Environmental enrichment as a method to improve cognitive function. What can we learn from animal models?

A Single-Cell Transcriptomic Analysis of the Mouse Hippocampus After Voluntary Exercise

Exercise has been recognized as a beneficial factor for cognitive health, particularly in relation to the hippocampus, a vital brain region responsible for learning and memory. Previous research has demonstrated that exercise-mediated improvement of learning and memory in humans and rodents correlates with increased adult neurogenesis and processes related to enhanced synaptic plasticity. Nevertheless, the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. With the aim to further elucidate these mechanisms, we provide a comprehensive dataset of the mouse hippocampal transcriptome at the single-cell level after 4 weeks of voluntary wheel-running. Our analysis provides a number of interesting observations. For example, the results suggest that exercise affects adult neurogenesis by accelerating the maturation of a subpopulation of Prdm16-expressing neurons. Moreover, we uncover the existence of an intricate crosstalk among multiple vital signaling pathways such as NF-κB, Wnt/β-catenin, Notch, and retinoic acid (RA) pathways altered upon exercise in a specific cluster of excitatory neurons within the Cornu Ammonis (CA) region of the hippocampus. In conclusion, our study provides an important resource dataset and sheds further light on the molecular changes induced by exercise in the hippocampus. These findings have implications for developing targeted interventions aimed at optimizing cognitive health and preventing age-related cognitive decline.

Effects of MicroRNAs and Long Non-coding RNAs on Beneficial Action of Exercise on Cognition in Degenerative Diseases: A Review

Recent research has exposed a growing body of proof underscoring the importance of microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in maintaining the physical composition of neurons and influencing cognitive functioning in both standard and atypical circumstances. Extensive research has been conducted on the possible application of miRNAs and lncRNAs as biomarkers for various diseases, with a particular focus on brain disorders, as they possess remarkable durability in cell-free surroundings and can endure repeated freezing and thawing processes. It is intriguing to note that miRNAs and lncRNAs have the ability to function through paracrine mechanisms, thereby playing a role in communication between different organs. Recent research has proposed that the improvement of cognitive abilities through physical exercise in mentally healthy individuals is a valuable method for uncovering potential connections between miRNAs, or microRNAs, and lncRNAs, and human cognitive function. The process of cross-correlating data from disease models and patients with existing data will be crucial in identifying essential miRNAs and lncRNAs, which can potentially act as biomarkers or drug targets in the treatment of cognitive disorders. By combining this method with additional research in animal models, we can determine the function of these molecules and their potential impact on therapy. This article discusses the latest research about the primary miRNAs, lncRNAs, and their exosomes that are affected by physical activity in terms of human cognitive function.

Environmental enrichment improves cognitive function, learning, memory and anxiety-related behaviours in rodent models of dementia: Implications for future study

Environmental enrichment (EE) is a process of brain stimulation by modifying the surroundings, for example, by changing the sensory, social, or physical conditions. Rodents have been used in such experimental strategies through exposure to diverse physical, social, and exploration conditions. The present study conducted an extensive analysis of the existing literature surrounding the impact of EE on dementia rodent models. The review emphasised the two principal aspects that are very closely related to dementia: cognitive function (learning and memory) as well as psychological factors (anxiety-related behaviours such as phobias and unrealistic worries). Also highlighted were the mechanisms involved in the rodent models of dementia showing EE effects. Two search engines, PubMed and Science Direct, were used for data collection using the following keywords: environmental enrichment, dementia, rodent model, cognitive performance, and anxiety-related behaviour. Fifty-five articles were chosen depending on the criteria for inclusion and exclusion. The rodent models with dementia demonstrated improved learning and memory in the form of hampered inflammatory responses, enhanced neuronal plasticity, and sustained neuronal activity. EE housing also prevented memory impairment through the prevention of amyloid beta (Aβ) seeding formation, an early stage of Aβ plaque formation. The rodents subjected to EE were observed to present increased exploratory activity and exert less anxiety-related behaviour, compared to those in standard housing. However, some studies have proposed that EE intervention through exercise would be too mild to counteract the anxiety-related behaviour and risk assessment behaviour deficits in the Alzheimer's disease rodent model. Future studies should be conducted on old-aged rodents and the duration of EE exposure that would elicit the greatest benefits since the existing studies have been conducted on a range of ages and EE durations. In summary, EE had a considerable effect on dementia rodent models, with the most evident being improved cognitive function.

Activation of β2-adrenergic receptors prevents AD-type synaptotoxicity via epigenetic mechanisms

We previously reported that prolonged exposure to an enriched environment (EE) enhances hippocampal synaptic plasticity, with one of the significant mechanistic pathways being activation of β2-adrenergic receptor (β2-AR) signaling, thereby mitigating the synaptotoxic effects of soluble oligomers of amyloid β-protein (oAβ). However, the detailed mechanism remained elusive. In this work, we recorded field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSP) in the CA1 region of mouse hippocampal slices treated with or without toxic Aβ-species. We found that pharmacological activation of β2-AR, but not β1-AR, selectively mimicked the effects of EE in enhancing LTP and preventing oAβ-induced synaptic dysfunction. Mechanistic analyses showed that certain histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors mimicked the benefits of EE, but this was not seen in β2-AR knockout mice, suggesting that activating β2-AR prevents oAβ-mediated synaptic dysfunction via changes in histone acetylation. EE or activation of β-ARs each decreased HDAC2, whereas Aβ oligomers increased HDAC2 levels in the hippocampus. Further, oAβ-induced inflammatory effects and neurite degeneration were prevented by either β2-AR agonists or certain specific HDAC inhibitors. These preclinical results suggest that activation of β2-AR is a novel potential therapeutic strategy to mitigate oAβ-mediated features of AD.

Arc expression regulates long-term potentiation magnitude and metaplasticity in area CA1 of the hippocampus in ArcKR mice

Expression of the immediate early gene Arc/Arg3.1 (Arc), a key mediator of synaptic plasticity, is enhanced by neural activity and then reduced by proteasome-dependent degradation. We have previously shown that the disruption of Arc degradation, in an Arc knock-in mouse (ArcKR), where the predominant Arc ubiquitination sites were mutated, reduced the threshold to induce, and also enhanced, the strength of Group I metabotropic glutamate receptor-mediated long-term depression (DHPG-LTD). Here, we have investigated if ArcKR expression changes long-term potentiation (LTP) in CA1 area of the hippocampus. As previously reported, there was no change in basal synaptic transmission at Schaffer collateral/commissural-CA1 (SC-CA1) synapses in ArcKR versus wild-type (WT) mice. There was, however, a significant increase in the amplitude of synaptically induced (with low frequency paired-pulse stimulation) LTD in ArcKR mice. Theta burst stimulation (TBS)-evoked LTP at SC-CA1 synapses was significantly reduced in ArcKR versus WT mice (after 2 h). Group 1 mGluR priming of LTP was abolished in ArcKR mice, which could also potentially contribute to a depression of LTP. Although high frequency stimulation (HFS)-induced LTP was not significantly different in ArcKR compared with WT mice (after 1 h), there was a phenotype in environmentally enriched mice, with the ratio of LTP to short-term potentiation (STP) significantly reduced in ArcKR mice. These findings support the hypothesis that Arc ubiquitination supports the induction and expression of LTP, likely via limiting Arc-dependent removal of AMPA receptors at synapses.

Neuroprotection in metabolic syndrome by environmental enrichment. A lifespan perspective

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is defined by the concurrence of different metabolic conditions: obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and hyperglycemia. Its incidence has been increasingly rising over the past decades and has become a global health problem. MetS has deleterious consequences on the central nervous system (CNS) and neurological development. MetS can last several years or be lifelong, affecting the CNS in different ways and treatments can help manage condition, though there is no known cure. The early childhood years are extremely important in neurodevelopment, which extends beyond, encompassing a lifetime. Neuroplastic changes take place all life through - childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age - are highly sensitive to environmental input. Environmental factors have an important role in the etiopathogenesis and treatment of MetS, so environmental enrichment (EE) stands as a promising non-invasive therapeutic approach. While the EE paradigm has been designed for animal housing, its principles can be and actually are applied in cognitive, sensory, social, and physical stimulation programs for humans. Here, we briefly review the central milestones in neurodevelopment at each life stage, along with the research studies carried out on how MetS affects neurodevelopment at each life stage and the contributions that EE models can provide to improve health over the lifespan.

Molecular mechanisms underlying the neuroprotection of environmental enrichment in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is the most common movement disorder, affecting about 1% of the population over the age of 60 years. Parkinson's disease is characterized clinically by resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity and postural instability, as a result of the progressive loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. In addition to this neuronal cell loss, Parkinson's disease is characterized by the accumulation of intracellular protein aggregates, Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites, composed primarily of the protein α-synuclein. Although it was first described almost 200 years ago, there are no disease-modifying drugs to treat patients with Parkinson's disease. In addition to conventional therapies, non-pharmacological treatment strategies are under investigation in patients and animal models of neurodegenerative disorders. Among such strategies, environmental enrichment, comprising physical exercise, cognitive stimulus, and social interactions, has been assessed in preclinical models of Parkinson's disease. Environmental enrichment can cause structural and functional changes in the brain and promote neurogenesis and dendritic growth by modifying gene expression, enhancing the expression of neurotrophic factors and modulating neurotransmission. In this review article, we focus on the current knowledge about the molecular mechanisms underlying environmental enrichment neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease, highlighting its influence on the dopaminergic, cholinergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic systems, as well as the involvement of neurotrophic factors. We describe experimental pre-clinical data showing how environmental enrichment can act as a modulator in a neurochemical and behavioral context in different animal models of Parkinson's disease, highlighting the potential of environmental enrichment as an additional strategy in the management and prevention of this complex disease.

Memory impairments in rodent depression models: A link with depression theories

More than 80% of depressed patients struggle with learning new tasks, remembering positive events, or concentrating on a single topic. These neurocognitive deficits accompanying depression may be linked to functional and structural changes in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. However, their mechanisms are not yet completely understood. We conducted a narrative review of articles regarding animal studies to assess the state of knowledge. First, we argue the contribution of changes in neurotransmitters and hormone levels in the pathomechanism of cognitive dysfunction in animal depression models. Then, we used numerous neuroinflammation studies to explore its possible implication in cognitive decline. Encouragingly, we also observed a positive correlation between increased oxidative stress and a depressive-like state with concomitant memory deficits. Finally, we discuss the undeniable role of neurotrophin deficits in developing cognitive decline in animal models of depression. This review reveals the complexity of depression-related memory impairments and highlights the potential clinical importance of gathered findings for developing more reliable animal models and designing novel antidepressants with procognitive properties.

Environmental Enrichment and Metformin Improve Metabolic Functions, Hippocampal Neuron Survival, and Hippocampal-Dependent Memory in High-Fat/High-Sucrose Diet-Induced Type 2 Diabetic Rats

Background: The Western-style diet-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) may eventually trigger neurodegeneration and memory impairment. Thus, it is essential to identify effective therapeutic strategies to overcome T2D complications. This study aimed to investigate the effects of environmental enrichment (EE) and metformin interventions on metabolic dysfunctions, hippocampal neuronal death, and hippocampal-dependent memory impairments in high-fat/high-sucrose (HFS) diet-induced T2D rats. Methods: Thirty-two male rats (200-250 g) were divided into four groups: C group (standard diet + conventional cage); D group (HFS diet + conventional cage); DE group (HFS diet + EE cage/6hr daily); and DM group (HFS diet + metformin + conventional cage). Body weight was measured every week. T-maze tasks, anthropometric, biochemical, histological, and morphometric parameters were measured. The expression changes of hippocampal genes were also analyzed. Results: The anthropometric and biochemical parameters were improved in DE and DM groups compared with the D group. DE and DM groups had significantly higher T-maze percentages than the D group. These groups also had better histological and morphometric parameters than the D group. The interventions of EE and metformin enhanced the expression of hippocampal genes related to neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity (BDNF/TrkB binding, PI3K-Akt, Ras-MAPK, PLCγ-Ca²⁺, and LTP). Conclusion: Environmental enrichment (EE) and metformin improved metabolic functions, hippocampal neuron survival, and hippocampal-dependent memory in HFS diet-induced T2D rats. The underlying mechanisms of these interventions involved the expression of genes that regulate neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity.

The impact of loneliness and social isolation on the development of cognitive decline and Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia, observed at a higher incidence in women compared with men. Treatments aimed at improving pathology in AD remain ineffective to stop disease progression. This makes the detection of the early intervention strategies to reduce future disease risk extremely important. Isolation and loneliness have been identified among the major risk factors for AD. The increasing prevalence of both loneliness and AD emphasizes the urgent need to understand this association to inform treatment. Here we present a comprehensive review of both clinical and preclinical studies that investigated loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for AD. We discuss that understanding the mechanisms of how loneliness exacerbates cognitive impairment and AD with a focus on sex differences will shed the light for the underlying mechanisms regarding loneliness as a risk factor for AD and to develop effective prevention or treatment strategies.

CBP Is Required for Establishing Adaptive Gene Programs in the Adult Mouse Brain

Environmental factors and life experiences impinge on brain circuits triggering adaptive changes. Epigenetic regulators contribute to this neuroadaptation by enhancing or suppressing specific gene programs. The paralogous transcriptional coactivators and lysine acetyltransferases CREB binding protein (CBP) and p300 are involved in brain plasticity and stimulus-dependent transcription, but their specific roles in neuroadaptation are not fully understood. Here we investigated the impact of eliminating either CBP or p300 in excitatory neurons of the adult forebrain of mice from both sexes using inducible and cell type-restricted knock-out strains. The elimination of CBP, but not p300, reduced the expression and chromatin acetylation of plasticity genes, dampened activity-driven transcription, and caused memory deficits. The defects became more prominent in elderly mice and in paradigms that involved enduring changes in transcription, such as kindling and environmental enrichment, in which CBP loss interfered with the establishment of activity-induced transcriptional and epigenetic changes in response to stimulus or experience. These findings further strengthen the link between CBP deficiency in excitatory neurons and etiopathology in the nervous system.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT How environmental conditions and life experiences impinge on mature brain circuits to elicit adaptive responses that favor the survival of the organism remains an outstanding question in neurosciences. Epigenetic regulators are thought to contribute to neuroadaptation by initiating or enhancing adaptive gene programs. In this article, we examined the role of CREB binding protein (CBP) and p300, two paralogous transcriptional coactivators and histone acetyltransferases involved in cognitive processes and intellectual disability, in neuroadaptation in adult hippocampal circuits. Our experiments demonstrate that CBP, but not its paralog p300, plays a highly specific role in the epigenetic regulation of neuronal plasticity gene programs in response to stimulus and provide unprecedented insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying neuroadaptation.

Bifidobacterium breve intervention combined with environmental enrichment alleviates cognitive impairment by regulating the gut microbiota and microbial metabolites in Alzheimer’s disease mice

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by behavioral and cognitive impairments and its increasing prevalence imposes a healthcare burden on society. To date, most intervention studies have only focused on a single AD-related factor and have yielded modest cognitive improvements. Here, we show that environmental enrichment (EE) training combined with Bifidobacterium breve CCFM1025 intervention significantly alleviated amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced cognitive impairment and inhibited neuroinflammation in mice. Moreover, we found that EE combined with B. breve CCFM1025 treatment restored AD-associated gut microbiota dysbiosis and reversed microbial metabolites changes. By integrating behavioral and neurological data with metabolomic profiles, we corroborated the microbiota–metabolite–brain interactions, with acetate and tryptophan metabolism as potential drivers. Taken together, our results provide a promising multidomain intervention strategy to prevent cognitive decline and delay the progression of AD through a combination of dietary microbiome-based approaches and lifestyle interventions.

Effects of personality on assessments of anxiety and cognition

Individual variation in responses to commonly used tests of anxiety and spatial memory is often reported. While this variation is frequently considered to be 'noise', evidence suggests that it is, at least partially, related to consistent individual differences in behavioral responses (i.e., personality). The same tests used to assess anxiety are often used to profile personality traits, but personality differences are rarely considered when testing treatment differences in anxiety. Focusing on the rat literature, we describe fundamental principles involved in anxiety and spatial memory tests and we discuss how personality differences and housing conditions can influence behavioral responses in these tests. We propose that an opportunity exists to increase stress resiliency in environmentally sensitive individuals by providing environmental enrichment. We conclude by discussing different approaches to incorporating personality measures into the design and analysis of future studies; given the potential that variation masks research outcomes, we suggest that a strategy which considers the individual and its housing can contribute to improving research reproducibility.

The role of enriched environment in neural development and repair

In addition to genetic information, environmental factors play an important role in the structure and function of nervous system and the occurrence and development of some nervous system diseases. Enriched environment (EE) can not only promote normal neural development through enhancing neuroplasticity but also play a nerve repair role in restoring functional activities during CNS injury by morphological and cellular and molecular adaptations in the brain. Different stages of development after birth respond to the environment to varying degrees. Therefore, we systematically review the pro-developmental and anti-stress value of EE during pregnancy, pre-weaning, and “adolescence” and analyze the difference in the effects of EE and its sub-components, especially with physical exercise. In our exploration of potential mechanisms that promote neurodevelopment, we have found that not all sub-components exert maximum value throughout the developmental phase, such as animals that do not respond to physical activity before weaning, and that EE is not superior to its sub-components in all respects. EE affects the developing and adult brain, resulting in some neuroplastic changes in the microscopic and macroscopic anatomy, finally contributing to enhanced learning and memory capacity. These positive promoting influences are particularly prominent regarding neural repair after neurobiological disorders. Taking cerebral ischemia as an example, we analyzed the molecular mediators of EE promoting repair from various dimensions. We found that EE does not always lead to positive effects on nerve repair, such as infarct size. In view of the classic issues such as standardization and relativity of EE have been thoroughly discussed, we finally focus on analyzing the essentiality of the time window of EE action and clinical translation in order to devote to the future research direction of EE and rapid and reasonable clinical application.

Investigating the role of environmental enrichment initiated in adolescence against the detrimental effects of chronic unpredictable stress in adulthood: Sex-specific differences in behavioral and neuroendocrinological findings

Environmental Enrichment (EE) improves cognitive function and enhances brain plasticity, while chronic stress increases emotionality, impairs learning and memory, and has adverse effects on brain anatomy and biochemistry. We explored the beneficial role of environmental enrichment initiated in adolescence against the negative outcomes of Chronic Unpredictable Stress (CUS) during adulthood on emotional behavior, cognitive function, as well as somatic and neuroendocrine markers in both sexes. Adolescent Wistar rats housed either in enriched or standard housing conditions for 10 weeks. On postnatal day 66, a subgroup from each housing condition was daily exposed to a 4-week stress protocol. Following stress, adult rats underwent behavioral testing to evaluate anxiety, exploration/locomotor activity, depressive-like behavior and spatial learning/memory. Upon completion of behavioral testing, animals were exposed to a 10-m stressful event to test the neuroendocrine response to acute stress. CUS decreased body weight gain and increased adrenal weight. Some stress-induced behavioral adverse effects were sex-specific since learning impairments were limited to males while depressive-like behavior to females. EE housing protected against CUS-related behavioral deficits and body weight loss. Exposure to CUS affected the neuroendocrine response of males to acute stress as revealed by the increased corticosterone levels. Our findings highlight the significant role of EE in adolescence as a protective factor against the negative effects of stress and underline the importance of inclusion of both sexes in animal studies.

Akkermansia muciniphila and environmental enrichment reverse cognitive impairment associated with high-fat high-cholesterol consumption in rats

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is one of the most prevalent diseases globally. A high-fat, high-cholesterol (HFHC) diet leads to an early NASH model. It has been suggested that gut microbiota mediates the effects of diet through the microbiota-gut-brain axis, modifying the host's brain metabolism and disrupting cognition. Here, we target NASH-induced cognitive damage by testing the impact of environmental enrichment (EE) and the administration of either Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) or Akkermansia muciniphila CIP107961 (AKK). EE and AKK, but not LGG, reverse the HFHC-induced cognitive dysfunction, including impaired spatial working memory and novel object recognition; however, whereas AKK restores brain metabolism, EE results in an overall decrease. Moreover, AKK and LGG did not induce major rearrangements in the intestinal microbiota, with only slight changes in bacterial composition and diversity, whereas EE led to an increase in Firmicutes and Verrucomicrobia members. Our findings illustrate the interplay between gut microbiota, the host's brain energy metabolism, and cognition. In addition, the findings suggest intervention strategies, such as the administration of AKK, for the management of the cognitive dysfunction related to NASH.

Exercise as a model to identify microRNAs linked to human cognition: a role for microRNA-409 and microRNA-501

MicroRNAs have been linked to synaptic plasticity and memory function and are emerging as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for cognitive diseases. Most of these data stem from the analysis of model systems or postmortem tissue from patients which mainly represents an advanced stage of pathology. Due to the in-accessibility of human brain tissue upon experimental manipulation, it is still challenging to identify microRNAs relevant to human cognition, which is however a key step for future translational studies. Here, we employ exercise as an experimental model for memory enhancement in healthy humans with the aim to identify microRNAs linked to memory function. By analyzing the circulating smallRNAome we find a cluster of 18 microRNAs that are highly correlated to cognition. MicroRNA-409-5p and microRNA-501-3p were the most significantly regulated candidates. Functional analysis revealed that the two microRNAs are important for neuronal integrity, synaptic plasticity, and morphology. In conclusion, we provide a novel approach to identify microRNAs linked to human memory function.

Adult Neurogenesis and Stroke: A Tale of Two Neurogenic Niches

In the aftermath of an acute stroke, numerous signaling cascades that reshape the brain both in the perilesional zone as well as in more distal regions are activated. Despite continuous improvement in the acute treatment of stroke and the sustained research efforts into the pathophysiology of stroke, we critically lag in our integrated understanding of the delayed and chronic responses to ischemic injury. As such, the beneficial or maladaptive effect of some stroke-induced cellular responses is unclear, restricting the advancement of therapeutic strategies to target long-term complications. A prominent delayed effect of stroke is the robust increase in adult neurogenesis, which raises hopes for a regenerative strategy to counter neurological deficits in stroke survivors. In the adult brain, two regions are known to generate new neurons from endogenous stem cells: the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the dentate subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampus. While both niches respond with an increase in neurogenesis post-stroke, there are significant regional differences in the ensuing stages of survival, migration, and maturation, which may differently influence functional outcome. External interventions such as rehabilitative training add a further layer of complexity by independently modulating the process of adult neurogenesis. In this review we summarize the current knowledge regarding the effects of ischemic stroke on neurogenesis in the SVZ and in the SGZ, and the influence of exogenous stimuli such as motor activity or enriched environment (EE). In addition, we discuss the contribution of SVZ or SGZ post-stroke neurogenesis to sensory, motor and cognitive recovery.

The impact of environmental and social factors on learning abilities: a meta-analysis

Since the 1950s, researchers have examined how differences in the social and asocial environment affect learning in rats, mice, and, more recently, a variety of other species. Despite this large body of research, little has been done to synthesize these findings and to examine if social and asocial environmental factors have consistent effects on cognitive abilities, and if so, what aspects of these factors have greater or lesser impact. Here, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis examining how different external environmental features, including the social environment, impact learning (both speed of acquisition and performance). Using 531 mean-differences from 176 published articles across 27 species (with studies on rats and mice being most prominent) we conducted phylogenetically corrected mixed-effects models that reveal: (i) an average absolute effect size |d| = 0.55 and directional effect size d = 0.34; (ii) interventions manipulating the asocial environment result in larger effects than social interventions alone; and (iii) the length of the intervention is a significant predictor of effect size, with longer interventions resulting in larger effects. Additionally, much of the variation in effect size remained unexplained, possibly suggesting that species differ widely in how they are affected by environmental interventions due to varying ecological and evolutionary histories. Overall our results suggest that social and asocial environmental factors do significantly affect learning, but these effects are highly variable and perhaps not always as predicted. Most notably, the type (social or asocial) and length of interventions are important in determining the strength of the effect.

Enhancing Effects of Environmental Enrichment on the Functions of Natural Killer Cells in Mice

The environment of an organism can convey a powerful influence over its biology. Environmental enrichment (EE), as a eustress model, has been used extensively in neuroscience to study neurogenesis and brain plasticity. EE has also been used as an intervention for the treatment and prevention of neurological and psychiatric disorders with limited clinical application. By contrast, the effects of EE on the immune system are relatively less investigated. Recently, accumulating evidence has demonstrated that EE can robustly impact immune function. In this review, we summarize the major components of EE, the impact of EE on natural killer (NK) cells, EE's immunoprotective roles in cancer, and the underlying mechanisms of EE-induced NK cell regulation. Moreover, we discuss opportunities for translational application based on insights from animal research of EE-induced NK cell regulation.

Environmental enrichment preserves a young DNA methylation landscape in the aged mouse hippocampus

The decline of brain function during aging is associated with epigenetic changes, including DNA methylation. Lifestyle interventions can improve brain function during aging, but their influence on age-related epigenetic changes is unknown. Using genome-wide DNA methylation sequencing, we here show that experiencing a stimulus-rich environment counteracts age-related DNA methylation changes in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of mice. Specifically, environmental enrichment prevented the aging-induced CpG hypomethylation at target sites of the methyl-CpG-binding protein Mecp2, which is critical to neuronal function. The genes at which environmental enrichment counteracted aging effects have described roles in neuronal plasticity, neuronal cell communication and adult hippocampal neurogenesis and are dysregulated with age-related cognitive decline in the human brain. Our results highlight the stimulating effects of environmental enrichment on hippocampal plasticity at the level of DNA methylation and give molecular insights into the specific aspects of brain aging that can be counteracted by lifestyle interventions.

Ameliorative effects of endurance training and Matricaria chamomilla flowers hydroethanolic extract on cognitive deficit in type 2 diabetes rats

Diabetes mellitus is mainly associated with degeneration of the central nervous system, which eventually leads to cognitive deficit. Although some studies suggest that exercise can improve the cognitive decline associated with diabetes, the potential effects of endurance training (ET) accompanied by Matricaria chamomilla (M.ch) flowers extract on cognitive impairment in type 2 diabetes has been poorly understood. Forty male Wistar rats were randomized into 5 equal groups of 8: healthy-sedentary (H-sed), diabetes-sedentary (D-sed), diabetes-endurance training (D-ET), diabetes-Matricaria chamomilla. (D-M.ch), and diabetes-endurance training-Matricaria chamomilla. (D-ET-M.ch). Nicotinamide (110 mg/kg, i.p.) and Streptozotocin (65 mg/kg, i.p.) were utilized to initiate type 2 diabetes. Then, ET (5 days/week) and M.ch (200 mg/kg body weight/daily) were administered for 12 weeks. After 12 weeks of the experiment, cognitive functions were assessed using the Morris Water Maze (MWM) test and a passive avoidance paradigm using a shuttle box device. Subsequently, using crystal violet staining, neuron necrosis was examined in the CA3 area of the hippocampus. Diabetic rats showed cognitive impairment following an increase in the number of necrotic cells in region CA3 of the hippocampal tissue. Also, diabetes increased serum levels of lipid peroxidation and decreased total antioxidant capacity in serum and hippocampal tissue. ET + M.ch treatment prevented the necrosis of neurons in the hippocampal tissue. Following positive changes in hippocampal tissue and serum antioxidant enzyme levels, an improvement was observed in the cognitive impairment of the diabetic rats receiving ET + M.ch. Therefore the results showed that treatment with ET + M.ch could ameliorate memory and inactive avoidance in diabetic rats. Hence, the use of ET + M.ch interventions is proposed as a new therapeutic perspective on the death of hippocampal neurons and cognitive deficit caused by diabetes.

Intergenerational influence of paternal physical activity on the offspring's brain: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

It is well established that parents can influence their offspring's neurodevelopment. It is shown that paternal environment and lifestyle is beneficial for the progeny's fitness and might affect their metabolic mechanisms; however, the effects of paternal exercise on brain in the offspring have not been explored in detail.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to review the impact of paternal physical exercise on memory and learning, neuroplasticity, as well as DNA methylation levels in the offspring's hippocampus.

STUDY DESIGN

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, electronic literature search was conducted in databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Eligible studies were those with an experimental design, including an exercise intervention arm, with assessment of any type of memory function, learning ability, or any type of brain plasticity as the outcome measures. Standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were computed as effect size.

RESULTS

The systematic review revealed the important role of environmental enrichment in the behavioral development of next generation. Also, offspring of exercised fathers displayed higher levels of memory ability, and lower level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. A significant effect of paternal exercise on the hippocampal volume was also reported in the few available studies.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest an intergenerational effect of paternal physical activity on cognitive benefit, which may be associated with hippocampal epigenetic programming in offspring. However, the biological mechanisms of this modulation remain to be determined.

Regional differences in beta amyloid plaque deposition and variable response to midlife environmental enrichment in the cortex of APP/PS1 mice

Environmentally enriched housing conditions can increase performance on cognitive tasks in APP/PS1 mice; however, the potential effects of environmental enrichment (EE) on disease modification in terms of pathological change are inconclusive. We hypothesized that previous contrasting findings may be attributable to regional differences in susceptibility to amyloid beta (Aβ) plaque deposition in cortical regions that are functionally associated with EE. We characterized fibrillar plaque deposition in 6, 12, and 18-22 months old APP/PS1 mice in the prefrontal (PFC), somatosensory (SS2), and primary motor cortex (M1). We found a significant increase in plaque load between 6 and 12 months in all regions. In animals over 12 months, only the PFC region continued to significantly accumulate plaques. Additionally, 12 months old animals subjected to 6 months of EE showed improved spatial navigation and had significantly fewer plaques in M1 and SS2, but not in the PFC. These findings suggest that the PFC region is selectively susceptible to Aβ deposition and less responsive to the attenuating effects of EE. In contrast, M1 and SS2 regions plateau with respect to Aβ deposition by 12 months of age and are susceptible to amyloid pathology modification by midlife EE.

Training the brain: could it improve multiple sclerosis treatment?

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurological disease characterized by neuroinflammation, demyelination and axonal degeneration along with loss of function in the central nervous system. For many years, research in MS has focused on the efficacy of pharmacological treatments. However, during the last years, many publications have been dedicated to the study of the efficacy of non-pharmacological strategies, such as physical exercise and cognitive training. Beneficial effects of the combination of both strategies on cognitive function have been described in both ageing adults and patients with neurodegenerative diseases, such as MS. The analysis of combining both physical and cognitive stimulation can be summarized by the environmental enrichment (EE) experiments, which are more suitable for animal models. EE refers to housing conditions consisting of exercise and cognitive and social stimulation. In this review, we will summarize the available studies that describe the influence of EE in both MS patients and MS animal models.

Environmental Complexity and Research Outcomes

Environmental complexity is an experimental paradigm as well as a potential part of animals' everyday housing experiences. In experimental uses, researchers add complexity to stimulate brain development, delay degenerative brain changes, elicit more naturalistic behaviors, and test learning and memory. Complexity can exacerbate or mitigate behavioral problems, give animals a sense of control, and allow for expression of highly driven, species-typical behaviors that can improve animal welfare. Complex environments should be designed thoughtfully with the animal's natural behaviors in mind, reported faithfully in the literature, and evaluated carefully for unexpected effects.

Postweaning Enriched Environment Enhances Cognitive Function and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Signaling in the Hippocampus in Maternally Separated Rats

Adverse environments during early life may lead to different neurophysiological and behavioral consequences, including depression and learning and memory deficits that persist into adulthood. Previously, we demonstrated that exposure to an enriched environment during adolescence mitigates the cognitive impairment observed after maternal separation in a task-specific manner. However, underlying neural mechanisms are still not fully understood. The current study examines the effects of neonatal maternal separation (MS) and postweaning environmental enrichment (EE) on spatial learning and memory performance in a short version of the Barnes Maze, active and passive behaviors in the forced swim test, and on TrkB/BDNF receptor expression in the hippocampus. Our results revealed that MS impaired acquisition learning and that enriched rats performed better than non-enriched rats in acquisition trials, regardless of early conditions. During the probe, enriched-housed rats demonstrated better performance than those reared in standard conditions. No significant differences between groups were found in the forced swim test. Both MS and EE increase full-length TrkB expression, and the combination of MS and EE treatment caused the highest levels of this protein expression. Similarly, truncated TrkB expression was higher in the MS/EE group. Animal facility rearing (AFR) non-enriched groups present the lowest activation of phosphorylated Erk, a canonical downstream kinase of TrkB signaling. Taken together, our results demonstrate the importance of enriched environment as an intervention to ameliorate the effects of maternal separation on spatial learning and memory. TrkB/BDNF signaling could mediate neuroplastic changes related to learning and memory during exposure to enriched environment.

Environmental epigenetics of sex differences in the brain

Experiences throughout the life course lead to unique phenotypes even among those with the same genotype. Genotype sets the substrate on which physiologic processes, which communicate with the brain, mediate the effects of life experiences via epigenetics. Epigenetics modify the expression of genes in the brain and body in response to circulating hormones and other mediators, which are activated to facilitate survival responses through a process called allostasis. Epigenetic signatures can even be inherited, resulting in transgenerational effects. This chapter addresses epigenetics in the context of sex differences, discussing the intersection between genetics and gonadal hormones and their effect in the brain at discrete developmental periods.

Long-term effects of experimental carotid stenosis on hippocampal infarct pathology, neurons and glia and amelioration by environmental enrichment

Hippocampal atrophy and pathology are common in ageing-related disorders and associated with cognitive impairment and dementia. We explored whether environmental enrichment (EE) ameliorated the pathological sequelae in the hippocampus subsequent to chronic cerebral hypoperfusion induced by bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS). Seventy-four male C57BL/6 J mice underwent BCAS or sham surgery. One-week after surgery, mice were exposed to three different degrees of EE; either standard housing conditions (std), limited 3 -h exposure to EE per day (3 h) or full-time exposure to EE (full) for 3 months. Four months after surgery, the hippocampus was examined for the extent of vascular brain injury and neuronal and glial changes. Results showed that long-term BCAS induced strokes, most often in CA1 subfield, reduced 40-50 % CA1 neurons (P < 0.01) and increased microglia/macrophage in CA1-CA3 subfields (P < 0.02). Remarkably, both 3 h and full-time EE regimes attenuated hippocampal neuronal death and repressed recurrent strokes with complete prevention of larger infarcts in mice on full-time EE (P < 0.01). Full-time EE also reduced astrocytic clasmatodendrosis and microglial/macrophage activation in all CA subfields. Our results suggest that exposure to EE differentially reduces long-term hypoperfusive hippocampal damage. The implementation of even limited EE may be beneficial for patients diagnosed with vascular cognitive impairment.

Social housing enhances acquisition of task set independently of environmental enrichment: A longitudinal study in the Barnes maze

Human studies suggest that healthy social relationships benefit cognition, yet little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of this protective effect. In rodents, studies on acute isolation and environmental enrichment (EE) confirm the importance of social exposure. Despite the widely recognized importance of sociality, however, rodent models have yet to explore the independent contributions of social housing divorced of other forms of enrichment. This study dissociates the effects of social and physical enrichment on spatial learning and memory from adulthood to old age. Rats were placed in either single or group housing, provided with ample enrichment, and tested at three time points on several phases/versions of the Barnes maze (BM) (standard, retention probes, variable location, and reversal). We found that sustained social housing enhanced cognitive flexibility, as evidenced by superior acquisition of task set (standard BM), adaptability to a new task set (variable BM), and improved reversal learning (reversal BM). Long-term retention (BM retention probes) of spatial memory was unaffected by housing conditions. Recent studies from our lab, including this report, are the first to show that social housing confers cognitive benefits beyond those of physical enrichment. Importantly, our experimental design is ideal for exploring the neural underpinnings of this socially induced cognitive protection. Understanding how sociality influences cognition will be invaluable to translational models of aging, neuropsychiatric disease, and neurological injury.

Early exposure to environmental enrichment protects male rats against neuropathic pain development after nerve injury

Because environmental elements modify chronic pain development and endogenous mechanisms of pain control are still a great therapeutic source, we investigated the effects of an early exposure to environmental enrichment (EE) in a translational model of neuropathic pain. Young male rats born and bred in an enriched environment, which did not count on running wheel, underwent chronic constriction injury (CCI) of sciatic nerve. EE abolished neuropathic pain behavior 14 days after CCI. Opioid receptors' antagonism reversed EE-analgesic effect. β-endorphin and met-enkephalin serum levels were increased only in EE-CCI group. Blockade of glucocorticoid receptors did not alter EE-analgesic effect, although corticosterone circulating levels were increased in EE animals. In the spinal cord, EE controlled CCI-induced serotonin increase. In DRG, EE blunted the expression of ATF-3 after CCI. Surprisingly, EE-CCI group showed a remarkable preservation of sciatic nerve fibers compared to NE-CCI group. This work demonstrated global effects induced by an EE protocol that explain, in part, the protective role of EE upon chronic noxious stimulation, reinforcing the importance of endogenous mechanisms in the prevention of chronic pain development.

Enhancing cognition through pharmacological and environmental interventions: Examples from preclinical models of neurodevelopmental disorders

In this review we discuss the role of environmental and pharmacological treatments to enhance cognition with special regards to neurodevelopmental related disorders and aging. How the environment influences brain structure and function, and the interactions between rearing conditions and gene expression, are fundamental questions that are still poorly understood. We propose a model that can explain some of the discrepancies in findings for effects of environmental enrichment on outcome measures. Evidence of a direct causal correlation of nootropics and treatments that enhanced cognition also will be presented, and possible molecular mechanisms that include neurotrophin signaling and downstream pathways underlying these processes are discussed. Finally we review recent findings achieved with a wide set of behavioral and cognitive tasks that have translational validity to humans, and should be useful for future work on devising appropriate therapies. As will be discussed, the collective findings suggest that a combinational therapeutic approach of environmental enrichment and nootropics could be particularly successful for improving learning and memory in both developmental disorders and normal aging.

Environmental enrichment improves cognitive symptoms and pathological features in a focal model of cortical damage of multiple sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a neuroinflammatory disease affecting white and grey matter, it is characterized by demyelination, axonal degeneration along with loss of motor, sensitive and cognitive functions. MS is a heterogeneous disease that displays different clinical courses: relapsing/remitting MS (RRMS), and MS progressive forms: primary progressive (PPMS) and secondary progressive (SPMS). Cortical damage in the progressive MS forms has considerable clinical relevance due to its association with cognitive impairment and disability progression in patients. One treatment is available for the progressive forms of the disease, but none are specific for cognitive deficits. We developed an animal model that reflects most of the characteristics of the cortical damage, such as cortical neuroinflammation, demyelination, neurodegeneration and meningeal inflammation, which was associated with cognitive impairment. Cognitive rehabilitation, exercise and social support have begun to be evaluated in patients and animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Environmental enrichment (EE) provides exercise as well as cognitive and social stimulation. EE has been demonstrated to exert positive effects on cognitive domains, such as learning and memory, and improving anxiety-like symptoms. We proposed to study the effect of EE on peripherally stimulated cortical lesion induced by the long term expression of interleukin IL-1β (IL-1β) in adult rats. Here, we demonstrated that EE: 1) reduces the peripheral inflammatory response to the stimulus, 2) ameliorates cognitive deficits and anxiety-like symptoms, 3) modulates neurodegeneration, demyelination and glial activation, 4) regulates neuroinflammation by reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enhancing the expression of anti-inflammatory ones. Our findings correlate with the fact that EE housing could be considered an effective non- pharmacological therapeutic agent that can synergistically aid in the rehabilitation of the disease.

Nesting material enrichment reduces severity of overgrooming-related self-injury in individually housed rats

Individual or singly-housing laboratory rats is common in many animal facilities, but has an adverse impact on the welfare of this social species. It has previously been shown that a small proportion of individually housed mice (∼5%) engage in pathological overgrooming behaviour, but this has not been assessed in rats. We performed an observational study to determine the prevalence of overgrooming-related self-injury and whether providing nesting material enrichment throughout an animal's life would affect the prevalence or severity of overgrooming-related self-injury. Due to protocol differences between projects in our behavioural neuroscience lab, unenriched rats received a nylabone and a shelter (n = 167), while baseline-enriched rats received a nylabone, shelter and shredded paper nesting material throughout experiments (n = 238). Unenriched rats received nesting material enrichment after the onset of overgrooming-related self-injury. Over 18 months, rats were monitored by their experimenters on a daily basis (5-7 days/week over 2-3 months/project) and any cases of overgrooming-related self-injury were recorded. Replicating the findings of previous studies in mice, we observed 20 cases of overgrooming-related self-injury (∼5%) with no difference in prevalence between rats on the basis of supplier, cage position, experimental procedure (behavioural only or involving surgical procedures), reinforcer (ethanol or sugar) or level of baseline-enrichment. While there was no difference in onset severity between rats that were unenriched at baseline and baseline-enriched rats, baseline-enriched rats had lower self-injury severity scores at one-, two- and four-week follow-ups. These results suggest that nesting material enrichment provided throughout an animal's life may reduce overgrooming-related self-injury.

Environmental enrichment prevents Aβ oligomer-induced synaptic dysfunction through mirna-132 and hdac3 signaling pathways

As the most common cause of progressive cognitive decline in humans, Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been intensively studied, but the mechanisms underlying its profound synaptic dysfunction remain unclear. Here we confirm that exposing wild-type mice to an enriched environment (EE) facilitates signaling in the hippocampus that promotes long-term potentiation (LTP). Exposing the hippocampus of mice kept in standard housing to soluble Aβ oligomers impairs LTP, but EE can fully prevent this. Mechanistically, the key molecular features of the EE benefit are an upregulation of miRNA-132 and an inhibition of histone deacetylase (HDAC) signaling. Specifically, soluble Aβ oligomers decreased miR-132 expression and increased HDAC3 levels in cultured primary neurons. Further, we provide evidence that HDAC3 is a direct target of miR-132. Overexpressing miR-132 or injecting an HDAC3 inhibitor into mice in standard housing mimics the benefits of EE in enhancing hippocampal LTP and preventing hippocampal impairment by Aβ oligomers in vivo. We conclude that EE enhances hippocampal synaptic plasticity by upregulating miRNA-132 and reducing HDAC3 signaling in a way that counteracts the synaptotoxicity of human Aβ oligomers. Our findings provide a rationale for prolonged exposure to cognitive novelty and/or epigenetic modulation to lessen the progressive effects of Aβ accumulation during human brain aging.

Aerobic exercise combined with environmental enrichment improves spatial memory and enhances neuroligin 1 expression: an animal study

BACKGROUND Numerous studies have revealed that aerobic exercise (AE) or environmental enrichment (EE) exert positive effects on the molecular, cellular, and structural changes responsible for functional plasticity. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate whether the combination of AE and EE yields a greater effect on spatial memory and increases the expression of the adhesion molecule neuroligin 1 compared with either of the therapies alone. METHODS Twenty 6-month-old male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: (1) the control group (C), (2) the AE group, (3) the EE group, and (4) the AE-EE group. Escape latency in a Water-E-maze (WEM) task was used as a parameter to assess spatial memory function. Neuroligin 1 protein expression was examined via the immunohistochemistry (IHC) technique followed by IHC optical density (OD) score analysis of the CA1 hippocampal region. RESULTS Data acquired from the WEM task show that escape latency progressively decreased over time in all groups. However, animals in the AE-EE group required less time to complete the task compared with those in the control, AE, and EE groups. IHC OD scores revealed that the combination of AE and EE caused the highest expression of neuroligin 1 in the CA1 hippocampal region among the therapies studied. Statistical analysis indicated significant differences in OD score between the AE-EE and control, AE, and EE groups (p ≤ 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The combination of AE and EE rats increased neuroligin 1 expression and improved the spatial memory of male Wistar rats compared with application of either therapy alone.

RNA-Dependent Intergenerational Inheritance of Enhanced Synaptic Plasticity after Environmental Enrichment

Physical exercise in combination with cognitive training is known to enhance synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory and lower the risk for various complex diseases including Alzheimer's disease. Here, we show that exposure of adult male mice to an environmental enrichment paradigm leads to enhancement of synaptic plasticity and cognition also in the next generation. We show that this effect is mediated through sperm RNA and especially miRs 212/132. In conclusion, our study reports intergenerational inheritance of an acquired cognitive benefit and points to specific miRs as candidates mechanistically involved in this type of transmission.

Alleviation of diazepam-induced conditioned place preference and its withdrawal-associated neurobehavioral deficits following pre-exposure to enriched environment in rats

Diazepam is one of the widely prescribed sedative drugs for the treatment of anxiety and sleep disorders. However, its continuous use can induce addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms and, therefore, the pharmacological use of diazepam is restricted. Exposure to enriched environment can reduce the addiction to stimulants including amphetamine, cocaine, and nicotine. However, the protective effect of enriched environment against preference of sedative drugs is not yet investigated. This study, therefore, determined the effects of enriched environment to prevent diazepam-preference using conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. Adult rats were reared in social (n = 12) or physically (n = 12) enriched environment for four weeks. Each group was then sub-divided into two groups and were administered either saline (Control; n = 6) or diazepam (1 mg/kg; n = 6) on alternate days for thirteen days. During the administration of diazepam, the CPP was conducted to monitor drug preference on 5th, 9th and 13th day of experiment. It was observed that the diazepam administration significantly (p < .01) induced preference in rats. Neurobehavioral deficits including hypolocomotor activity, depression-like behavior, impaired learning and memory functions were also observed after 24 h of drug abstinence. Exposure to enriched environment significantly reduced diazepam-preference and other neurobehavioral deficits. This study provides preliminary evidence to highlight the importance of enriched environment in the attenuation of diazepam-preference.

The diphenylpyrazole compound anle138b blocks Aβ channels and rescues disease phenotypes in a mouse model for amyloid pathology

Alzheimer's disease is a devastating neurodegenerative disease eventually leading to dementia. An effective treatment does not yet exist. Here we show that oral application of the compound anle138b restores hippocampal synaptic and transcriptional plasticity as well as spatial memory in a mouse model for Alzheimer's disease, when given orally before or after the onset of pathology. At the mechanistic level, we provide evidence that anle138b blocks the activity of conducting Aβ pores without changing the membrane embedded Aβ-oligomer structure. In conclusion, our data suggest that anle138b is a novel and promising compound to treat AD-related pathology that should be investigated further.

Neuroplasticity-related correlates of environmental enrichment combined with physical activity differ between the sexes

Environmental enrichment (EE), comprising positive physical (exercise) and cognitive stimuli, influences neuronal structure and usually improves brain function. The promise of EE as a preventative strategy against neuropsychiatric disease is especially high during early postnatal development when the brain is still amenable to reorganization. Despite the fact that male and female brains differ in terms of connectivity and function that may reflect early life experiences, knowledge of the neural substrates and mechanisms by which such changes arise remains limited. This study compared the impact of EE combined with physical activity on neuroplasticity and its functional consequences in adult male and female rats; EE was provided during the first 3 months of life and our analysis focused on the hippocampus, an area implicated in cognitive behavior as well as the neuroendocrine response to stress. Both male and female rats reared in EE displayed better object recognition memory than their control counterparts. Interestingly, sex differences were revealed in the effects of EE on time spent exploring the objects during this test. Independently of sex, EE increased hippocampal turnover rates of dopamine and serotonin and reduced expression of 5-HT_1A receptors; in addition, EE upregulated expression of synaptophysin, a presynaptic protein, in the hippocampus. As compared to their respective controls, EE-exposed males exhibited parallel increases in phosphorylated Tau and the GluN2B receptor, whereas females responded to EE with reduced hippocampal levels of glutamate and GluN2B. Together, these observations provide further evidence on the differential effects of EE on markers of hippocampal neuroplasticity in males and females.

The effects of environmental enrichment on white matter pathology in a mouse model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion

White matter (WM) disintegration is common in the older population and is associated with vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). This study explored the effects of environmental enrichment (EE) on pathological sequelae in a mouse model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion induced by bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS). Male C57BL/6 J mice underwent BCAS or sham surgery. One-week after surgery, mice were exposed to three different degrees of EE; either standard housing conditions (std), limited 3 h exposure to EE per day (3 h) or full-time exposure to EE (full) for 12 weeks. At 13 weeks after surgery, cognitive testing was performed using a three-dimensional 9-arm radial maze. At 16 weeks after surgery, nesting ability was assessed in each mouse immediately before euthanasia. Brains retrieved after perfusion fixation were examined for WM pathology. BCAS caused WM changes, as demonstrated by corpus callosum atrophy and greater WM disintegrity. BCAS also caused impaired nesting ability and cognitive function. These pathological changes and working memory deficits were attenuated, more so by limited rather than full-time exposure to EE regime. Our results suggest that limited exposure to EE delays the onset of WM degeneration. Therefore, the implementation of even limited EE may be beneficial for patients diagnosed with VCI.

Enriched physical environment reverses spatial cognitive impairment of socially isolated APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice before amyloidosis onset

AIMS

Social isolation increases the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Environmental enrichment, a complicated social and physical construct, plays beneficial effects on brain plasticity and function. This study was designed to determine whether physical enrichment can reduce the deleterious consequences of social isolation on the onset of AD.

METHODS

One-month-old APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic AD model mice were singly housed in the enriched physical environment for 8 weeks and then received behavioral tests, neuropathological analyses, and Western blot of the hippocampus.

RESULTS

The enriched physical environment reversed spatial cognitive decline of socially isolated APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. The functional reversal was associated with decreases in cellular apoptosis, synaptic protein loss, inflammation, and glial activation in the hippocampus, without changes in amyloid β neuropathology.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the enriched physical environment may serve as a nonpharmacological intervention for delaying the onset of AD accompanied with social isolation.

Magnesium boosts the memory restorative effect of environmental enrichment in Alzheimer's disease mice

BACKGROUND

Environmental enrichment (EE) has been shown to enhance cognitive function in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Magnesium-L-threonate (MgT) is a compound with a newly discovered effect to rescue learning and memory function in aging and AD mice.

AIM

To study the additive therapeutic effect of EE combined with MgT (EM) and the potential mechanism underlying the effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

APP/PS1 mice were treated with EE, MgT, or combination of EE and MgT (EM) and compared for restored memory function.

RESULTS

EM was more effective in improving cognition and spatial memory than either treatment alone in either long-term (12 months, started at 3 months old, which was before disease manifestation) or short-term (3 months, started at 6 months old, which was after disease manifestation) treatment. The behavioral improvement has coincided with rescue of synaptic contacts in the hippocampal region of the AD mouse brain. Immunoblots also showed that EM but neither single treatment rescued the activity reduction in CaMKII and CREB, two important downstream molecules in the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) pathway.

CONCLUSION

Environmental enrichment and MgT may synergistically improve recognition and spatial memory by reducing synaptic loss and restoring the NMDAR signaling pathway in AD mice, which suggests that combination of EE and MgT may be a novel therapeutic strategy for AD.

Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Development: Protocol for a 15-Year Longitudinal Follow-Up Study

The aim of the study is to investigate the relationship between physical activity as assessed by accelerometers and cognitive development across the human age ranges (from children and adolescents to adults). Additionally, this study seeks to explore whether physical activity contributes to cognitive development via modification of plasma insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In the study, 500 preschool children (3.5–5.5 years old) are taking part in 6 triennial assessment waves over the span of 15 years. At each wave, participant measures included (a) 7-day physical activity monitoring using ActiGraph's GT3X accelerometers, (b) the evaluation of cognitive development, (c) anthropometric and physical fitness assessments, (d) plasma IGF-1 and BDNF concentrations, and (e) retrospective questionnaires. Linear regression models are used to examine the effect of physical activity on cognitive development; plasma IGF-1 and BDNF concentrations are considered as mediators into data analyses. The results of the study may help to inform future health interventions that utilize physical activity as a means to improve cognitive development in children, adolescents, and adults. Additionally, the study may assist in determining whether the putative effects occur via modification of plasma IGF-1 or BDNF concentrations.

Impact of enriched environment on production of tau, amyloid precursor protein and, amyloid-β peptide in high-fat and high-sucrose-fed rats

OBJECTIVE

The Western-type diet is associated with an elevated risk of Alzheimer's disease and other milder forms of cognitive impairment. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of the environmental enrichment on amyloid and tau pathology in high-fat and high-sucrose-fed rats.

METHODS

In total, 40 adult male rats were categorised into two main groups according to their housing conditions: enriched environment (EE, n=16) and standard housing condition (n=24). The groups were further divided into five subgroups that received standard diet, high-fat diet, and high-sucrose diet. We performed the analysis of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) (1-40), Aβ(1-42), amyloid precursor protein (APP), and tau levels in the hippocampus of rats that were maintained under standard housing conditions or exposed to an EE.

RESULTS

The EE decreased the Aβ(1-40), Aβ(1-42), APP, and tau levels in high-fat and high-sucrose-fed rats.

CONCLUSION

This observation shows that EE may rescue diet-induced amyloid and tau pathology.