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Gawel K. A Review on the Role and Function of Cinnabarinic Acid, a "Forgotten" Metabolite of the Kynurenine Pathway. Cells 2024; 13:453. [PMID: 38474418 DOI: 10.3390/cells13050453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
In the human body, the majority of tryptophan is metabolized through the kynurenine pathway. This consists of several metabolites collectively called the kynurenines and includes, among others, kynurenic acid, L-kynurenine, or quinolinic acid. The wealth of metabolites, as well as the associated molecular targets and biological pathways, bring about a situation wherein even a slight imbalance in the kynurenine levels, both in the periphery and central nervous system, have broad consequences regarding general health. Cinnabarinic acid (CA) is the least known trace kynurenine, and its physiological and pathological roles are not widely understood. Some studies, however, indicate that it might be neuroprotective. Information on its hepatoprotective properties have also emerged, although these are pioneering studies and need to be replicated. Therefore, in this review, I aim to present and critically discuss the current knowledge on CA and its role in physiological and pathological settings to guide future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Gawel
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b Str., 20-090 Lublin, Poland
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Chakraborty P, Dey A, Gopalakrishnan AV, Swati K, Ojha S, Prakash A, Kumar D, Ambasta RK, Jha NK, Jha SK, Dewanjee S. Glutamatergic neurotransmission: A potential pharmacotherapeutic target for the treatment of cognitive disorders. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 85:101838. [PMID: 36610558 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In the mammalian brain, glutamate is regarded to be the primary excitatory neurotransmitter due to its widespread distribution and wide range of metabolic functions. Glutamate plays key roles in regulating neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, neurite outgrowth, and neuron survival in the brain. Ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors, neurotransmitters, neurotensin, neurosteroids, and others co-ordinately formulate a complex glutamatergic network in the brain that maintains optimal excitatory neurotransmission. Cognitive activities are potentially synchronized by the glutamatergic activities in the brain via restoring synaptic plasticity. Dysfunctional glutamate receptors and other glutamatergic components are responsible for the aberrant glutamatergic activity in the brain that cause cognitive impairments, loss of synaptic plasticity, and neuronal damage. Thus, controlling the brain's glutamatergic transmission and modifying glutamate receptor function could be a potential therapeutic strategy for cognitive disorders. Certain drugs that regulate glutamate receptor activities have shown therapeutic promise in improving cognitive functions in preclinical and clinical studies. However, several issues regarding precise functional information of glutamatergic activity are yet to be comprehensively understood. The present article discusses the scope of developing glutamatergic systems as prospective pharmacotherapeutic targets to treat cognitive disorders. Special attention has been given to recent developments, challenges, and future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratik Chakraborty
- Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Abhijit Dey
- Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, Kolkata 700073, West Bengal, India
| | - Abilash Valsala Gopalakrishnan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Bio Sciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632014, India
| | - Kumari Swati
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari, Bihar, India
| | - Shreesh Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Anand Prakash
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari, Bihar, India
| | - Dhruv Kumar
- School of Health Sciences & Technology, UPES University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
| | - Rashmi K Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Delhi 110042, India
| | - Niraj Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, UP, India; School of Bioengineering & Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab 144411, India.
| | - Saurabh Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, UP, India; Department of Biotechnology Engineering and Food Technology, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India; Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied & Life Sciences (SALS), Uttaranchal University, Dehradun 248007, India.
| | - Saikat Dewanjee
- Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India.
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Tanaka M, Szabó Á, Spekker E, Polyák H, Tóth F, Vécsei L. Mitochondrial Impairment: A Common Motif in Neuropsychiatric Presentation? The Link to the Tryptophan-Kynurenine Metabolic System. Cells 2022; 11:cells11162607. [PMID: 36010683 PMCID: PMC9406499 DOI: 10.3390/cells11162607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nearly half a century has passed since the discovery of cytoplasmic inheritance of human chloramphenicol resistance. The inheritance was then revealed to take place maternally by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Later, a number of mutations in mtDNA were identified as a cause of severe inheritable metabolic diseases with neurological manifestation, and the impairment of mitochondrial functions has been probed in the pathogenesis of a wide range of illnesses including neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, a growing number of preclinical studies have revealed that animal behaviors are influenced by the impairment of mitochondrial functions and possibly by the loss of mitochondrial stress resilience. Indeed, as high as 54% of patients with one of the most common primary mitochondrial diseases, mitochondrial encephalomyopathy with lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes (MELAS) syndrome, present psychiatric symptoms including cognitive impairment, mood disorder, anxiety, and psychosis. Mitochondria are multifunctional organelles which produce cellular energy and play a major role in other cellular functions including homeostasis, cellular signaling, and gene expression, among others. Mitochondrial functions are observed to be compromised and to become less resilient under continuous stress. Meanwhile, stress and inflammation have been linked to the activation of the tryptophan (Trp)-kynurenine (KYN) metabolic system, which observably contributes to the development of pathological conditions including neurological and psychiatric disorders. This review discusses the functions of mitochondria and the Trp-KYN system, the interaction of the Trp-KYN system with mitochondria, and the current understanding of the involvement of mitochondria and the Trp-KYN system in preclinical and clinical studies of major neurological and psychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Tanaka
- ELKH-SZTE Neuroscience Research Group, Danube Neuroscience Research Laboratory, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, University of Szeged (ELKH-SZTE), Tisza Lajos krt. 113, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Szabó
- Department of Neurology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Doctoral School of Clinical Medicine, University of Szeged, Korányi fasor 6, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Eleonóra Spekker
- ELKH-SZTE Neuroscience Research Group, Danube Neuroscience Research Laboratory, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, University of Szeged (ELKH-SZTE), Tisza Lajos krt. 113, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Helga Polyák
- Department of Neurology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Doctoral School of Clinical Medicine, University of Szeged, Korányi fasor 6, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Fanni Tóth
- ELKH-SZTE Neuroscience Research Group, Danube Neuroscience Research Laboratory, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, University of Szeged (ELKH-SZTE), Tisza Lajos krt. 113, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Vécsei
- ELKH-SZTE Neuroscience Research Group, Danube Neuroscience Research Laboratory, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, University of Szeged (ELKH-SZTE), Tisza Lajos krt. 113, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Department of Neurology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +36-62-545-351
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2-Year-Old and 3-Year-Old Italian ALS Patients with Novel ALS2 Mutations: Identification of Key Metabolites in Their Serum and Plasma. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12020174. [PMID: 35208248 PMCID: PMC8878019 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12020174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic variants in ALS2 have been detected mostly in juvenile cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), affecting mainly children and teenagers. Patients with ALS2 mutations demonstrate early onset cortical involvement in ALS. Currently, there are no effective treatment options. There is an immense need to reveal the underlying causes of the disease and to identify potential biomarkers. To shed light onto the metabolomic events that are perturbed with respect to ALS2 mutations, we investigated the metabolites present in the serum and plasma of a three-year-old female patient (AO) harboring pathogenic variants in ALS2, together with her relatives, healthy male and female controls, as well as another two-year-old patient DH, who had mutations at different locations and domains of ALS2. Serum and plasma samples were analyzed with a quantitative metabolomic approach to reveal the identity of metabolites present in serum and plasma. This study not only shed light onto the perturbed cellular pathways, but also began to reveal the presence of a distinct set of key metabolites that are selectively present or absent with respect to ALS2 mutations, laying the foundation for utilizing metabolites as potential biomarkers for a subset of ALS.
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Recent advances in clinical trials targeting the kynurenine pathway. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 236:108055. [PMID: 34929198 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.108055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway (KP) is the major catabolic pathway for the essential amino acid tryptophan leading to the production of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. In inflammatory conditions, the activation of the KP leads to the production of several bioactive metabolites including kynurenine, 3-hydroxykynurenine, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, kynurenic acid and quinolinic acid. These metabolites can have redox and immune suppressive activity, be neurotoxic or neuroprotective. While the activity of the pathway is tightly regulated under normal physiological condition, it can be upregulated by immunological activation and inflammation. The dysregulation of the KP has been implicated in wide range of neurological diseases and psychiatric disorders. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms involved in KP-mediated neurotoxicity and immune suppression, and its role in diseases of our expertise including cancer, chronic pain and multiple sclerosis. We also provide updates on the clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of KP inhibitors and/or analogues in each respective disease.
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Kędzierski W, Sadok I, Kowalik S, Janczarek I, Staniszewska M. Does the type of exercise affect tryptophan catabolism in horses? Animal 2021; 15:100377. [PMID: 34624767 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2021.100377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Tryptophan (Trp) is an essential amino acid which metabolises via the kynurenine pathway to generate a number of bioactive substances referred to as kynurenines. Among those are 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HKyn) and quinolinic acid, which are neurotoxic, as well as kynurenic acid (Kyna) and xanthurenic acid (XA), which, similarly to nicotinamide (NAm), show neuroprotective and anti-depressive effects. Routine exercise is known to modulate Trp metabolism in skeletal muscle and is thus believed to reduce the risk of depressive states in humans and laboratory animals. Analogously, it was hypothesised that exercise can influence Trp metabolism in horses as well. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of two different types of exercise on Trp metabolism in horses of the same breed. A total of 32 purebred Arabian horses were involved in the study. The 22 three-year-old racehorses were subjected to short-time intense exercise. Ten other horses were made to perform endurance competitions at a distance of 80 km. Blood samples were collected at rest and following the end of the exercise period. Plasma concentrations of Trp, kynurenine (Kyn), Kyna, 3-HKyn, XA and NAm were determined using Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionisation-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Short-time intense exercise led to an increase in plasma concentrations of Kyn, Kyna and XA. The endurance effort induced an increase in Kyna and a decrease in Trp and NAm levels. Both types of exercise, short-time intensive exercise and endurance exercise induced an increase in Trp metabolites, especially Kyna, and did not induce an increase in Trp level. Thus, from a pathophysiological perspective of the kynurenine pathway's influence on mental state, both types of exercise induced beneficial effects in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Kędzierski
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
| | - I Sadok
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-708 Lublin, Poland
| | - S Kowalik
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland.
| | - I Janczarek
- Department of Horse Breeding and Use, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
| | - M Staniszewska
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-708 Lublin, Poland
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Taleb O, Maammar M, Klein C, Maitre M, Mensah-Nyagan AG. A Role for Xanthurenic Acid in the Control of Brain Dopaminergic Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22136974. [PMID: 34203531 PMCID: PMC8268472 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Xanthurenic acid (XA) is a metabolite of the kynurenine pathway (KP) synthetized in the brain from dietary or microbial tryptophan that crosses the blood-brain barrier through carrier-mediated transport. XA and kynurenic acid (KYNA) are two structurally related compounds of KP occurring at micromolar concentrations in the CNS and suspected to modulate some pathophysiological mechanisms of neuropsychiatric and/or neurodegenerative diseases. Particularly, various data including XA cerebral distribution (from 1 µM in olfactory bulbs and cerebellum to 0.1–0.4 µM in A9 and A10), its release, and interactions with G protein-dependent XA-receptor, glutamate transporter and metabotropic receptors, strongly support a signaling and/or neuromodulatory role for XA. However, while the parent molecule KYNA is considered as potentially involved in neuropsychiatric disorders because of its inhibitory action on dopamine release in the striatum, the effect of XA on brain dopaminergic activity remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that acute local/microdialysis-infusions of XA dose-dependently stimulate dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex (four-fold increase in the presence of 20 µM XA). This stimulatory effect is blocked by XA-receptor antagonist NCS-486. Interestingly, our results show that the peripheral/intraperitoneal administration of XA, which has been proven to enhance intra-cerebral XA concentrations (about 200% increase after 50 mg/kg XA i.p), also induces a dose-dependent increase of dopamine release in the cortex and striatum. Furthermore, our in vivo electrophysiological studies reveal that the repeated/daily administrations of XA reduce by 43% the number of spontaneously firing dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area. In the substantia nigra, XA treatment does not change the number of firing neurons. Altogether, our results suggest that XA may contribute together with KYNA to generate a KYNA/XA ratio that may crucially determine the brain normal dopaminergic activity. Imbalance of this ratio may result in dopaminergic dysfunctions related to several brain disorders, including psychotic diseases and drug dependence.
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Behl T, Kaur I, Sehgal A, Singh S, Bhatia S, Al-Harrasi A, Zengin G, Bumbu AG, Andronie-Cioara FL, Nechifor AC, Gitea D, Bungau AF, Toma MM, Bungau SG. The Footprint of Kynurenine Pathway in Neurodegeneration: Janus-Faced Role in Parkinson's Disorder and Therapeutic Implications. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6737. [PMID: 34201647 PMCID: PMC8268239 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Progressive degeneration of neurons and aggravation of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta results in the loss of dopamine in the brain of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Numerous therapies, exhibiting transient efficacy have been developed; however, they are mostly accompanied by side effects and limited reliability, therefore instigating the need to develop novel optimistic treatment targets. Significant therapeutic targets have been identified, namely: chaperones, protein Abelson, glucocerebrosidase-1, calcium, neuromelanin, ubiquitin-proteasome system, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the kynurenine pathway (KP). The role of KP and its metabolites and enzymes in PD, namely quinolinic acid (QUIN), kynurenic acid (KYNA), 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), 3-hydroxyanthranillic acid (3-HAA), kunurenine-3-monooxygenase (KMO), etc. has been reported. The neurotoxic QUIN, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonist, and neuroprotective KYNA-which antagonizes QUIN actions-primarily justify the Janus-faced role of KP in PD. Moreover, KP has been reported to play a biomarker role in PD detection. Therefore, the authors detail the neurotoxic, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory neuroactive components, alongside the upstream and downstream metabolic pathways of KP, forming a basis for a therapeutic paradigm of the disease while recognizing KP as a potential biomarker in PD, thus facilitating the development of a suitable target in PD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapan Behl
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Ishnoor Kaur
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Aayush Sehgal
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Sukhbir Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Saurabh Bhatia
- Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University, Gurugram, Haryana 122412, India;
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Centre, University of Nizwa, P.O. Box 33, PC 616 Birkat Al Mouz, Nizwa 611, Oman;
| | - Ahmed Al-Harrasi
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Centre, University of Nizwa, P.O. Box 33, PC 616 Birkat Al Mouz, Nizwa 611, Oman;
| | - Gokhan Zengin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Selcuk University Campus, Konya 42130, Turkey;
| | - Adrian Gheorghe Bumbu
- Department of Surgical Disciplines, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410073 Oradea, Romania;
| | - Felicia Liana Andronie-Cioara
- Department of Psycho-Neuroscience and Recovery, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410073 Oradea, Romania;
| | - Aurelia Cristina Nechifor
- Analytical Chemistry and Environmental Engineering Department, Polytechnic University of Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania;
| | - Daniela Gitea
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410028 Oradea, Romania; (D.G.); (M.M.T.)
| | | | - Mirela Marioara Toma
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410028 Oradea, Romania; (D.G.); (M.M.T.)
- Doctoral School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Oradea, 410087 Oradea, Romania
| | - Simona Gabriela Bungau
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410028 Oradea, Romania; (D.G.); (M.M.T.)
- Doctoral School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Oradea, 410087 Oradea, Romania
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Mithaiwala MN, Santana-Coelho D, Porter GA, O’Connor JC. Neuroinflammation and the Kynurenine Pathway in CNS Disease: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Cells 2021; 10:1548. [PMID: 34205235 PMCID: PMC8235708 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) remain a significant health, social and economic problem around the globe. The development of therapeutic strategies for CNS conditions has suffered due to a poor understanding of the underlying pathologies that manifest them. Understanding common etiological origins at the cellular and molecular level is essential to enhance the development of efficacious and targeted treatment options. Over the years, neuroinflammation has been posited as a common link between multiple neurological, neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. Processes that precipitate neuroinflammatory conditions including genetics, infections, physical injury and psychosocial factors, like stress and trauma, closely link dysregulation in kynurenine pathway (KP) of tryptophan metabolism as a possible pathophysiological factor that 'fuel the fire' in CNS diseases. In this study, we aim to review emerging evidence that provide mechanistic insights between different CNS disorders, neuroinflammation and the KP. We provide a thorough overview of the different branches of the KP pertinent to CNS disease pathology that have therapeutic implications for the development of selected and efficacious treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa N. Mithaiwala
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UT Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA; (M.N.M.); (D.S.-C.); (G.A.P.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Long School of Medicine, UT Health San Antonio, Mail Code 8864, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Danielle Santana-Coelho
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UT Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA; (M.N.M.); (D.S.-C.); (G.A.P.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Long School of Medicine, UT Health San Antonio, Mail Code 8864, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Grace A. Porter
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UT Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA; (M.N.M.); (D.S.-C.); (G.A.P.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Long School of Medicine, UT Health San Antonio, Mail Code 8864, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Jason C. O’Connor
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, UT Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA; (M.N.M.); (D.S.-C.); (G.A.P.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Long School of Medicine, UT Health San Antonio, Mail Code 8864, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
- Department of Research, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital, South Texas Veterans Heath System, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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Than K, Kim E, Navarro C, Chu S, Klier N, Occiano A, Ortiz S, Salazar A, Valdespino SR, Villegas NK, Wilkinson KA. Vesicle-released glutamate is necessary to maintain muscle spindle afferent excitability but not dynamic sensitivity in adult mice. J Physiol 2021; 599:2953-2967. [PMID: 33749829 DOI: 10.1113/jp281182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Muscle spindle afferents are slowly adapting low threshold mechanoreceptors that report muscle length and movement information critical for motor control and proprioception. The rapidly adapting cation channel PIEZO2 has been identified as necessary for muscle spindle afferent stretch sensitivity, although the properties of this channel suggest that additional molecular elements are necessary for mediating the complex slowly adapting response of muscle spindle afferents. We report that glutamate increases muscle spindle afferent static sensitivity in an ex vivo mouse muscle nerve preparation, although blocking glutamate packaging into vesicles by the sole vesicular glutamate transporter, VGLUT1, either pharmacologically or by transgenic knockout of one allele of VGLUT1 decreases muscle spindle afferent static but not dynamic sensitivity. Our results confirm that vesicle-released glutamate is an important contributor to maintained muscle spindle afferent excitability and may suggest a therapeutic target for normalizing muscle spindle afferent function. ABSTRACT Muscle spindle afferents are slowly adapting low threshold mechanoreceptors that have both dynamic and static sensitivity to muscle stretch. The exact mechanism by which these neurons translate muscle movement into action potentials is not well understood, although the PIEZO2 mechanically sensitive cation channel is essential for stretch sensitivity. PIEZO2 is rapidly adapting, suggesting the requirement for additional molecular elements to maintain firing during stretch. Spindle afferent sensory endings contain glutamate-filled synaptic-like vesicles that are released in a stretch- and calcium-dependent manner. Previous work has shown that glutamate can increase and a phospholipase-D coupled metabotropic glutamate antagonist can abolish firing during static stretch. Here, we test the hypothesis that vesicle-released glutamate is necessary for maintaining muscle spindle afferent excitability during static but not dynamic stretch. To test this hypothesis, we used a mouse muscle-nerve ex vivo preparation to measure identified muscle spindle afferent responses to stretch and vibration. In C57BL/6 adult mice, bath applied glutamate significantly increased the firing rate during the plateau phase of stretch but not during the dynamic phase of stretch. Blocking the packaging of glutamate into vesicles by the sole vesicular glutamate transporter, VGLUT1, either with xanthurenic acid or by using a transgenic mouse with only one copy of the VGLUT1 gene (VGLUT1+/- ), decreased muscle spindle afferent firing during sustained stretch but not during vibration. Our results suggest a model of mechanotransduction where calcium entering the PIEZO2 channel can cause the release of glutamate from synaptic-like vesicles, which then helps to maintain afferent depolarization and firing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly Than
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Enoch Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Cebrina Navarro
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Sarah Chu
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Nikola Klier
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Alyssa Occiano
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Serena Ortiz
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Alexandra Salazar
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Steven R Valdespino
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
| | - Natanya K Villegas
- Department of Biological Sciences, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA
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Group II Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Modulate Sound Evoked and Spontaneous Activity in the Mouse Inferior Colliculus. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0328-20.2020. [PMID: 33334826 PMCID: PMC7814476 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0328-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the functions of Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs2/3) in the inferior colliculus (IC), a midbrain structure that is a major integration region of the central auditory system. We investigated how these receptors modulate sound-evoked and spontaneous firing in the mouse IC in vivo. We first performed immunostaining and tested hearing thresholds to validate vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT)-ChR2 transgenic mice on a mixed CBA/CaJ x C57BL/6J genetic background. Transgenic animals allowed for optogenetic cell-type identification. Extracellular single neuron recordings were obtained before and after pharmacological mGluR2/3 activation. We observed increased sound-evoked firing, as assessed by the rate-level functions (RLFs), in a subset of both GABAergic and non-GABAergic IC neurons following mGluR2/3 pharmacological activation. These neurons also displayed elevated spontaneous excitability and were distributed throughout the IC area tested, suggesting a widespread mGluR2/3 distribution in the mouse IC.
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12
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Li C, Xue L, Liu Y, Yang Z, Chi S, Xie A. Zonisamide for the Treatment of Parkinson Disease: A Current Update. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:574652. [PMID: 33408605 PMCID: PMC7779619 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.574652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Zonisamide has been used as an add-on treatment in order to overcome the deficiencies of the general therapies currently used to resolve the motor complications and non-motor symptoms of Parkinson disease. Various trials have been designed to investigate the mechanism of action and treatment effects of zonisamide in this condition. Most clinical trials of zonisamide in Parkinson disease were from Japan. The vast majority of studies used changes in the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) scores and daily “OFF” time as primary endpoints. Based on adequate randomized controlled trials, zonisamide is considered a safe and efficacious add-on treatment in Parkinson disease. The most convincing proof is available for a dosage of 25–50 mg, which was shown to lead to a significant reduction in the UPDRS III score and daily “OFF” time, without increasing disabling dyskinesia. Furthermore, zonisamide may play a beneficial role in improving non-motor symptoms in PD, including impulsive–compulsive disorder, rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder, and dementia. Among the various mechanisms reported, inhibition of monoamine oxidase-B, blocking of T-type calcium channels, modulation of the levodopa–dopamine metabolism, modulation of receptor expression, and neuroprotection are the most often cited. The mechanisms underlying neuroprotection, including modulation of dopamine turnover, induction of neurotrophic factor expression, inhibition of oxidative stress and apoptosis, inhibition of neuroinflammation, modulation of synaptic transmission, and modulation of gene expression, have been most extensively studied. This review focuses on structure, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, therapeutic effectiveness, and safety and tolerability of zonisamide in patients with Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengqian Li
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Xue
- Department of Medical Record, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yumei Liu
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhengjie Yang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Song Chi
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Anmu Xie
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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13
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Zhang S, Collier MEW, Heyes DJ, Giorgini F, Scrutton NS. Advantages of brain penetrating inhibitors of kynurenine-3-monooxygenase for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 697:108702. [PMID: 33275878 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Kynurenine-3-monooxygenase (KMO) is an important therapeutic target for several brain disorders that has been extensively studied in recent years. Potent inhibitors towards KMO have been developed and tested within different disease models, showing great therapeutic potential, especially in models of neurodegenerative disease. The inhibition of KMO reduces the production of downstream toxic kynurenine pathway metabolites and shifts the flux to the formation of the neuroprotectant kynurenic acid. However, the efficacy of KMO inhibitors in neurodegenerative disease has been limited by their poor brain permeability. Combined with virtual screening and prodrug strategies, a novel brain penetrating KMO inhibitor has been developed which dramatically decreases neurotoxic metabolites. This review highlights the importance of KMO as a drug target in neurological disease and the benefits of brain permeable inhibitors in modulating kynurenine pathway metabolites in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaowei Zhang
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Mary E W Collier
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Derren J Heyes
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Flaviano Giorgini
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Nigel S Scrutton
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
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14
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A novel, robust method for quantification of multiple kynurenine pathway metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid. Bioanalysis 2020; 12:379-392. [PMID: 32209024 PMCID: PMC9472175 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2019-0303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Kynurenine metabolites are potential modulators of psychiatric disease. We aimed to develop a highly sensitive biochemical analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tryptophan (TRP) metabolites, to investigate the stability of metabolites and to confirm our previous findings of aberrant CSF quinolinic acid (QUIN) and picolinic acid (PIC) in suicide attempters using this method. Methodology & results: Ten CSF TRP metabolites were analyzed with ultraperformance LC–MS/MS. The method showed small intra- and interassay variation. Metabolites were stable following freeze–thaw cycles. A decreased CSF PIC/QUIN ratio was found in suicide attempters. Conclusion: The feasibility of reliably determining CSF TRP metabolites were demonstrated, including separation of the two isomers PIC and nicotinic acid (NA) and the finding of a reduced PIC/QUIN ratio replicated in suicide attempters.
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15
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Gutzeit VA, Thibado J, Stor DS, Zhou Z, Blanchard SC, Andersen OS, Levitz J. Conformational dynamics between transmembrane domains and allosteric modulation of a metabotropic glutamate receptor. eLife 2019; 8:45116. [PMID: 31172948 PMCID: PMC6588349 DOI: 10.7554/elife.45116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are class C, synaptic G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that contain large extracellular ligand binding domains (LBDs) and form constitutive dimers. Despite the existence of a detailed picture of inter-LBD conformational dynamics and structural snapshots of both isolated domains and full-length receptors, it remains unclear how mGluR activation proceeds at the level of the transmembrane domains (TMDs) and how TMD-targeting allosteric drugs exert their effects. Here, we use time-resolved functional and conformational assays to dissect the mechanisms by which allosteric drugs activate and modulate mGluR2. Single-molecule subunit counting and inter-TMD fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements in living cells reveal LBD-independent conformational rearrangements between TMD dimers during receptor modulation. Using these assays along with functional readouts, we uncover heterogeneity in the magnitude, direction, and the timing of the action of both positive and negative allosteric drugs. Together our experiments lead to a three-state model of TMD activation, which provides a framework for understanding how inter-subunit rearrangements drive class C GPCR activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa A Gutzeit
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, United States
| | - Jordana Thibado
- Physiology, Biophysics and Systems Biology Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, United States
| | - Daniel Starer Stor
- Physiology, Biophysics and Systems Biology Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, United States
| | - Zhou Zhou
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States
| | - Scott C Blanchard
- Physiology, Biophysics and Systems Biology Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, United States.,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States.,Tri-Institutional PhD Program in Chemical Biology, New York, United States
| | - Olaf S Andersen
- Physiology, Biophysics and Systems Biology Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, United States.,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States
| | - Joshua Levitz
- Physiology, Biophysics and Systems Biology Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, United States.,Tri-Institutional PhD Program in Chemical Biology, New York, United States.,Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States
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16
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Fukuyama K, Okada M. Effects of levetiracetam on astroglial release of kynurenine-pathway metabolites. Br J Pharmacol 2018; 175:4253-4265. [PMID: 30153331 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Several preclinical studies have demonstrated the unique profiles of levetiracetam (LEV), inhibits spontaneous absence epilepsy models but does not affect traditional convulsion models; however, the detailed pharmacological mechanisms of action of LEV remain to be clarified. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We determined the interaction between LEV and IFNγ regarding astroglial release of anti-convulsive (kynurenic acid and xanthurenic acid), pro-convulsive (quinolinic acid) and anti-convulsive but pro-absence (cinnabarinic acid) kynurenine-pathway metabolites from rat cortical primary cultured astrocytes using ultra-HPLC equipped with MS. KEY RESULTS IFNγ increased basal astroglial release of cinnabarinic acid and quinolinic acid but decreased that of kynurenic acid and xanthurenic acid. IFNγ enhanced inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3 ) receptor agonist (adenophostin A, AdA)-induced astroglial release of kynurenine-pathway metabolites, without affecting AMPA-induced release. LEV increased basal astroglial release of kynurenic acid and xanthurenic acid without affecting cinnabarinic acid or quinolinic acid. Chronic and acute LEV administration inhibited AMPA- and AdA-induced kynurenine-pathway metabolite release. Upon chronic administration, LEV enhanced stimulatory effects of IFNγ on kynurenic acid and xanthurenic acid, and reduced its stimulatory effects on cinnabarinic acid and quinolinic acid. Furthermore, LEV inhibited stimulatory effects of chronic IFNγ on AdA-induced release of kynurenine-pathway metabolites. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS This study demonstrated several mechanisms of LEV: (i) inhibition of AMPA- and AdA-induced astroglial release, (ii) inhibition of IFNγ-induced IP3 receptor activation and (iii) inhibition of release of cinnabarinic acid and quinolinic acid with activation of that of kynurenic acid induced by IFNγ. These combined actions of LEV may contribute to its unique profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kouji Fukuyama
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu, Mie, Japan
| | - Motohiro Okada
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, Tsu, Mie, Japan
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17
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Sathyasaikumar KV, Tararina M, Wu HQ, Neale SA, Weisz F, Salt TE, Schwarcz R. Xanthurenic Acid Formation from 3-Hydroxykynurenine in the Mammalian Brain: Neurochemical Characterization and Physiological Effects. Neuroscience 2017; 367:85-97. [PMID: 29031603 PMCID: PMC5819007 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Xanthurenic acid (XA), formed from 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) in the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation, may modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission by inhibiting the vesicular glutamate transporter and/or activating Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors. Here we examined the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which 3-HK controls the neosynthesis of XA in rat, mouse and human brain, and compared the physiological actions of 3-HK and XA in the rat brain. In tissue homogenates, XA formation from 3-HK was observed in all three species and traced to a major role of kynurenine aminotransferase II (KAT II). Transamination of 3-HK to XA was also demonstrated using human recombinant KAT II. Neosynthesis of XA was significantly increased in the quinolinate-lesioned rat striatum, indicating a non-neuronal localization of the process. Studies using rat cortical slices revealed that newly produced XA is rapidly released into the extracellular compartment, and that XA biosynthesis can be manipulated experimentally in the same way as the production of kynurenic acid from kynurenine (omission of Na+ or glucose, depolarizing conditions, or addition of 2-oxoacids). The synthesis of XA from 3-HK was confirmed in vivo by striatal microdialysis. In slices from the rat hippocampus, both 3-HK and XA reduced the slopes of dentate gyrus field EPSPs. The effect of 3-HK was reduced in the presence of the KAT inhibitor aminooxyacetic acid. Finally, both 3-HK and XA reduced the power of gamma-oscillatory activity recorded from the hippocampal CA3 region. Endogenous XA, newly formed from 3-HK, may therefore play a physiological role in attentional and cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Sathyasaikumar
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
| | - M Tararina
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
| | - H-Q Wu
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
| | - S A Neale
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK; Neurexpert Ltd., London, UK
| | - F Weisz
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK
| | - T E Salt
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK; Neurexpert Ltd., London, UK
| | - R Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
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18
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Involvement of the kynurenine pathway in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 155:76-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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19
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Fazio F, Lionetto L, Curto M, Iacovelli L, Copeland CS, Neale SA, Bruno V, Battaglia G, Salt TE, Nicoletti F. Cinnabarinic acid and xanthurenic acid: Two kynurenine metabolites that interact with metabotropic glutamate receptors. Neuropharmacology 2017; 112:365-372. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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20
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Larkin PB, Sathyasaikumar KV, Notarangelo FM, Funakoshi H, Nakamura T, Schwarcz R, Muchowski PJ. Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 make separate, tissue-specific contributions to basal and inflammation-induced kynurenine pathway metabolism in mice. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2016; 1860:2345-2354. [PMID: 27392942 PMCID: PMC5808460 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In mammals, the majority of the essential amino acid tryptophan is degraded via the kynurenine pathway (KP). Several KP metabolites play distinct physiological roles, often linked to immune system functions, and may also be causally involved in human diseases including neurodegenerative disorders, schizophrenia and cancer. Pharmacological manipulation of the KP has therefore become an active area of drug development. To target the pathway effectively, it is important to understand how specific KP enzymes control levels of the bioactive metabolites in vivo. METHODS Here, we conducted a comprehensive biochemical characterization of mice with a targeted deletion of either tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) or indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), the two initial rate-limiting enzymes of the KP. These enzymes catalyze the same reaction, but differ in biochemical characteristics and expression patterns. We measured KP metabolite levels and enzyme activities and expression in several tissues in basal and immune-stimulated conditions. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Although our study revealed several unexpected downstream effects on KP metabolism in both knockout mice, the results were essentially consistent with TDO-mediated control of basal KP metabolism and a role of IDO in phenomena involving stimulation of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul B Larkin
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Korrapati V Sathyasaikumar
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Francesca M Notarangelo
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hiroshi Funakoshi
- Center for Advanced Research and Education (CARE), Asahikawa Medical University, 1-1-1- Higashinijo Midorigaoka, Asahikawa 078-8510, Japan
| | | | - Robert Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Paul J Muchowski
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; The Taube-Koret Center for Huntington's Disease Research, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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21
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Parrott JM, Redus L, Santana-Coelho D, Morales J, Gao X, O'Connor JC. Neurotoxic kynurenine metabolism is increased in the dorsal hippocampus and drives distinct depressive behaviors during inflammation. Transl Psychiatry 2016; 6:e918. [PMID: 27754481 PMCID: PMC5315555 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism has an important role in mediating the behavioral effects of inflammation, which has implications in understanding neuropsychiatric comorbidity and for the development of novel therapies. Inhibition of the rate-limiting enzyme, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), prevents the development of many of these inflammation-induced preclinical behaviors. However, dysregulation in the balance of downstream metabolism, where neuroactive kynurenines are generated, is hypothesized to be a functionally important pathogenic feature of inflammation-induced depression. Here we utilized two novel transgenic mouse strains to directly test the hypothesis that neurotoxic kynurenine metabolism causes depressive-like behavior following peripheral immune activation. Wild-type (WT) or kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO)-deficient (KMO-/-) mice were administered either lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 0.5 mg kg-1) or saline intraperitoneally. Depressive-like behavior was measured across multiple domains 24 h after immune challenge. LPS precipitated a robust depressive-like phenotype, but KMO-/- mice were specifically protected from LPS-induced immobility in the tail suspension test (TST) and reduced spontaneous alternations in the Y-maze. Direct administration of 3-hydroxykynurenine, the metabolic product of KMO, caused a dose-dependent increase in depressive-like behaviors. Mice with targeted deletion of 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid dioxygenase (HAAO), the enzyme that generates quinolinic acid, were similarly challenged with LPS. Similar to KMO-/- mice, LPS failed to increase immobility during the TST. Whereas kynurenine metabolism was generally increased in behaviorally salient brain regions, a distinct shift toward KMO-dependent kynurenine metabolism occurred in the dorsal hippocampus in response to LPS. Together, these results demonstrate that KMO is a pivotal mediator of hippocampal-dependent depressive-like behaviors induced by peripheral LPS challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Parrott
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA,Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - L Redus
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - D Santana-Coelho
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA,Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - J Morales
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - X Gao
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - J C O'Connor
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA,Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA,Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital, South Texas Veterans Health System, San Antonio, TX, USA,Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, 216B Medical Building MC-7764, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA. E-mail:
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22
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LC–MS/MS-based quantification of kynurenine metabolites, tryptophan, monoamines and neopterin in plasma, cerebrospinal fluid and brain. Bioanalysis 2016; 8:1903-17. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2016-0111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: The kynurenine (KYN) pathway is implicated in diseases such as cancer, psychiatric, neurodegenerative and autoimmune disorders. Measurement of KYN metabolite levels will help elucidating the involvement of the KYN pathway in the disease pathology and inform drug development. Methodology: Samples of plasma, cerebrospinal fluid or brain tissue were spiked with deuterated internal standards, processed and analyzed by LC–MS/MS; analytes were chromatographically separated by gradient elution on a C18 reversed phase analytical column without derivatization. Conclusion: We established an LC–MS/MS method to measure 11 molecules, namely tryptophan, KYN, 3-OH-KYN, 3-OH-anthranilic acid, quinolinic acid, picolinic acid, kynurenic acid, xanthurenic acid, serotonin, dopamine and neopterin within 5.5 min, with sufficient sensitivity to quantify these molecules in small sample volumes of plasma, cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue.
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23
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8-Hydroxyquinolines in medicinal chemistry: A structural perspective. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 120:252-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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24
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Human serine racemase is allosterically modulated by NADH and reduced nicotinamide derivatives. Biochem J 2016; 473:3505-3516. [PMID: 27493223 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Serine racemase catalyzes both the synthesis and the degradation of d-serine, an obligatory co-agonist of the glutamatergic NMDA receptors. It is allosterically controlled by adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which increases its activity around 7-fold through a co-operative binding mechanism. Serine racemase has been proposed as a drug target for the treatment of several neuropathologies but, so far, the search has been directed only toward the active site, with the identification of a few, low-affinity inhibitors. Following the recent observation that nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced form) (NADH) inhibits serine racemase, here we show that the inhibition is partial, with an IC50 of 246 ± 63 μM, several-fold higher than NADH intracellular concentrations. At saturating concentrations of NADH, ATP binds with a 2-fold lower affinity and without co-operativity, suggesting ligand competition. NADH also reduces the weak activity of human serine racemase in the absence of ATP, indicating an additional ATP-independent inhibition mechanism. By dissecting the NADH molecule, we discovered that the inhibitory determinant is the N-substituted 1,4-dihydronicotinamide ring. Particularly, the NADH precursor 1,4-dihydronicotinamide mononucleotide exhibited a partial mixed-type inhibition, with a KI of 18 ± 7 μM. Docking simulations suggested that all 1,4-dihydronicotinamide derivatives bind at the interdimeric interface, with the ring positioned in an unoccupied site next to the ATP-binding site. This newly recognized allosteric site might be exploited for the design of high-affinity serine racemase effectors to finely modulate d-serine homeostasis.
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25
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Roussel G, Bessede A, Klein C, Maitre M, Mensah-Nyagan AG. Xanthurenic acid is localized in neurons in the central nervous system. Neuroscience 2016; 329:226-38. [PMID: 27167083 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine pathway metabolites (KPM) are thought to be synthesized mainly by non-neuronal cells in the mammalian brain. KPM are of particular interest because several studies demonstrated their implication in various disorders of the nervous system. Among KPM is xanthurenic acid (XA) deriving from the catabolism of 3-hydroxykynurenine. Based on its chemical structure, XA appears as a close analog of kynurenic acid which has been extensively investigated and is considered as a potent neuroprotective compound. Contrary to kynurenic acid (KYNA), XA has received little attention and its role in the brain remains not elucidated. We have previously described several characteristics of XA, suggesting its possible involvement in neurotransmission. XA is also proposed as a potential modulator at glutamatergic synapses. Here, we used a selective antibody against XA and various neuronal, glial and synaptic markers to show that XA is essentially localized in the soma and dendrites of brain neurons, but is absent from axonal compartments and terminal endings. Our results also reveal that XA-like immunoreactivity is not expressed by glial cells. To double-check our findings, we have also used another XA antibody obtained from a commercial source to confirm the neuronal expression of XA. Together, our results suggest that, differently to several other KPM produced by glial cells, XA exhibits a neuronal distribution in the mouse brain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christian Klein
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, INSERM U1119, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment 3 de la Faculté de Médecine, 11 rue Humann, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Michel Maitre
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, INSERM U1119, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment 3 de la Faculté de Médecine, 11 rue Humann, 67000 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Ayikoe Guy Mensah-Nyagan
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, INSERM U1119, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment 3 de la Faculté de Médecine, 11 rue Humann, 67000 Strasbourg, France
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26
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Curto M, Lionetto L, Negro A, Capi M, Perugino F, Fazio F, Giamberardino MA, Simmaco M, Nicoletti F, Martelletti P. Altered serum levels of kynurenine metabolites in patients affected by cluster headache. J Headache Pain 2016; 17:27. [PMID: 27000870 PMCID: PMC4801826 DOI: 10.1186/s10194-016-0620-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The reported efficacy of memantine in the treatment of patients with cluster headache (CH) suggests that NMDA receptors are involved in mechanisms of nociceptive sensitization within the trigeminal system associated with CH. NMDA receptors are activated or inhibited by neuroactive compounds generated by tryptophan metabolism through the kynurenine pathway. In the accompanying manuscript, we have found that serum levels of all kynurenine metabolites are altered in patients with chronic migraine. Here, we have extended the study to patients affected by episodic or chronic CH as compared to healthy controls. Method We assessed serum levels of kynurenine (KYN), kynurenic Acid (KYNA), anthranilic acid (ANA), 3-hydroxy-anthranilic acid (3-HANA), 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), xanthurenic acid (XA), quinolinic acid (QUINA), tryptophan (Trp) and 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA) by means of a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS) method in 21 patients affected by CH (15 with episodic and 6 with chronic CH), and 35 age-matched healthy subjects. Patients with psychiatric co-morbidities, systemic inflammatory, endocrine or neurological disorders, and mental retardation were excluded. Results LC/MS-MS analysis of kynurenine metabolites showed significant reductions in the levels of KYN (-36 %), KYNA (-34 %), 3-HK (-51 %), 3-HANA (-54 %), XA (-25 %), 5-HIAA (-39 %) and QUINA (-43 %) in the serum of the overall population of patients affected by CH, as compared to healthy controls. Serum levels of Trp and ANA were instead significantly increased in CH patients (+18 % and +54 %, respectively). There was no difference in levels of any metabolite between patients affected by episodic and chronic CH, with the exception of KYN levels, which were higher in patients with chronic CH. Conclusion The reduced levels of KYNA (an NMDA receptor antagonist) support the hypothesis that NMDA receptors are overactive in CH. A similar reduction in KYNA levels was shown in the accompanying manuscript in patients affected by chronic migraine. The reduced levels of XA, a putative analgesic compound, may contribute to explain the severity of pain attacks in CH. These data, associated with the data reported in the accompanying manuscript, supports a role for the kynurenine pathway in the pathophysiology of chronic headache disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Curto
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. .,Department of Molecular Medicine, Sant'Andrea Medical Center, Sapienza University of Rome, Via di Grottarossa 1035-1039, Rome, 00189, Italy. .,Regional referral headache center, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Rome, Italy.
| | | | - Andrea Negro
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sant'Andrea Medical Center, Sapienza University of Rome, Via di Grottarossa 1035-1039, Rome, 00189, Italy.,Advanced Molecular Diagnostics, IDI-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Matilde Capi
- Advanced Molecular Diagnostics, IDI-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Perugino
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sant'Andrea Medical Center, Sapienza University of Rome, Via di Grottarossa 1035-1039, Rome, 00189, Italy
| | | | - Maria Adele Giamberardino
- Headache Center and Geriatrics Clinic, Department of Medicine and Science of Aging, "G. D'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
| | | | - Ferdinando Nicoletti
- IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Martelletti
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sant'Andrea Medical Center, Sapienza University of Rome, Via di Grottarossa 1035-1039, Rome, 00189, Italy.,Regional referral headache center, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Rome, Italy
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27
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Fazio F, Lionetto L, Curto M, Iacovelli L, Cavallari M, Zappulla C, Ulivieri M, Napoletano F, Capi M, Corigliano V, Scaccianoce S, Caruso A, Miele J, De Fusco A, Di Menna L, Comparelli A, De Carolis A, Gradini R, Nisticò R, De Blasi A, Girardi P, Bruno V, Battaglia G, Nicoletti F, Simmaco M. Xanthurenic Acid Activates mGlu2/3 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors and is a Potential Trait Marker for Schizophrenia. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17799. [PMID: 26643205 PMCID: PMC4672300 DOI: 10.1038/srep17799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism has been implicated in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. We report here that the kynurenine metabolite, xanturenic acid (XA), interacts with, and activates mGlu2 and mGlu3 metabotropic glutamate receptors in heterologous expression systems. However, the molecular nature of this interaction is unknown, and our data cannot exclude that XA acts primarily on other targets, such as the vesicular glutamate transporter, in the CNS. Systemic administration of XA in mice produced antipsychotic-like effects in the MK-801-induced model of hyperactivity. This effect required the presence of mGlu2 receptors and was abrogated by the preferential mGlu2/3 receptor antagonist, LY341495. Because the mGlu2 receptor is a potential drug target in the treatment of schizophrenia, we decided to measure serum levels of XA and other kynurenine metabolites in patients affected by schizophrenia. Serum XA levels were largely reduced in a large cohort of patients affected by schizophrenia, and, in patients with first-episode schizophrenia, levels remained low after 12 months of antipsychotic medication. As opposed to other kynurenine metabolites, XA levels were also significantly reduced in first-degree relatives of patients affected by schizophrenia. We suggest that lowered serum XA levels might represent a novel trait marker for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luana Lionetto
- Advanced Molecular Diagnostics Unit, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Martina Curto
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Luisa Iacovelli
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Michele Cavallari
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy.,Center for Neurological Imaging, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, U.S.A
| | | | - Martina Ulivieri
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Flavia Napoletano
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Matilde Capi
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Corigliano
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Sergio Scaccianoce
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Caruso
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Jessica Miele
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | - Anna Comparelli
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella De Carolis
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberto Gradini
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy.,Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Robert Nisticò
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy.,I.R.C.C.S. Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonio De Blasi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Girardi
- School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Bruno
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Ferdinando Nicoletti
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Simmaco
- Advanced Molecular Diagnostics Unit, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Rome, Italy.,School of Medicine and Psychology NESMOS Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
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28
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Curto M, Lionetto L, Fazio F, Mitsikostas DD, Martelletti P. Fathoming the kynurenine pathway in migraine: why understanding the enzymatic cascades is still critically important. Intern Emerg Med 2015; 10:413-21. [PMID: 25708356 DOI: 10.1007/s11739-015-1208-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine pathway, the quantitatively main branch of tryptophan metabolism, has been long been considered a source of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, although several of its products, the so-called kynurenines, are endowed with the capacity to activate glutamate receptors, thus potentially influencing a large group of functions in the central nervous system (CNS). Migraine, a largely unknown pathology, is strictly related to the glutamate system in the CNS pathologic terms. Despite the large number of studies conducted on migraine etio-pathology, the kynurenine pathway has been only recently linked to this disease. Nonetheless, some evidence suggests an intriguing role for some kynurenines, and an exploratory study on the serum kynurenine level might be helpful to better understand possible alterations of the kynurenine pathway in patients suffering from migraine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Curto
- Psychiatric Unit, Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS) Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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29
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Parrott JM, O'Connor JC. Kynurenine 3-Monooxygenase: An Influential Mediator of Neuropathology. Front Psychiatry 2015; 6:116. [PMID: 26347662 PMCID: PMC4542134 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence demonstrates that kynurenine metabolism may play an important pathogenic role in the development of multiple neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. The kynurenine pathway consists of two functionally distinct branches that generate both neuroactive and oxidatively reactive metabolites. In the brain, the rate-limiting enzyme for one of these branches, kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), is predominantly expressed in microglia and has emerged as a pivotal point of metabolic regulation. KMO substrate and expression levels are upregulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines and altered by functional genetic mutations. Increased KMO metabolism results in the formation of metabolites that activate glutamate receptors and elevate oxidative stress, while recent evidence has revealed neurodevelopmental consequences of reduced KMO activity. Together, the evidence suggests that KMO is positioned at a critical metabolic junction to influence the development or trajectory of a myriad of neurological diseases. Understanding the mechanism(s) by which alterations in KMO activity are able to impair neuronal function, and viability will enhance our knowledge of related disease pathology and provide insight into novel therapeutic opportunities. This review will discuss the influence of KMO on brain kynurenine metabolism and the current understanding of molecular mechanisms by which altered KMO activity may contribute to neurodevelopment, neurodegenerative, and neuropsychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Parrott
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA
| | - Jason C O'Connor
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Mood Disorders Translational Research Core, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital, South Texas Veterans Health System , San Antonio, TX , USA
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30
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Campbell BM, Charych E, Lee AW, Möller T. Kynurenines in CNS disease: regulation by inflammatory cytokines. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:12. [PMID: 24567701 PMCID: PMC3915289 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolizes the essential amino acid tryptophan and generates a number of neuroactive metabolites collectively called the kynurenines. Segregated into at least two distinct branches, often termed the “neurotoxic” and “neuroprotective” arms of the KP, they are regulated by the two enzymes kynurenine 3-monooxygenase and kynurenine aminotransferase, respectively. Interestingly, several enzymes in the pathway are under tight control of inflammatory mediators. Recent years have seen a tremendous increase in our understanding of neuroinflammation in CNS disease. This review will focus on the regulation of the KP by inflammatory mediators as it pertains to neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian M Campbell
- Neuroinflammation Disease Biology Unit, Lundbeck Research USA Paramus, NJ, USA
| | - Erik Charych
- Neuroinflammation Disease Biology Unit, Lundbeck Research USA Paramus, NJ, USA
| | - Anna W Lee
- Neuroinflammation Disease Biology Unit, Lundbeck Research USA Paramus, NJ, USA
| | - Thomas Möller
- Neuroinflammation Disease Biology Unit, Lundbeck Research USA Paramus, NJ, USA
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31
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Forrest C, Khalil O, Pisar M, McNair K, Kornisiuk E, Snitcofsky M, Gonzalez N, Jerusalinsky D, Darlington L, Stone T. Changes in synaptic transmission and protein expression in the brains of adult offspring after prenatal inhibition of the kynurenine pathway. Neuroscience 2013; 254:241-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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32
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Fukuyama K, Tanahashi S, Hoshikawa M, Shinagawa R, Okada M. Zonisamide regulates basal ganglia transmission via astroglial kynurenine pathway. Neuropharmacology 2013; 76 Pt A:137-45. [PMID: 23973311 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
To clarify the anti-parkinsonian mechanisms of action of zonisamide (ZNS), we determined the effects of ZNS on tripartite synaptic transmission associated with kynurenine (KYN) pathway (KP) in cultured astrocytes, and transmission in both direct and indirect pathways of basal ganglia using microdialysis. Interactions between cytokines [interferon-γ (IFNγ) and tumor-necrosis factor-α (TNFα)] and ZNS on astroglial releases of KP metabolites, KYN, kynurenic-acid (KYNA), xanthurenic-acid (XTRA), cinnabarinic-acid (CNBA) and quinolinic-acid (QUNA), were determined by extreme liquid-chromatography with mass-spectrometry. Interaction among metabotropic glutamate-receptor (mGluR), KP metabolites and ZNS on striato-nigral, striato-pallidal GABAergic and subthalamo-nigral glutamatergic transmission was examined by microdialysis with extreme liquid-chromatography fluorescence resonance-energy transfer detection. Acute and chronic ZNS administration increased astroglial release of KYN, KYNA, XTRA and CNBA, but not QUNA. Chronic IFNγ administration increased the release of KYN, KYNA, CNBA and QUNA, but had minimal inhibitory effect on XTRA release. Chronic TNFα administration increased CNBA and QUNA, but not KYN, KYNA or XTRA. ZNS inhibited IFNγ-induced elevation of KYN, KYNA and QUNA, but enhanced IFNγ-induced that of CNBA. TNFα-induced rises in CNBA and QUNA were inhibited by ZNS. ZNS inhibited striato-nigral GABAergic, striato-pallidal GABAergic and subthalamo-nigral glutamatergic transmission via activation of groups II and III mGluRs. ZNS enhanced astroglial release of endogenous agonists of group II mGluR, XTRA and group III mGluR, CNBA. Activated endogenous mGluR agonists inhibited transmission in direct and indirect pathways of basal ganglia. These mechanisms contribute to effectiveness and well tolerability of ZNS as an adjunct treatment for Parkinson's disease during l-DOPA monotherapy. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'The Synaptic Basis of Neurodegenerative Disorders'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kouji Fukuyama
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Mie University, 2-174 Edobashi, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
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33
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Transport of xanthurenic acid by rat/human organic anion transporters OAT1 and OAT3. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2013; 77:1517-21. [PMID: 23832370 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.130178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenic acid, a tryptophan metabolite, is involved in psychiatric disease. Our laboratory previously described its transport by rat/human organic anion transporters rOAT1, hOAT1, rOAT3 and hOAT3, which are involved in drug disposition. In this study, we performed an uptake experiment using Xenopus laevis oocytes to examine the transport of xanthurenic acid, a tryptophan catabolite and kynurenic acid analog, by various transporters. All the transporters tested stimulated the uptake of xanthurenic acid into oocytes. The transport activity of xanthurenic acid by hOAT1 was greater than that by rOAT1. In OAT3, the rat homolog showed efficient transport, compared with hOAT3. The apparent values of Km and Vmax for the transport by hOAT1 were 4.83 µM and 26.0 pmol/oocyte/h respectively. In rOAT3, the respective values were 6.87 µM and 21.7 pmol/oocyte/h. This is the first report on xanthurenic acid transport by OAT1 and OAT3.
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34
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Neale SA, Copeland CS, Uebele VN, Thomson FJ, Salt TE. Modulation of hippocampal synaptic transmission by the kynurenine pathway member xanthurenic acid and other VGLUT inhibitors. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013; 38:1060-7. [PMID: 23303071 PMCID: PMC3629405 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Xanthurenic acid (XA), an endogenous kynurenine, is a known vesicular glutamate transport (VGLUT) inhibitor and has also been proposed as an mGlu2/3 receptor agonist. Changes in these systems have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders; however, little is known of how XA affects synaptic transmission. We therefore investigated the effects of XA on synaptic transmission at two hippocampal glutamatergic pathways and evaluated the ability of XA to bind to mGlu2/3 receptors. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) were recorded from either the dentate gyrus (DG) or CA1 region of mouse hippocampal slices in vitro. Addition of XA to the bathing medium (1-10 mM) resulted in a dose-related reduction of fEPSP amplitudes (up to 52% reduction) in both hippocampal regions. In the DG, the VGLUT inhibitors Congo Red and Rose Bengal, and the mGlu2/3 agonist LY354740, also reduced fEPSPs (up to 80% reduction). The mGlu2/3 antagonist LY341495 reversed the LY354740 effect, but not the XA effect. LY354740, but not XA, also reduced DG paired-pulse depression. XA had no effect on specific binding of 1 nM [(3)H]LY341495 to membranes with human mGlu2 receptors. We conclude that XA can modulate synaptic transmission via a mechanism that may involve VGLUT inhibition rather than activation of mGlu2/3 receptors. This could be important in the pathophysiology of nervous system disorders including schizophrenia and might represent a target for developing novel pharmacological therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Neale
- Department of Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK,Neurexpert Ltd., Kemp House, London, UK
| | - C S Copeland
- Department of Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK
| | - V N Uebele
- Merck Research Labs, West Point, PA, USA
| | | | - T E Salt
- Department of Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK,Department of Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, Bath Street, London EC1V 9 EL, UK, Tel: +44 020 7608 6843, E-mail:
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35
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Amaral M, Outeiro TF, Scrutton NS, Giorgini F. The causative role and therapeutic potential of the kynurenine pathway in neurodegenerative disease. J Mol Med (Berl) 2013; 91:705-13. [PMID: 23636512 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-013-1046-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Metabolites of the kynurenine pathway (KP), which arise from the degradation of tryptophan, have been studied in detail for over a century and garnered the interest of the neuroscience community in the late 1970s and early 1980s with work uncovering the neuromodulatory potential of this pathway. Much research in the following decades has found that perturbations in the levels of KP metabolites likely contribute to the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. More recently, it has become apparent that targeting KP enzymes, in particular kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), may hold substantial therapeutic potential for these disorders. Here we provide an overview of the KP, the neuroactive properties of KP metabolites and their role in neurodegeneration. We also discuss KMO as a therapeutic target for these disorders, and our recent resolution of the crystallographic structure of KMO, which will permit the development of new and improved KMO inhibitors which may ultimately expedite clinical application of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Amaral
- Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
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36
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Structural basis of kynurenine 3-monooxygenase inhibition. Nature 2013; 496:382-5. [PMID: 23575632 PMCID: PMC3736096 DOI: 10.1038/nature12039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), an enzyme in the eukaryotic tryptophan catabolic pathway (i.e. kynurenine pathway), leads to amelioration of Huntington’s disease-relevant phenotypes in yeast, fruit fly, and mouse models1–5, as well as a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease3. KMO is a FAD-dependent monooxygenase, and is located in the outer mitochondrial membrane where it converts L-kynurenine to 3-hydroxykynurenine. Perturbations in the levels of kynurenine pathway metabolites have been linked to the pathogenesis of a spectrum of brain disorders6, as well as cancer7,8, and several peripheral inflammatory conditions9. Despite the importance of KMO as a target for neurodegenerative disease, the molecular basis of KMO inhibition by available lead compounds has remained hitherto unknown. Here we report the first crystal structure of KMO, in the free form and in complex with the tight-binding inhibitor UPF 648. UPF 648 binds close to the FAD cofactor and perturbs the local active site structure, preventing productive binding of the substrate kynurenine. Functional assays and targeted mutagenesis revealed that the active site architecture and UPF 648 binding are essentially identical in human KMO, validating the yeast KMO:UPF 648 structure as a template for structure-based drug design. This will inform the search for new KMO inhibitors that are able to cross the blood-brain barrier in targeted therapies against neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington’s, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s diseases.
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Xanthurenic acid binds to neuronal G-protein-coupled receptors that secondarily activate cationic channels in the cell line NCB-20. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48553. [PMID: 23139790 PMCID: PMC3491036 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Xanthurenic acid (XA) is a metabolite of the tryptophan oxidation pathway through kynurenine and 3-hydroxykynurenine. XA was until now considered as a detoxification compound and dead-end product reducing accumulation of reactive radical species. Apart from a specific role for XA in the signaling cascade resulting in gamete maturation in mosquitoes, nothing was known about its functions in other species including mammals. Based upon XA distribution, transport, accumulation and release in the rat brain, we have recently suggested that XA may potentially be involved in neurotransmission/neuromodulation, assuming that neurons presumably express specific XA receptors. Recently, it has been shown that XA could act as a positive allosteric ligand for class II metabotropic glutamate receptors. This finding reinforces the proposed signaling role of XA in brain. Our present results provide several lines of evidence in favor of the existence of specific receptors for XA in the brain. First, binding experiments combined with autoradiography and time-course analysis led to the characterization of XA binding sites in the rat brain. Second, specific kinetic and pharmacological properties exhibited by these binding sites are in favor of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). Finally, in patch-clamp and calcium imaging experiments using NCB-20 cells that do not express glutamate-induced calcium signals, XA elicited specific responses involving activation of cationic channels and increases in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. Altogether, these results suggest that XA, acting through a GPCR-induced cationic channel modulatory mechanism, may exert excitatory functions in various brain neuronal pathways.
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Schwarcz R, Bruno JP, Muchowski PJ, Wu HQ. Kynurenines in the mammalian brain: when physiology meets pathology. Nat Rev Neurosci 2012; 13:465-77. [PMID: 22678511 DOI: 10.1038/nrn3257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1018] [Impact Index Per Article: 84.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The essential amino acid tryptophan is not only a precursor of serotonin but is also degraded to several other neuroactive compounds, including kynurenic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine and quinolinic acid. The synthesis of these metabolites is regulated by an enzymatic cascade, known as the kynurenine pathway, that is tightly controlled by the immune system. Dysregulation of this pathway, resulting in hyper-or hypofunction of active metabolites, is associated with neurodegenerative and other neurological disorders, as well as with psychiatric diseases such as depression and schizophrenia. With recently developed pharmacological agents, it is now possible to restore metabolic equilibrium and envisage novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Schwarcz
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21228, USA. rschwarc@mprc. umaryland.edu
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