index motor control precision. To disentangle these two hypotheses, we tested how oscillatory coupling at different stages of a time reproduction task related to temporal precision. Human participants encoded and subsequently reproduced a time interval while magnetoencephalography was recorded. The data show a robust α-β PAC during both the encoding and reproduction of a temporal interval, a pattern that cannot be predicted by motor control accounts. Specifically, we found that timing precision resulted from the trade-off between the strength of α-β PAC during the encoding and during the reproduction of intervals. These results support the hypothesis that α-β PAC codes for the precision of temporal representations in the human brain.

Eliciting contextual temporal calibration: The effect of bottom-up and top-down information in reproduction tasks

Bayesian integration assumes that a current observation is integrated with previous observations. An example in the temporal domain is the central tendency effect: when a range of durations is presented, a regression towards the mean is observed. Furthermore, a context effect emerges if a partially overlapping lower and a higher range of durations is presented in a blocked design, with the overlapping durations pulled towards the mean duration of the block. We determine under which conditions this context effect is observed, and whether explicit cues strengthen the effect. Each block contained either two or three durations, with one duration present in both blocks. We provided either no information at the start of each block about the nature of that block, provided written ("short" / "long" or "A" / "B") categorizations, or operationalized pitch (low vs high) to reflect the temporal context. We demonstrate that (1) the context effect emerges as long as sufficiently distinct durations are presented; (2) the effect is not modulated by explicit instructions or other cues; (3) just a single additional duration is sufficient to produce a context effect. Taken together, these results provide information on the most efficient operationalization to evoke the context effect, allowing for highly economical experimental designs, and highlights the automaticity by which priors are constructed.

Differences in the temporal processing between identification and categorization of durations: A behavioral and ERP study

This study examined how different forms of decision-making modulate time perception. Participants performed temporal bisection and generalization tasks, requiring them to either categorize a stimulus duration as more similar to short or long standards (bisection), or identify whether or not a duration was the same as a previously-presented standard (generalization). They responded faster in the bisection task than in the generalization one for long durations. This behavioral effect was accompanied by modulation of event-related potentials (ERPs). More specifically, between 500 ms and 600 ms after stimulus offset, a late positive component (LPC), appearing in the centro-parietal region, showed lower amplitude in the bisection task than in the generalization one, for long durations, mirroring the behavioral result. Before (200-500 ms) and after (600-800 ms) this window, the amplitude of the LPC was globally larger in the generalization paradigm, independently of the presented duration. Finally, the LPC amplitude was higher for long durations than for shorter ones at the beginning of the component (between 200 and 300 ms after stimulus extinction) and was then higher for short durations than for longer ones (between 300 and 600 ms after offset), indicating that the decision about the former stimuli was made earlier than for the latter ones. Taken together, these results indicate that the categorization of durations engages fewer cognitive resources than their identification.

Optimal multisensory integration leads to optimal time estimation

Our brain compensates sensory uncertainty by combining multisensory information derived from an event, and by integrating the current sensory signal with the prior knowledge about the statistical structure of previous events. There is growing evidence that both strategies are statistically optimal; however, how these two stages of information integration interact and shape an optimal percept remains an open question. In the present study, we investigated the perception of time as an amodal perceptual attribute. The central tendency, a phenomenon of biasing the current percept toward previous stimuli, is used to quantify and model how the prior information affects the current timing behavior. We measured the timing sensitivity and the central tendency for unisensory and multisensory stimuli with sensory uncertainty systematically manipulated by adding noise. Psychophysical results demonstrate that the central tendency increases as the uncertainty increases, and that the multisensory timing improves both the timing sensitivity and the central tendency bias compared to the unisensory timing. Computational models indicate that the optimal multisensory integration precedes the optimal integration of prior information causing the central tendency. Our findings suggest that our brain incorporates the multisensory information and prior knowledge in a statistically optimal manner to realize precise and accurate timing behavior.

An Intrinsic Role of Beta Oscillations in Memory for Time Estimation

The neural mechanisms underlying time perception are of vital importance to a comprehensive understanding of behavior and cognition. Recent work has suggested a supramodal role for beta oscillations in measuring temporal intervals. However, the precise function of beta oscillations and whether their manipulation alters timing has yet to be determined. To accomplish this, we first re-analyzed two, separate EEG datasets and demonstrate that beta oscillations are associated with the retention and comparison of a memory standard for duration. We next conducted a study of 20 human participants using transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), over frontocentral cortex, at alpha and beta frequencies, during a visual temporal bisection task, finding that beta stimulation exclusively shifts the perception of time such that stimuli are reported as longer in duration. Finally, we decomposed trialwise choice data with a drift diffusion model of timing, revealing that the shift in timing is caused by a change in the starting point of accumulation, rather than the drift rate or threshold. Our results provide evidence for the intrinsic involvement of beta oscillations in the perception of time, and point to a specific role for beta oscillations in the encoding and retention of memory for temporal intervals.

The effect of attention and working memory on the estimation of elapsed time

Psychological models of time perception involve attention and memory: while attention typically regulates the flow of events, memory maintains timed events or intervals. The precise, and possibly distinct, roles of attention and memory in time perception remain debated. In this behavioral study, we tested 48 participants in a prospective duration estimation task while they fully attended to time or performed a working memory (WM) task. We report that paying attention to time lengthened perceived duration in the range of seconds to minutes, whereas diverting attention away from time shortened perceived duration. The overestimation due to attending to time did not scale with durations. To the contrary, increasing WM load systematically decreased subjective duration and this effect scaled with durations. Herein, we discuss the dissociation between attention and WM in timing and scalar variability from the perspective of Bayesian models of time estimations.

Spatiotemporal brain dynamics of auditory temporal assimilation

Time is a fundamental dimension, but millisecond-level judgments sometimes lead to perceptual illusions. We previously introduced a “time-shrinking illusion” using a psychological paradigm that induces auditory temporal assimilation (ATA). In ATA, the duration of two successive intervals (T₁ and T₂), marked by three auditory stimuli, can be perceived as equal when they are not. Here, we investigate the spatiotemporal profile of human temporal judgments using magnetoencephalography (MEG). Behavioural results showed typical ATA: participants judged T₁ and T₂ as equal when T₂ − T₁ ≤ +80 ms. MEG source-localisation analysis demonstrated that regional activity differences between judgment and no-judgment conditions emerged in the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) during T₂. This observation in the TPJ may indicate its involvement in the encoding process when T₁ ≠ T₂. Activation in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) was enhanced irrespective of the stimulus patterns when participants engaged in temporal judgment. Furthermore, just after the final marker, activity in the IFG was enhanced specifically for the time-shrinking pattern. This indicates that activity in the IFG is also related to the illusory perception of time-interval equality. Based on these observations, we propose neural signatures for judgments of temporal equality in the human brain.

Two different mechanisms support selective attention at different phases of training

Selective attention supports the prioritized processing of relevant sensory information to facilitate goal-directed behavior. Studies in human subjects demonstrate that attentional gain of cortical responses can sufficiently account for attention-related improvements in behavior. On the other hand, studies using highly trained nonhuman primates suggest that reductions in neural noise can better explain attentional facilitation of behavior. Given the importance of selective information processing in nearly all domains of cognition, we sought to reconcile these competing accounts by testing the hypothesis that extensive behavioral training alters the neural mechanisms that support selective attention. We tested this hypothesis using electroencephalography (EEG) to measure stimulus-evoked visual responses from human subjects while they performed a selective spatial attention task over the course of ~1 month. Early in training, spatial attention led to an increase in the gain of stimulus-evoked visual responses. Gain was apparent within ~100 ms of stimulus onset, and a quantitative model based on signal detection theory (SDT) successfully linked the magnitude of this gain modulation to attention-related improvements in behavior. However, after extensive training, this early attentional gain was eliminated even though there were still substantial attention-related improvements in behavior. Accordingly, the SDT-based model required noise reduction to account for the link between the stimulus-evoked visual responses and attentional modulations of behavior. These findings suggest that training can lead to fundamental changes in the way attention alters the early cortical responses that support selective information processing. Moreover, these data facilitate the translation of results across different species and across experimental procedures that employ different behavioral training regimes.

Duration Aftereffect Depends on the Duration of Adaptation

It has been widely demonstrated that a prolonged adaptation to a relatively long or short stimulus leads to a robust repulsive duration aftereffect. However, little is known about the rapid adaptation to stimulus duration. In this study, we investigated whether the duration aftereffect could also be induced by short-term adaptation to stimuli of both sub- and supra-second durations. To control for the internal reference for duration judgment, participants were adapted to a stimulus of medium duration, and then tested with both longer and shorter stimuli. We found that the duration aftereffect was only observed after long-term adaptation to stimuli of both sub- and supra-second durations, which suggests that the exposure time to the adaptor is a fundamental factor in determining the duration aftereffect. Our findings offer further evidence of the duration aftereffect, which in this study was dissociated from the anchor effect and high-level aftereffects.

Timescale- and Sensory Modality-Dependency of the Central Tendency of Time Perception

When individuals are asked to reproduce intervals of stimuli that are intermixedly presented at various times, longer intervals are often underestimated and shorter intervals overestimated. This phenomenon may be attributed to the central tendency of time perception, and suggests that our brain optimally encodes a stimulus interval based on current stimulus input and prior knowledge of the distribution of stimulus intervals. Two distinct systems are thought to be recruited in the perception of sub- and supra-second intervals. Sub-second timing is subject to local sensory processing, whereas supra-second timing depends on more centralized mechanisms. To clarify the factors that influence time perception, the present study investigated how both sensory modality and timescale affect the central tendency. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to reproduce sub- or supra-second intervals, defined by visual or auditory stimuli. In the sub-second range, the magnitude of the central tendency was significantly larger for visual intervals compared to auditory intervals, while visual and auditory intervals exhibited a correlated and comparable central tendency in the supra-second range. In Experiment 2, the ability to discriminate sub-second intervals in the reproduction task was controlled across modalities by using an interval discrimination task. Even when the ability to discriminate intervals was controlled, visual intervals exhibited a larger central tendency than auditory intervals in the sub-second range. In addition, the magnitude of the central tendency for visual and auditory sub-second intervals was significantly correlated. These results suggest that a common modality-independent mechanism is responsible for the supra-second central tendency, and that both the modality-dependent and modality-independent components of the timing system contribute to the central tendency in the sub-second range.

Value-based attentional capture influences context-dependent decision-making

Normative theories posit that value-based decision-making is context independent. However, decisions between two high-value options can be suboptimally biased by the introduction of a third low-value option. This context-dependent modulation is consistent with the divisive normalization of the value of each stimulus by the total value of all stimuli. In addition, an independent line of research demonstrates that pairing a stimulus with a high-value outcome can lead to attentional capture that can mediate the efficiency of visual information processing. Here we tested the hypothesis that value-based attentional capture interacts with value-based normalization to influence the optimality of decision-making. We used a binary-choice paradigm in which observers selected between two targets and the color of each target indicated the magnitude of their reward potential. Observers also had to simultaneously ignore a task-irrelevant distractor rendered in a color that was previously associated with a specific reward magnitude. When the color of the task-irrelevant distractor was previously associated with a high reward, observers responded more slowly and less optimally. Moreover, as the learned value of the distractor increased, electrophysiological data revealed an attenuation of the lateralized N1 and N2Pc responses evoked by the relevant choice stimuli and an attenuation of the late positive deflection (LPD). Collectively, these behavioral and electrophysiological data suggest that value-based attentional capture and value-based normalization jointly mediate the influence of context on free-choice decision-making.