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Hipólito LTM, Batista TH, Dos Anjos-Garcia T, Giusti-Paiva A, Vilela FC. Methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism affects the offspring development and differently impairs the conditioned fear in male and female adulthood rodents. Int J Dev Neurosci 2023; 83:108-120. [PMID: 36445265 DOI: 10.1002/jdn.10243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Gestational hypothyroidism is a prevalent disorder in pregnant women and also impairs fetal development with relevant outcomes. One of the outcomes of greatest interest has been rodent fear- and anxiety-like behavior. However, the relationship between maternal hypothyroidism and onset of conditioned fear-related responses in offspring remains controversial. Here, we used a well-validated methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism to investigate the behavioral consequences in offspring. Dams were treated with methimazole at 0.02% in drinking water up to gestational Day 9. Maternal body weights and maternal behavior were evaluated, and the puppies ware analyzed for weight gain and physical/behavioral development and assigned for the open field and fear conditioning test. Methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism induced loss in maternal and litter weight, increases in maternal behavior, and impairs in offspring developmental landmarks in both male and female rodents. Only male offspring enhanced responsiveness to conditioned fear-like behavior in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laísa T M Hipólito
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências Aplicadas à Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Tatiane H Batista
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Tayllon Dos Anjos-Garcia
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação Multicêntrico em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Giusti-Paiva
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências Aplicadas à Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação Multicêntrico em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Fabiana C Vilela
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências Aplicadas à Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG), Alfenas, Brazil
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Rathi A, Khapre S, Chavada J, Gupta S, Singla T. Postpartum Depression and Its Biological Biomarkers. Cureus 2022; 14:e31124. [DOI: 10.7759/cureus.31124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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Fu M, Wu W, Guo W, Jin Q, Meng Q, Gao Y, Yang R, Yang Y, Wang Z, Zhang W. Effects of maternal iodine nutritional status on neurodevelopmental and cognitive function of rat offspring. Front Nutr 2022; 9:996092. [DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.996092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ObjectivesThis study aimed to explore the effect of maternal iodine status on the brain development of offspring in rats. Since in human studies, the interference of environmental factors and other nutrients cannot be removed.Materials and methodsA total of 48 female Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: low iodine (LI), normal iodine (NI), 10-fold high iodine (10HI), and 50-fold high iodine (50HI). The rats were killed on the 15th day of pregnancy and lactation after collecting 24-h urine. The iodine concentration in 24-h urine, blood, and placenta of pregnant rats, and 24-h urine, milk, blood, and mammary glands of lactating rats was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The thyroid hormone of pregnant and lactating rats was detected by chemiluminescence. The offspring were subjected to the Morris water maze on the 10th day after birth. Serum was collected to detect the thyroid hormone of offspring. The protein expression of neuroendocrine-specific protein (NSP)-A and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the offspring brain were studied.ResultsIodine storage in the placenta during pregnancy and mammary glands during lactation was positively correlated with iodine intake, and iodine storage in the placenta and mammary glands in the 50HI group was significantly higher than that in the NI group (P = 0.045 and P = 0.040). Compared with the NI group, the offspring thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level was significantly higher in the 10HI group (P = 0.046), and the FT4 level was significantly lower in the 50HI group (P = 0.032). The Morris water maze showed that LI and 50HI groups required longer time and distance to find the platform than the NI group (P < 0.001). The platform crossing numbers in the LI and 50HI groups decreased significantly (P < 0.001). The expression of NSP-A in offspring brain was lower in the 10HI and 50HI groups than in the NI group (P = 0.026 and P = 0,008). BDNF expression levels were significantly lower in the LI, 10HI, and 50HI groups than in the NI group (P < 0.001).ConclusionMaternal iodine intake affects iodine storage in the placenta and lactating mammary gland, which in turn affects thyroid function and BDNF and NSP-A expression in the offspring.
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Pathophysiology and Management Possibilities of Thyroid-Associated Depression. ACTA MEDICA BULGARICA 2022. [DOI: 10.2478/amb-2022-0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Thyroid hormones and the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPA) axis are responsible for multiple metabolic processes and psychological well-being. Hypothyroidism can induce mood changes, depressive symptoms and even major depressive disorder. This review is focused on the pathophysiology and mechanisms through which the low level of thyroid hormones may affect the brain function, causing the characteristic symptoms of depression. Key pathways of hypothyroid-associated depressive states include: morphological changes in some brain areas (mainly in the hippocampus – a reduction in its volume); a significant reduction of the cerebral blood flow (incl. hippocampus), and lowered levels of neurotrophic factors (e. g. BDNF – brain-derived neurotrophic factor), which are regulated by the thyroid hormones. An adequate and timely thyroid hormone replacement and treatment with conventional antidepressants often can reverse the psychological symptoms.
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Marty MS, Sauer UG, Charlton A, Ghaffari R, Guignard D, Hallmark N, Hannas BR, Jacobi S, Marxfeld HA, Melching-Kollmuss S, Sheets LP, Urbisch D, Botham PA, van Ravenzwaay B. Towards a science-based testing strategy to identify maternal thyroid hormone imbalance and neurodevelopmental effects in the progeny-part III: how is substance-mediated thyroid hormone imbalance in pregnant/lactating rats or their progeny related to neurodevelopmental effects? Crit Rev Toxicol 2022; 52:546-617. [PMID: 36519295 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2022.2130166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
This review investigated which patterns of thyroid- and brain-related effects are seen in rats upon gestational/lactational exposure to 14 substances causing thyroid hormone imbalance by four different modes-of-action (inhibition of thyroid peroxidase, sodium-iodide symporter and deiodinase activities, enhancement of thyroid hormone clearance) or to dietary iodine deficiency. Brain-related parameters included motor activity, cognitive function, acoustic startle response, hearing function, periventricular heterotopia, electrophysiology and brain gene expression. Specific modes-of-action were not related to specific patterns of brain-related effects. Based upon the rat data reviewed, maternal serum thyroid hormone levels do not show a causal relationship with statistically significant neurodevelopmental effects. Offspring serum thyroxine together with offspring serum triiodothyronine and thyroid stimulating hormone appear relevant to predict the likelihood for neurodevelopmental effects. Based upon the collated database, thresholds of ≥60%/≥50% offspring serum thyroxine reduction and ≥20% and statistically significant offspring serum triiodothyronine reduction indicate an increased likelihood for statistically significant neurodevelopmental effects; accuracies: 83% and 67% when excluding electrophysiology (and gene expression). Measurements of brain thyroid hormone levels are likely relevant, too. The extent of substance-mediated thyroid hormone imbalance appears more important than substance mode-of-action to predict neurodevelopmental impairment in rats. Pertinent research needs were identified, e.g. to determine whether the phenomenological offspring thyroid hormone thresholds are relevant for regulatory toxicity testing. The insight from this review shall be used to suggest a tiered testing strategy to determine whether gestational/lactational substance exposure may elicit thyroid hormone imbalance and potentially also neurodevelopmental effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ursula G Sauer
- Scientific Consultancy-Animal Welfare, Neubiberg, Germany
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Madhusudhan U, M K, Singaravelu V, Ganji V, John N, Gaur A. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor-Mediated Cognitive Impairment in Hypothyroidism. Cureus 2022; 14:e23722. [PMID: 35506116 PMCID: PMC9056880 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.23722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is expressed at high levels in the limbic system, has been shown to regulate learning, memory and cognition. Thyroid hormone is crucial for brain development. Hypothyroidism is a clinical condition in which thyroid hormones are reduced and it affects the growth and development of the brain in neonates and progresses to cognitive impairment in adults. The exact mechanism of how reduced thyroid hormones impairs cognition and memory is not well understood. This review explores the possible role of BDNF-mediated cognitive impairment in hypothyroid patients.
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Kotkowska Z, Strzelecki D. Depression and Autoimmune Hypothyroidism—Their Relationship and the Effects of Treating Psychiatric and Thyroid Disorders on Changes in Clinical and Biochemical Parameters Including BDNF and Other Cytokines—A Systematic Review. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15040391. [PMID: 35455388 PMCID: PMC9025086 DOI: 10.3390/ph15040391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Various autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune hypothyroidism (AHT), are associated with a higher risk of developing mood disorders throughout life. Depression is accompanied by the changes in the levels of inflammatory and trophic factors, including interleukins (IL-1beta, IL-2, IL-6), interferon alpha (IFN-alpha), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), C-reactive protein (CRP), and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Disclosure of the relationship between the coexistence of depression and AHT indicates that the pathomechanism of depression may be related to the changes in the immune system, it is also possible that both conditions may be caused by the same immune processes. The above hypothesis is indirectly supported by the observations that the treatment with both antidepressants and levothyroxine leads to a decrease in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines with an increase in BDNF concentrations, simultaneously correlating with an improvement in the clinical parameters. However, so far there are no long-term studies determining the causal relationship between depression, thyroid autoantibodies, and cytokine profile, which could bring us closer to understanding the interrelationships between them and facilitate the use of an adequate pharmacotherapy, not necessarily psychiatric. We consider the above issues to be insufficiently investigated but of great importance. This article is an overview of the available literature as well as an introduction to our research project.
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Costa RA, Olvera A, Power DM, Velez Z. Ocean acidification affects the expression of neuroplasticity and neuromodulation markers in seabream. Biol Open 2022; 11:274528. [PMID: 35199828 PMCID: PMC8935210 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A possible explanation for acidification-induced changes in fish behaviour is that acidification interferes with neurogenesis and modifies the plasticity of neuronal circuitry in the brain. We tested the effects on the olfactory system and brain of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) to 4 weeks' exposure to ocean acidification (OA). Olfactory epithelium (OE) morphology changed shortly after OA exposure and persisted over the 4 weeks. Expression of genes related to olfactory transduction, neuronal excitability, synaptic plasticity, GABAergic innervation, and cell proliferation were unchanged in the OE and olfactory bulb (OB) after 4 weeks' exposure. Short-term changes in the ionic content of plasma and extradural fluid (EDF) returned to control levels after 4 weeks' exposure, except for [Cl−], which remained elevated. This suggests that, in general, there is an early physiological response to OA and by 4 weeks a new homeostatic status is achieved. However, expression of genes involved in proliferation, differentiation and survival of undifferentiated neurons were modified in the brain. In the same brain areas, expression of thyroid hormone signalling genes was altered suggesting modifications in the thyroid-system may be linked to the changes in neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Overall, the results of the current study are consistent with and effect of OA on neuroplasticity. Summary: Ocean acidification alters fish behaviour. We show altered expression of genes involved in neuroplasticity and neuromodulation in fish exposed to high PCO2, highlighting their possible roles in such behavioural alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita A Costa
- Comparative Endocrinology and Integrative Biology Group, Centre for Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, Building 7, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Aurora Olvera
- Comparative Endocrinology and Integrative Biology Group, Centre for Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, Building 7, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Deborah M Power
- Comparative Endocrinology and Integrative Biology Group, Centre for Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, Building 7, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Zélia Velez
- Comparative Endocrinology and Integrative Biology Group, Centre for Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, Building 7, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
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Khaleghzadeh-Ahangar H, Talebi A, Mohseni-Moghaddam P. Thyroid Disorders and Development of Cognitive Impairment: A Review Study. Neuroendocrinology 2022; 112:835-844. [PMID: 34963121 DOI: 10.1159/000521650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Dementia is a neurological disorder that is spreading with increasing human lifespan. In this neurological disorder, memory and cognition are declined and eventually impaired. Various factors can be considered as the background of this disorder, one of which is endocrine disorders. Thyroid hormones are involved in various physiological processes in the body; one of the most important of them is neuromodulation. Thyroid disorders, including hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism, can affect the nervous system and play a role in the development of dementia. Despite decades of investigation, the nature of the association between thyroid disorders and cognition remains a mystery. Given the enhancing global burden of dementia, the principal purpose of this study was to elucidate the association between thyroid disturbances as a potentially modifiable risk factor of cognitive dysfunction. In this review study, we have tried to collect almost all of the reported mechanisms demonstrating the role of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism in the pathogenesis of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Khaleghzadeh-Ahangar
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- Immunoregulation Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Anis Talebi
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parvaneh Mohseni-Moghaddam
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
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Baghcheghi Y, Beheshti F, Salmani H, Hosseini M. Brain‑derived neurotrophic factor and nitric oxide contribute to protective effects of rosiglitazone on learning and memory in hypothyroid rats. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 2021; 81:218-232. [PMID: 34672293 DOI: 10.21307/ane-2021-021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The effects of the well‑known peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) agonist rosiglitazone (Rosi) on brain‑derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nitric oxide (NO), and learning and memory were investigated in hypothyroid rats. Hypothyroidism was induced in immature Wistar rats by administration of propylthiouracil in drinking water. Rats were divided into four groups: control, hypothyroid, and hypothyroid treated with Rosi at doses of 2 mg/kg or 4 mg/kg. Memory was then assessed by the Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) tests. Following anesthetization, brain samples were collected for biochemical measurements. Hypothyroidism increased the escape latency and traveled path in the learning trials of the MWM and decreased the time spent and the distance traveled in the target quadrant on the probe day. Hypothyroidism also impaired the avoidance behavior of rats in the PA test. Rosi improved the performance of rats in both MWM and PA tasks. Hypothyroidism also decreased hippocampal BDNF levels, increased NO metabolites, and induced oxidative damage in the brain. Treatment of hypothyroid rats with both doses of Rosi increased BDNF levels and decreased NO metabolites and malondialdehyde concentrations. In addition, thiol content and superoxide dismutase and catalase activities were increased in the brain regions of hypothyroid rats receiving Rosi. The administration of 4 mg/kg Rosi also significantly increased serum thyroxin levels. The results of the present study showed that BDNF and NO play a role in the protective effects of Rosi against learning and memory impairment in hypothyroid rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousef Baghcheghi
- Student Research Committee Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran
- Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Farimah Beheshti
- Neuroscience Research Center, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran
- Department of Physiology, School of Paramedical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran
| | - Hossein Salmani
- Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Hosseini
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran;
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Rashidy-Pour A, Derafshpour L, Vafaei AA, Bandegi AR, Kashefi A, Sameni HR, Jashire-Nezhad N, Saboory E, Panahi Y. Effects of treadmill exercise and sex hormones on learning, memory and hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in transient congenital hypothyroid rats. Behav Pharmacol 2021; 31:641-651. [PMID: 32826427 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Transient thyroid function abnormalities at birth exhibit intellectual developmental and cognitive disorders in adulthood. Given the well-known effects of physical activity and sex hormones on cognitive functions and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the present study examined the effects of treadmill exercise, sex hormones, and the combined treatment on learning and memory and hippocampal BDNF levels in transient congenital hypothyroid rats. To induce hypothyroidism, 6-propyl-2-thiouracil was added to the drinking water from the 6th day of gestation to the 21st postnatal day (PND). From PNDs 28 to 47, female and male pup rats received 17β-estradiol and testosterone, respectively, and about 30 min later, they were forced to run on the treadmill for 30 min once a day. On PNDs 48-55, spatial learning and memory of all rats tested in the water maze, which followed by measurement of BDNF in the hippocampus. Results showed that developmental hypothyroidism induced significant deficits in spatial learning and memory and hippocampal BDNF in both male and female rats. In both male and female hypothyroid rats, exercise and exercise plus sex hormones, but not sex hormones alone alleviated learning and memory deficits and all treatments (exercise, sex hormones, and the combined treatment) increased hippocampal BDNF. These disconnects in the effects of exercise, sex hormones and the combined treatment on behavioral and neurochemical outcomes suggest that a neurochemical mechanism other than hippocampal BDNF might contribute in the ameliorating effects of exercise on learning and memory deficits induced by developmental thyroid hormone insufficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan
| | - Leila Derafshpour
- Neurophysiology Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan
| | - Ahmad Reza Bandegi
- Research Center of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences
| | - Adel Kashefi
- Research Center of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan
| | - Hamid Reza Sameni
- Research Center of Nervous System Stem Cell, Semnan University of Medical sciences, Semnan
| | - Nahid Jashire-Nezhad
- Research Center of Nervous System Stem Cell, Semnan University of Medical sciences, Semnan
| | - Ehsan Saboory
- Neurophysiology Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia
| | - Yosef Panahi
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
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Memarpour S, Beheshti F, Baghcheghi Y, Vafaei AA, Hosseini M, Rashidy-Pour A. Neuronal Nitric Oxide Inhibitor 7-Nitroindazole Improved Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Attenuated Brain Tissues Oxidative Damage and Learning and Memory Impairments of Hypothyroid Juvenile Rats. Neurochem Res 2020; 45:2775-2785. [PMID: 32930947 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03128-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Hypothyroidism-associated learning and memory impairment is reported to be connected to oxidative stress and reduced levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). The effects of neuronal nitric oxide inhibitor 7-nitroindazole (7NI) on brain tissues oxidative damage, nitric oxide (NO), BDNF and memory impairments in hypothyroid juvenile rats were investigated. Male Wistar juvenile rats (20 days old) were divided into five groups, including Martinez et al. (J Neurochem 78 (5):1054-1063, 2001). Control in which vehicle was injected instead of 7NI, (Jackson in Thyroid 8 (10):951-956, 1998) Propylthiouracil (PTU) where 0.05% PTU was added in drinking water and vehicle was injected instead of 7NI, (Gong et al. in BMC Neurosci 11 (1):50, 2010; Alva-Sánchez et al. in Brain Res 1271:27-35, 2009; Anaeigoudari et al. in Pharmacol Rep 68 (2): 243-249, 2016) PTU-7NI 5, PTU-7NI 10 and PTU-7NI 20 in which 5, 10, or 20 mg/kg7NI was injected intraperitoneally (i.p.). Following 6 weeks, Morris water maze (MMW) and passive avoidance learning (PAL) tests were used to evaluate the memory. Finally, the hippocampus and the cortex of the rats were removed after anesthesia by urethane to be used for future analysis. The escape latency and traveled path in MWM test was increased in PTU group (P < 0.001). PTU also reduced the latency to enter the dark box of PAL and the time spent and the distance in the target quadrant in MWM test (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01). Treatment with 7NI attenuated all adverse effects of PTU (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001). PTU lowered BDNF and thiol content and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities in the brain but increased malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) metabolites. In addition, 7NI improved thiol, SOD, CAT, thiol, and BDNF but attenuated MDA and NO metabolites. The results of the current study showed that 7NI improvement in the learning and memory of the hypothyroid juvenile rats, which was accompanied with improving of BDNF and attenuation of NO and brain tissues oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Memarpour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Farimah Beheshti
- Neuroscience Research Center, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran.,Department of Physiology, School of Paramedical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran
| | - Yousef Baghcheghi
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Hosseini
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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Alikhani V, Beheshti F, Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar M, Marefati N, Mansouritorghabeh F, Hosseini M. Inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, aminoguanidine improved Ki67 as a marker of neurogenesis and learning and memory in juvenile hypothyroid rats. Int J Dev Neurosci 2020; 80:429-442. [PMID: 32479691 DOI: 10.1002/jdn.10042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the present study, the effect of inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, aminoguanidine (AG) on neurogenesis indicators, learning and memory, and oxidative stress status in juvenile hypothyroid (Hypo) rats was evaluated. METHOD The studied groups were including: (a) Control, (b) Hypo, (c-e) Hypo-AG 10, Hypo-AG 20, and Hypo-AG 30. Hypothyroidism was induced in the groups 2-5 by adding propylthiouracil in drinking water (0.05%). AG (10, 20, or 30 mg/kg) was daily injected intraperitoneally in the groups 3-5. The rats of the groups 1 and 2 were injected by saline instead of AG. After 6 weeks treatment, Morris water maze (MMW) and passive avoidance (PA) tests were done. Deep anesthesia was then induced and the brain tissue was excised for biochemical parameters measuring. RESULTS Ki67 as a maker of neurogenesis and thiol, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) as oxidative stress indicators were decreased in the brain of Hypo group, whereas malondialdehyde (MDA) and NO metabolites were enhanced. AG improved Ki67, thiol, CAT, and SOD while decreased MDA and NO metabolites. The escape latency in the MWM test increased in the Hypo group. The spending time in the target quadrant in the probe test of MWM and step-through latency in the PA test in the Hypo group was lower than Control group. AG reversed all the negative behavioral effects of hypothyroidism. CONCLUSION These results revealed that AG improved neurogenesis, learning and memory impairments, and oxidative imbalance in the brain juvenile Hypo rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vajiheh Alikhani
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Farimah Beheshti
- Neuroscience Research Center, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran
- Department of Physiology, School of Paramedical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran
| | | | - Narges Marefati
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | | | - Mahmoud Hosseini
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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Li D, Li Y, Chen Y, Li H, She Y, Zhang X, Chen S, Chen W, Qiu G, Huang H, Zhang S. Neuroprotection of reduced thyroid hormone with increased estrogen and progestogen in postpartum depression. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20182382. [PMID: 31406011 PMCID: PMC6722490 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20182382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Postpartum depression (PPD) is a common serious mental health problem. Recent studies have demonstrated that hormone therapy serves as a promising therapeutic approach in managing PPD. The present study aims at exploring the role of thyroid hormone (TH), estrogen and progestogen in patients with PPD.Methods: Initially, PPD patients were enrolled and a PPD mouse model was established. The serum levels of estradiol (E2), progesterone (P), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), free triiodothyronine (FT3), free thyroxine (FT4), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) were subsequently measured. Next, in order to identify the effects of TH, estrogen and progestogen on PPD progression, mice were administrated with E2, P, contraceptives (CA), Euthyrox and methimazole (MMI). Besides, the body weight, activities, basolateral amygdala (BLA) neuron cell structure and the related gene expression of mice were analyzed.Results: The PPD patients and the mice showed elevated serum levels of T3, T4, FT3 and FT4 along with diminished E2, P and TSH levels. In the mice administered with a combination of E2, P, and MMI, decreased TH and increased estrogen and progestogen were detected, which resulted in increased body weight, normal activities, and BLA neuron cell structure. Moreover, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB) were both up-regulated in PPD mice administrated with a combination of E2, P, and MMI, which was accompanied by decreased TH and elevated estrogen and progestogen.Conclusion: Taken together, reduced TH combined with enhanced estrogen and progestogen confers neuroprotection in PPD, highlighting a potential target in prevention and treatment of PPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Gynaecology and Obstetrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Yangyao Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Cancer Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Yun Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Guangzhou Red Cross Hospital Affiliated of Ji-Nan University Medical College, Guangzhou 510220, P.R. China
| | - Haiyan Li
- Department of Nursing, Guangzhou Red Cross Hospital Affiliated of Ji-Nan University Medical College, Guangzhou 510220, P.R. China
| | - Yuqi She
- Department of Pharmacy, Cancer Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Xialan Zhang
- Gynaecology and Obstetrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Shuang Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Cancer Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Wanying Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Cancer Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Guodong Qiu
- Department of Pharmacy, Cancer Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Haiqing Huang
- Department of Ultrasound, Cancer Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515031, P.R. China
| | - Shuyao Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Guangzhou Red Cross Hospital Affiliated of Ji-Nan University Medical College, Guangzhou 510220, P.R. China
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15
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Noyes PD, Friedman KP, Browne P, Haselman JT, Gilbert ME, Hornung MW, Barone S, Crofton KM, Laws SC, Stoker TE, Simmons SO, Tietge JE, Degitz SJ. Evaluating Chemicals for Thyroid Disruption: Opportunities and Challenges with in Vitro Testing and Adverse Outcome Pathway Approaches. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2019; 127:95001. [PMID: 31487205 PMCID: PMC6791490 DOI: 10.1289/ehp5297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extensive clinical and experimental research documents the potential for chemical disruption of thyroid hormone (TH) signaling through multiple molecular targets. Perturbation of TH signaling can lead to abnormal brain development, cognitive impairments, and other adverse outcomes in humans and wildlife. To increase chemical safety screening efficiency and reduce vertebrate animal testing, in vitro assays that identify chemical interactions with molecular targets of the thyroid system have been developed and implemented. OBJECTIVES We present an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) network to link data derived from in vitro assays that measure chemical interactions with thyroid molecular targets to downstream events and adverse outcomes traditionally derived from in vivo testing. We examine the role of new in vitro technologies, in the context of the AOP network, in facilitating consideration of several important regulatory and biological challenges in characterizing chemicals that exert effects through a thyroid mechanism. DISCUSSION There is a substantial body of knowledge describing chemical effects on molecular and physiological regulation of TH signaling and associated adverse outcomes. Until recently, few alternative nonanimal assays were available to interrogate chemical effects on TH signaling. With the development of these new tools, screening large libraries of chemicals for interactions with molecular targets of the thyroid is now possible. Measuring early chemical interactions with targets in the thyroid pathway provides a means of linking adverse outcomes, which may be influenced by many biological processes, to a thyroid mechanism. However, the use of in vitro assays beyond chemical screening is complicated by continuing limits in our knowledge of TH signaling in important life stages and tissues, such as during fetal brain development. Nonetheless, the thyroid AOP network provides an ideal tool for defining causal linkages of a chemical exerting thyroid-dependent effects and identifying research needs to quantify these effects in support of regulatory decision making. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5297.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela D Noyes
- National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development (ORD), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, DC, USA
| | - Katie Paul Friedman
- National Center for Computational Toxicology, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Patience Browne
- Environment Health and Safety Division, Environment Directorate, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris, France
| | - Jonathan T Haselman
- Mid-Continent Ecology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL), ORD, U.S. EPA, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Mary E Gilbert
- Toxicity Assessment Division, NHEERL, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael W Hornung
- Mid-Continent Ecology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL), ORD, U.S. EPA, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Stan Barone
- Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Kevin M Crofton
- National Center for Computational Toxicology, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Susan C Laws
- Toxicity Assessment Division, NHEERL, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Tammy E Stoker
- Toxicity Assessment Division, NHEERL, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Steven O Simmons
- National Center for Computational Toxicology, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joseph E Tietge
- Mid-Continent Ecology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL), ORD, U.S. EPA, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
| | - Sigmund J Degitz
- Mid-Continent Ecology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL), ORD, U.S. EPA, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
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16
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Bansal R, Zoeller RT. CLARITY-BPA: Bisphenol A or Propylthiouracil on Thyroid Function and Effects in the Developing Male and Female Rat Brain. Endocrinology 2019; 160:1771-1785. [PMID: 31135896 PMCID: PMC6937519 DOI: 10.1210/en.2019-00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The CLARITY-BPA experiment, a large collaboration between the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the National Toxicology Program, and the US Food and Drug Administration, is designed to test the effects of bisphenol A (BPA) on a variety of endocrine systems and end points. The specific aim of this subproject was to test the effect of BPA exposure on thyroid functions and thyroid hormone action in the developing brain. Timed-pregnant National Center for Toxicological Research Sprague-Dawley rats (strain code 23) were dosed by gavage with vehicle control (0.3% carboxymethylcellulose) or one of five doses of BPA [2.5, 25, 250, 2500, or 25,000 µg/kg body weight (bw) per day] or ethinyl estradiol (EE) at 0.05 or 0.50 µg/kg bw/d (n = 8 for each group) beginning on gestational day 6. Beginning on postnatal day (PND) 1 (day of birth is PND 0), the pups were directly gavaged with the same dose of vehicle, BPA, or EE. We also obtained a group of animals treated with 3 ppm propylthiouracil in the drinking water and an equal number of concordant controls. Neither BPA nor EE affected serum thyroid hormones or thyroid hormone‒sensitive end points in the developing brain at PND 15. In contrast, propylthiouracil (PTU) reduced serum T4 to the expected degree (80% reduction) and elevated serum TSH. Few effects of PTU were observed in the male brain and none in the female brain. As a result, it is difficult to interpret the negative effects of BPA on the thyroid in this rat strain because the thyroid system appears to respond differently from that of other rat strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruby Bansal
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - R Thomas Zoeller
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts
- Correspondence: R. Thomas Zoeller, PhD, Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 611 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003. E-mail:
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17
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Baghcheghi Y, Salmani H, Beheshti F, Shafei MN, Sadeghnia HR, Soukhtanloo M, Ebrahimzadeh Bideskan A, Hosseini M. Effects of PPAR-γ agonist, pioglitazone on brain tissues oxidative damage and learning and memory impairment in juvenile hypothyroid rats. Int J Neurosci 2019; 129:1024-1038. [DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2019.1632843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yousef Baghcheghi
- Student Research Committee, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hossein Salmani
- Student Research Committee, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Farimah Beheshti
- Department of Medical Basic Sciences and Neuroscience Research Center, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran
| | - Mohammad Naser Shafei
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hamid Reza Sadeghnia
- Pharmacological Research Center of Medicinal Plants, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Soukhtanloo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | | | - Mahmoud Hosseini
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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18
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Li AA, Makris SL, Marty MS, Strauss V, Gilbert ME, Blacker A, Zorrilla LM, Coder PS, Hannas B, Lordi S, Schneider S. Practical considerations for developmental thyroid toxicity assessments: What's working, what's not, and how can we do better? Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2019; 106:111-136. [PMID: 31018155 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2019.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs; T3 and T4) play a role in development of cardiovascular, reproductive, immune and nervous systems. Thus, interpretation of TH changes from rodent studies (during pregnancy, in fetuses, neonates, and adults) is critical in hazard characterization and risk assessment. A roundtable session at the 2017 Society of Toxicology (SOT) meeting brought together academic, industry and government scientists to share knowledge and different perspectives on technical and data interpretation issues. Data from a limited group of laboratories were compiled for technical discussions on TH measurements, including good practices for reliable serum TH data. Inter-laboratory historical control data, derived from immunoassays or mass spectrometry methods, revealed: 1) assay sensitivities vary within and across methodologies; 2) TH variability is similar across animal ages; 3) laboratories generally achieve sufficiently sensitive TH quantitation levels, although issues remain for lower levels of serum TH and TSH in fetuses and postnatal day 4 pups; thus, assay sensitivity is critical at these life stages. Best practices require detailed validation of rat serum TH measurements across ages to establish assay sensitivity and precision, and identify potential matrix effects. Finally, issues related to data interpretation for biological understanding and risk assessment were discussed, but their resolution remains elusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abby A Li
- Exponent Inc., 1010 14th Street, San Francisco, CA, 94114, USA.
| | - Susan L Makris
- US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development, 1200 Pennsylvania Ave NW 8623R, Washington, DC, 20460, USA.
| | - M Sue Marty
- The Dow Chemical Company, Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, 1803 Building, Midland, MI, 48674, USA.
| | - Volker Strauss
- BASF SE, Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, 67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany.
| | - Mary E Gilbert
- US Environmental Protection Agency, National Health Environmental Effects Research Lab, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, MD B105 05, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711, USA.
| | - Ann Blacker
- Bayer CropScience, P.O. Box 12014, RTP, NC, 27709, USA.
| | | | - Pragati S Coder
- Charles River Laboratories, Developmental and Reproductive Toxicology, 1407 George Road, Ashland, OH, 44805, USA.
| | - Bethany Hannas
- The Dow Chemical Company, Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, 1803 Building, Midland, MI, 48674, USA.
| | - Sheri Lordi
- Charles River Laboratories International, 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, MA, 01887, USA.
| | - Steffen Schneider
- BASF SE, Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, 67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany.
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19
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O'Shaughnessy KL, Kosian PA, Ford JL, Oshiro WM, Degitz SJ, Gilbert ME. Developmental Thyroid Hormone Insufficiency Induces a Cortical Brain Malformation and Learning Impairments: A Cross-Fostering Study. Toxicol Sci 2019; 163:101-115. [PMID: 29385626 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfy016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) are essential for brain development, but few rodent models exist that link TH inefficiency to apical neurodevelopmental endpoints. We have previously described a structural anomaly, a heterotopia, in the brains of rats treated in utero with propylthiouracil (PTU). However, how the timing of an exposure relates to this birth defect is unknown. This study seeks to understand how various temporal treatments of the mother relates to TH insufficiency and adverse neurodevelopment of the offspring. Pregnant rats were exposed to PTU (0 or 3 ppm) through the drinking water from gestational day 6 until postnatal day (PN) 14. On PN2 a subset of pups was cross-fostered to a dam of the opposite treatment, to create 4 conditions: pups exposed to PTU prenatally, postnatally, during both periods, or not at all (control). Both PTU and TH concentrations were characterized in the mother and offspring over time, to capture the dynamics of a developmental xenobiotic exposure. Brains of offspring were examined for heterotopia presence and severity, and adult littermates were assessed for memory impairments. Heterotopia were observed under conditions of prenatal exposure, and its severity increased in animals in the most prolonged exposure group. This malformation was also permanent, but not sex biased. In contrast, behavioral impairments were limited to males, and only in animals exposed to PTU during both the gestational and postnatal periods. This suggests a distinct TH-dependent etiology for both phenotypes, and illustrates how timing of hypothyroxinemia can induce abnormal brain structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L O'Shaughnessy
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Toxicity Assessment Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37803
| | - Patricia A Kosian
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota 55804
| | - Jermaine L Ford
- Analytical Chemistry Core, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
| | | | - Sigmund J Degitz
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota 55804
| | - Mary E Gilbert
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Toxicity Assessment Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
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20
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Derafshpour L, Saboory E, Vafaei AA, Rashidy-Pour A, Roshan-Milani S, Rasmi Y, Panahi Y, Sameni H. Interactive Effects of Exercise, Sex Hormones, and Transient Congenital Hypothyroidism on Long-Term Potentiation in Hippocampal Slices of Rat Offspring. Basic Clin Neurosci 2019; 10:119-135. [PMID: 31031899 PMCID: PMC6484195 DOI: 10.32598/bcn.9.10.170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 12/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The long-term adverse effects of transient thyroid function abnormalities at birth on intellectual development are proven. The effect of exercise increases in the presence of sex hormones. The current study aimed at investigating the possibility that a combination of sex hormones and exercise has synergistic effects on neural plasticity in Transient Congenital Hypothyroidism (TCH) rats. Methods: To induce hypothyroidism in the mothers, Propylthiouracil (PTU) was added to drinking water (100 mg/L) on the 6th day of gestation and continued until the 21st Postnatal Day. From Postnatal Day (PND) 28 to 47, the female and male pups received 17β-estradiol and testosterone, respectively. The mild treadmill exercise began 30 minutes after the sex hormones or vehicle administration. On PND 48, electrophysiological experiments were performed on brain slices. Results: Increase of Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) was observed in sedentary-non-hormone female rats of TCH group, compared with that of the control. The exercise enhanced LTP in control rats, but the hormones showed no significant effect. The effect of exercise and sex hormone was not significant in the TCH group. The combination of exercise and testosterone enhanced LTP in TCH male rats, while the combination of exercise and estradiol or each of them individually did not produce such an effect on LTP in TCH female rats. Conclusion: The study findings showed an increase in excitatory transmission despite the returning of thyroid hormone levels to normal range in TCH female rats. Also a combination treatment including exercise and testosterone enhanced LTP in male rats of TCH group, which was a gender-specific event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Derafshpour
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.,Neurophysiology Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Ehsan Saboory
- Neurophysiology Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Shiva Roshan-Milani
- Neurophysiology Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Yousef Rasmi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Yousef Panahi
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hamidreza Sameni
- Nervous System Stem Cells Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
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21
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Boyes WK, Degn L, George BJ, Gilbert ME. Moderate perinatal thyroid hormone insufficiency alters visual system function in adult rats. Neurotoxicology 2018; 67:73-83. [PMID: 29684405 PMCID: PMC6733525 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2018.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) is critical for many aspects of neurodevelopment and can be disrupted by a variety of environmental contaminants. Sensory systems, including audition and vision are vulnerable to TH insufficiencies, but little data are available on visual system development at less than severe levels of TH deprivation. The goal of the current experiments was to explore dose-response relations between graded levels of TH insufficiency during development and the visual function of adult offspring. Pregnant Long Evans rats received 0 or 3 ppm (Experiment 1), or 0, 1, 2, or 3 ppm (Experiment 2) of propylthiouracil (PTU), an inhibitor of thyroid hormone synthesis, in drinking water from gestation day (GD) 6 to postnatal day (PN) 21. Treatment with PTU caused dose-related reductions of serum T4, with recovery on termination of exposure, and euthyroidism by the time of visual function testing. Tests of retinal (electroretinograms; ERGs) and visual cortex (visual evoked potentials; VEPs) function were assessed in adult offspring. Dark-adapted ERG a-waves, reflecting rod photoreceptors, were increased in amplitude by PTU. Light-adapted green flicker ERGs, reflecting M-cone photoreceptors, were reduced by PTU exposure. UV-flicker ERGs, reflecting S-cones, were not altered. Pattern-elicited VEPs were significantly reduced by 2 and 3 ppm PTU across a range of stimulus contrast values. The slope of VEP amplitude-log contrast functions was reduced by PTU, suggesting impaired visual contrast gain. Visual contrast gain primarily reflects function of visual cortex, and is responsible for adjusting sensitivity of perceptual mechanisms in response to changing visual scenes. The results indicate that moderate levels of pre-and post-natal TH insufficiency led to alterations in visual function of adult rats, including both retinal and visual cortex sites of dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K Boyes
- Toxicity Assessment Division, Neurotoxicology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
| | - Laura Degn
- Toxicity Assessment Division, Neurotoxicology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Barbara Jane George
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Mary E Gilbert
- Toxicity Assessment Division, Neurotoxicology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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22
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Özdemir S, Altun S, Özkaraca M, Ghosi A, Toraman E, Arslan H. Cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, and imidacloprid exposure up-regulates the mRNA and protein levels of bdnf and c-fos in the brain of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 203:318-326. [PMID: 29626809 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study is to investigate the toxicity effects of frequently used pesticides, involving cypermethrin, deltamethrin, chlorpyrifos and imidacloprid, on the expression of bdnf and c-fos genes in zebrafish brain tissues. Therefore, brain tissues exposed to intoxication was primarily analyzed by indirect immunofluorescence assay. Afterwards, the mRNA transcription levels of BNDF and c-fos genes and the protein levels were measured by qRT-PCR and Western blotting, respectively. The data of the immunofluorescence assay revealed intensive immunopositivity for bdnf and c-fos genes in the tissues exposed to pesticide intoxication in comparison to the control group (p<0.05). Moreover, the transcription levels of BNDF and c-fos genes, and protein levels were elevated following the intoxication (p<0.05, p<0.01, and p<0.001, respectively). These results showed that the exposure to the acute cypermethrin, deltamethrin, chlorpyrifos and imidacloprid intoxication disrupted the normal neuronal activity, resulting in neurotoxic effect, also DNA-binding Increasing c-fos activation, an oncoprotein from the family of the Nuclear Proteins, is also true of the knowledge that these chemicals are oncogenic in zebrafish brain tissues. Thus, the use of these pesticides poses a potential neuronal and oncogenic risk to the non-target organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selçuk Özdemir
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Atatürk University, Yakutiye, 25240, Erzurum, Turkey.
| | - Serdar Altun
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Atatürk University, Yakutiye, 25240, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Özkaraca
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Atatürk University, Yakutiye, 25240, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Atena Ghosi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Atatürk University, Yakutiye, 25240, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Emine Toraman
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Atatürk University, Yakutiye, 25240, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Harun Arslan
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Fisheries, Atatürk University, Yakutiye, 25240, Erzurum, Turkey
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23
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Baghcheghi Y, Beheshti F, Shafei MN, Salmani H, Sadeghnia HR, Soukhtanloo M, Anaeigoudari A, Hosseini M. The effects of vitamin E on brain derived neurotrophic factor, tissues oxidative damage and learning and memory of juvenile hypothyroid rats. Metab Brain Dis 2018; 33:713-724. [PMID: 29290043 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-017-0176-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The effects of vitamin E (Vit E) on brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and brain tissues oxidative damage as well as on learning and memory impairments in juvenile hypothyroid rats were examined. The rats were grouped as: (1) Control; (2) Propylthiouracil (PTU); (3) PTU-Vit E and (4) Vit E. PTU was added to their drinking water (0.05%) during 6 weeks. Vit E (20 mg/kg) was daily injected (IP). Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) were carried out. The animals were deeply anesthetized and the brain tissues were removed for biochemical measurements. PTU increased the escape latency and traveled path in MWM (P < 0.001). It also shortened the latency to enter the dark compartment of PA as well as the time spent in the target quadrant in probe trial of MWM (P < 0.01-P < 0.001). All the effects of PTU were reversed by Vit E (P < 0.01-P < 0.001). PTU administration attenuated thiol and BDNF content as well as the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in the brain tissues while increased molondialdehyde (MDA). Moreover, Vit E improved BDNF, thiol, SOD and CAT while diminished MDA. The results of the present study showed that Vit E improved BDNF and prevented from brain tissues oxidative damage as well as learning and memory impairments in juvenile hypothyroid rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousef Baghcheghi
- Student Research Committee, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Farimah Beheshti
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Naser Shafei
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hossein Salmani
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hamid Reza Sadeghnia
- Pharmacological Research Center of Medicinal Plants, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Soukhtanloo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Akbar Anaeigoudari
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Hosseini
- Division of Neurocognitive Sciences, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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24
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Amano I, Takatsuru Y, Khairinisa MA, Kokubo M, Haijima A, Koibuchi N. Effects of Mild Perinatal Hypothyroidism on Cognitive Function of Adult Male Offspring. Endocrinology 2018. [PMID: 29522169 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-03125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Mild perinatal hypothyroidism may result from inadequate iodine intake, insufficient treatment of congenital hypothyroidism, or exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Because thyroid hormones are critical for brain development, severe hypothyroidism that is untreated in infancy causes irreversible cretinism. Milder hypothyroidism may also affect cognitive development; however, the effects of mild and/or moderate hypothyroidism on brain development are not fully understood. In this study, we examined the behavior of adult male mice rendered mildly hypothyroid during the perinatal period using low-dose propylthiouracil (PTU). PTU was administered through drinking water (5 or 50 ppm) from gestational day 14 to postnatal day 21. Cognitive performance, studied by an object in-location test (OLT), was impaired in PTU-treated mice at postnatal week 8. These results suggest that, although the hypothyroidism was mild, it partially impaired cognitive function. We next measured the concentration of neurotransmitters (glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid, and glycine) in the hippocampus using in vivo microdialysis during OLT. The concentrations of neurotransmitters, particularly glutamate and glycine, decreased in PTU-treated mice. The expression levels of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunits, which are profound regulators of glutamate neurotransmission and memory function, also were decreased in PTU-treated mice. These data indicate that mild perinatal hypothyroidism causes cognitive disorders in adult offspring. Such disorders may be partially induced secondary to decreased concentrations of neurotransmitters and receptor expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izuki Amano
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan
| | - Yusuke Takatsuru
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan
| | - Miski Aghnia Khairinisa
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan
| | - Michifumi Kokubo
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan
| | - Asahi Haijima
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Koibuchi
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma, Japan
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25
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Kawahori K, Hashimoto K, Yuan X, Tsujimoto K, Hanzawa N, Hamaguchi M, Kase S, Fujita K, Tagawa K, Okazawa H, Nakajima Y, Shibusawa N, Yamada M, Ogawa Y. Mild Maternal Hypothyroxinemia During Pregnancy Induces Persistent DNA Hypermethylation in the Hippocampal Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Gene in Mouse Offspring. Thyroid 2018; 28:395-406. [PMID: 29415629 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2017.0331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid hormones are essential for normal development of the central nervous system (CNS). Experimental rodents have shown that even a subtle thyroid hormone insufficiency in circulating maternal thyroid hormones during pregnancy may adversely affect neurodevelopment in offspring, resulting in irreversible cognitive deficits. This may be due to the persistent reduced expression of the hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene Bdnf, which plays a crucial role in CNS development. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. METHODS Thiamazole (MMI; 0.025% [w/v]) was administered to dams from two weeks prior to conception until delivery, which succeeded in inducing mild maternal hypothyroxinemia during pregnancy. Serum thyroid hormone and thyrotropin levels of the offspring derived from dams with mild maternal hypothyroxinemia (M offspring) and the control offspring (C offspring) were measured. At 70 days after birth, several behavior tests were performed on the offspring. Gene expression and DNA methylation status were also evaluated in the promoter region of Bdnf exon IV, which is largely responsible for neural activity-dependent Bdnf gene expression, in the hippocampus of the offspring at day 28 and day 70. RESULTS No significant differences in serum thyroid hormone or thyrotropin levels were found between M and C offspring at day 28 and day 70. M offspring showed an impaired learning capacity in the behavior tests. Hippocampal steady-state Bdnf exon IV expression was significantly weaker in M offspring than it was in C offspring at day 28. At day 70, hippocampal Bdnf exon IV expression at the basal level was comparable between M and C offspring. However, it was significantly weaker in M offspring than in C offspring after the behavior tests. Persistent DNA hypermethylation was also found in the promoter region of Bdnf exon IV in the hippocampus of M offspring compared to that of C offspring, which may cause the attenuation of Bdnf exon IV expression in M offspring. CONCLUSIONS Mild maternal hypothyroxinemia induces persistent DNA hypermethylation in Bdnf exon IV in offspring as epigenetic memory, which may result in long-term cognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenichi Kawahori
- 1 Department of Molecular Endocrinology and Metabolism, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koshi Hashimoto
- 2 Department of Preemptive Medicine and Metabolism, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Xunmei Yuan
- 3 Department of Molecular and Cellular Metabolism, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazutaka Tsujimoto
- 1 Department of Molecular Endocrinology and Metabolism, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nozomi Hanzawa
- 1 Department of Molecular Endocrinology and Metabolism, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Miho Hamaguchi
- 3 Department of Molecular and Cellular Metabolism, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Saori Kase
- 1 Department of Molecular Endocrinology and Metabolism, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kyota Fujita
- 4 Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Tagawa
- 4 Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Okazawa
- 4 Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasuyo Nakajima
- 5 Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine , Gunma, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Shibusawa
- 5 Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine , Gunma, Japan
| | - Masanobu Yamada
- 5 Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine , Gunma, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Ogawa
- 3 Department of Molecular and Cellular Metabolism, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
- 6 Department of Medicine and Bioregulatory Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University , Fukuoka, Japan
- 7 Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development , CREST, Tokyo, Japan
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26
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Strobl MTJ, Freeman D, Patel J, Poulsen R, Wendler CC, Rivkees SA, Coleman JE. Opposing Effects of Maternal Hypo- and Hyperthyroidism on the Stability of Thalamocortical Synapses in the Visual Cortex of Adult Offspring. Cereb Cortex 2017; 27:3015-3027. [PMID: 27235101 PMCID: PMC6059113 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Insufficient or excessive thyroid hormone (TH) levels during fetal development can cause long-term neurological and cognitive problems. Studies in animal models of perinatal hypo- and hyperthyroidism suggest that these problems may be a consequence of the formation of maladaptive circuitry in the cerebral cortex, which can persist into adulthood. Here we used mouse models of maternal hypo- and hyperthyroidism to investigate the long-term effects of altering thyroxine (T4) levels during pregnancy (corresponding to embryonic days 6.5-18.5) on thalamocortical (TC) axon dynamics in adult offspring. Because perinatal hypothyroidism has been linked to visual processing deficits in humans, we performed chronic two-photon imaging of TC axons and boutons in primary visual cortex (V1). We found that a decrease or increase in maternal serum T4 levels was associated with atypical steady-state dynamics of TC axons and boutons in V1 of adult offspring. Hypothyroid offspring exhibited axonal branch and bouton dynamics indicative of an abnormal increase in TC connectivity, whereas changes in hyperthyroid offspring were indicative of an abnormal decrease in TC connectivity. Collectively, our data suggest that alterations to prenatal T4 levels can cause long-term synaptic instability in TC circuits, which could impair early stages of visual processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Therese J. Strobl
- Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Research Institute,University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Medical Center, University RWTH Aachen, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Daniel Freeman
- Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Research Institute,University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Jenica Patel
- Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Research Institute,University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Ryan Poulsen
- Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Research Institute,University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Christopher C. Wendler
- Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Research Institute,University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Scott A. Rivkees
- Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Research Institute,University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Jason E. Coleman
- Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Research Institute,University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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27
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Redman K, Ruffman T, Fitzgerald P, Skeaff S. Iodine Deficiency and the Brain: Effects and Mechanisms. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 56:2695-713. [PMID: 25880137 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2014.922042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Iodine is an essential micronutrient needed in human diets. As iodine is an integral component of thyroid hormone, it mediates the effects of thyroid hormone on brain development. Iodine deficiency is the most prevalent and preventable cause of mental impairment in the world. The exact mechanism through which iodine influences the brain is unclear, but is generally thought to begin with genetic expression. Many brain structures and systems appear to be affected with iodine deficiency, including areas such as the hippocampus, microstructures such as myelin, and neurotransmitters. The clearest evidence comes from the studies examining cognition in the cases of iodine deprivation or interventions involving iodine supplementation. Nevertheless, there are many inconsistencies and gaps in the literature of iodine deficiency, especially over the lifespan. This paper summarizes the literature on this topic, suggests a causal mechanism for iodine's effect on the brain, and indicates areas for the future research (e.g., using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI to examine how iodine supplementation facilitates cognitive functioning).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kahla Redman
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Ted Ruffman
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Penelope Fitzgerald
- b Department of Human Nutrition , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Sheila Skeaff
- b Department of Human Nutrition , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
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28
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Gilbert ME, Goodman JH, Gomez J, Johnstone AFM, Ramos RL. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is impaired by transient and moderate developmental thyroid hormone disruption. Neurotoxicology 2017; 59:9-21. [PMID: 28048979 PMCID: PMC11242631 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2016.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampus maintains a capacity for neurogenesis throughout life, a capacity that is reduced in models of adult onset hypothyroidism. The effects of developmental thyroid hormone (TH) insufficiency on neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus, however, has not been examined. Graded degrees of TH insufficiency were induced in pregnant rat dams by administration of 0, 3 or 10ppm of 6-propylthiouracil (PTU) in drinking water from gestational day (GD) 6 until weaning. Body, brain, and hippocampal weight were reduced on postnatal day (PN) 14, 21, 78 and hippocampal volume was smaller at the 10 but not 3ppm dose level. A second experiment examined adult hippocampal neurogenesis following developmental or adult onset hypothyroidism. Two male offspring from 0 and 3ppm exposed dams were either maintained on control water or exposed to 3ppm PTU to create 4 distinct treatment conditions (Control-Control; Control-PTU, PTU-Control, PTU-PTU) based on developmental and adult exposures. Beginning on the 28th day of adult exposure to 0 or 3ppm PTU, bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU, 50mg/kg, ip) was administered twice daily for 5days, and one male from each treatment was sacrificed 24h and 28days after the last BrdU dose and brains processed for immunohistochemistry. Although no volume changes were seen in the hippocampus of the neonate at 3ppm, thinning of the granule cell layer emerged in adulthood. Developmental TH insufficiency produced a reduction in newly born cells, reducing BrdU+ve cells at 1 with no further reduction at 28-days post-BrdU. Similar findings were obtained using the proliferative cell marker Ki67. Neuronal differentiations was also altered with fewer doublecortin (Dcx) expressing cells and a higher proportion of immature Dcx phenotypes seen after developmental but not adult TH insufficiency. An impaired capacity for neurogenesis may contribute to impairments in synaptic plasticity and cognitive deficits previously reported by our laboratory and others following moderate degrees of developmental TH insufficiency induced by this PTU model.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Gilbert
- Toxicity Assessment Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
| | - J H Goodman
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, NY State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA; Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and Neurology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
| | - J Gomez
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, NY State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA
| | - A F M Johnstone
- Toxicity Assessment Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - R L Ramos
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
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29
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Zhang H, Dong Y, Su Q. Perinatal hypothyroidism modulates antioxidant defence status in the developing rat liver and heart. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2017; 95:185-189. [PMID: 27918653 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2016-0177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we investigated oxidative stress parameters and antioxidant defence status in perinatal hypothyroid rat liver and heart. We found that the proteincarbonyl content did not differ significantly between the three groups both in the pup liver and in the heart. The OH˙ level was significantly decreased in the hypothyroid heart but not in the liver compared with controls. A slight but not significant decrease in SOD activity was observed in both perinatal hypothyroid liver and heart. A significantly increased activity of CAT was observed in the liver but not in the heart of hypothyroid pups. The GPx activity was considerably increased compared with controls in the perinatal hypothyroid heart and was unaltered in the liver of hypothyroid pups. We also found that vitamin E levels in the liver decreased significantly in hypothyroidism and were unaltered in the heart of perinatal hypothyroid rats. The GSH content was elevated significantly in both hypothyroid liver and heart. The total antioxidant capacity was higher in the liver of the hypothyroid group but not in the hypothyroid heart. Thyroxine replacement could not repair the above changes to normal. In conclusion, perinatal hypothyroidism modulates the oxidative stress status of the perinatal liver and heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Xin Hua Hospital affiliated with Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Endocrinology, Xin Hua Hospital affiliated with Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan Dong
- Department of Endocrinology, Xin Hua Hospital affiliated with Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Endocrinology, Xin Hua Hospital affiliated with Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qing Su
- Department of Endocrinology, Xin Hua Hospital affiliated with Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Endocrinology, Xin Hua Hospital affiliated with Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, People’s Republic of China
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30
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Current Perspective of Stem Cell Therapy in Neurodegenerative and Metabolic Diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:7276-7296. [PMID: 27815831 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0217-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases have been an unsolved riddle for quite a while; to date, there are no proper and effective curative treatments and only palliative and symptomatic treatments are available to treat these illnesses. The absence of therapeutic treatments for neurodegenerative ailments has huge economic hit and strain on the society. Pharmacotherapies and various surgical procedures like deep brain stimulation are being given to the patient, but they are only effective for the symptoms and not for the diseases. This paper reviews the recent studies and development of stem cell therapy for neurodegenerative disorders. Stem cell-based treatment is a promising new way to deal with neurodegenerative diseases. Stem cell transplantation can advance useful recuperation by delivering trophic elements that impel survival and recovery of host neurons in animal models and patients with neurodegenerative maladies. Several mechanisms, for example, substitution of lost cells, cell combination, release of neurotrophic factor, proliferation of endogenous stem cell, and transdifferentiation, may clarify positive remedial results. With the current advancements in the stem cell therapies, a new hope for the cure has come out since they have potential to be a cure for the same. This review compiles stem cell therapy recent conceptions in neurodegenerative and neurometabolic diseases and updates in this field. Graphical Absract ᅟ.
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31
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Shafiee SM, Vafaei AA, Rashidy-Pour A. Effects of maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy on learning, memory and hippocampal BDNF in rat pups: Beneficial effects of exercise. Neuroscience 2016; 329:151-61. [PMID: 27181637 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.04.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Hypothyroidism during early development leads to numerous morphological, biochemical and functional changes in developing brain. In this study, we investigated the effects of voluntary and treadmill exercise on learning, memory and hippocampal BDNF levels in both hypothyroid male and female rat pups. To induce hypothyroidism in the mothers, 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) was added to their drinking water (100mg/L) from their embryonic day 6 to their postnatal day (PND) 21. For 14days, from PNDs 31 to 44, the rat pups were trained with one of the two different exercise protocols, namely the mild treadmill exercise and the voluntary wheel exercise. On PNDs 45-52, a water maze was used for testing their learning and memory ability. The rats were sacrificed one day later and their BDNF levels were then measured in the hippocampus. The findings of the present study indicate that hypothyroidism during the fetal period and the early postnatal period is associated with the impairment of spatial learning and memory and reduced hippocampal BDNF levels in both male and female rat offspring. Both the short-term treadmill exercise and the voluntary wheel exercise performed during the postnatal period reverse the behavioral and neurochemical deficits induced by developmental thyroid hormone insufficiency in both male and female rat offspring. The findings of this study thus demonstrate a marked reversibility of both behavioral and neurochemical disorders induced by developmental thyroid hormone insufficiency through the performance of exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Morteza Shafiee
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center and Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center and Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Laboratory of Learning and Memory, Research Center and Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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32
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Gilbert ME, Sanchez-Huerta K, Wood C. Mild Thyroid Hormone Insufficiency During Development Compromises Activity-Dependent Neuroplasticity in the Hippocampus of Adult Male Rats. Endocrinology 2016; 157:774-87. [PMID: 26606422 DOI: 10.1210/en.2015-1643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Severe thyroid hormone (TH) deficiency during critical phases of brain development results in irreversible neurological and cognitive impairments. The mechanisms accounting for this are likely multifactorial, and are not fully understood. Here we pursue the possibility that one important element is that TH affects basal and activity-dependent neurotrophin expression in brain regions important for neural processing. Graded exposure to propylthiouracil (PTU) during development produced dose-dependent reductions in mRNA expression of nerve growth factor (Ngf) in whole hippocampus of neonates. These changes in basal expression persisted to adulthood despite the return to euthyroid conditions in blood. In contrast to small PTU-induced reductions in basal expression of several genes, developmental PTU treatment dramatically reduced the activity-dependent expression of neurotrophins and related genes (Bdnft, Bdnfiv, Arc, and Klf9) in adulthood and was accompanied by deficits in hippocampal-based learning. These data demonstrate that mild TH insufficiency during development not only reduces expression of important neurotrophins that persists into adulthood but also severely restricts the activity-dependent induction of these genes. Considering the importance of these neurotrophins for sculpting the structural and functional synaptic architecture in the developing and the mature brain, it is likely that TH-mediated deficits in these plasticity mechanisms contribute to the cognitive deficiencies that accompany developmental TH compromise.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Gilbert
- Toxicity Assessment Division (M.E.G., C.W.), National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709; Departamento de Fisiología "Mauricio Russek" (K.S.-H.), Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico 07738
| | - K Sanchez-Huerta
- Toxicity Assessment Division (M.E.G., C.W.), National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709; Departamento de Fisiología "Mauricio Russek" (K.S.-H.), Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico 07738
| | - C Wood
- Toxicity Assessment Division (M.E.G., C.W.), National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709; Departamento de Fisiología "Mauricio Russek" (K.S.-H.), Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico 07738
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MENSHANOV PN, LANSHAKOV DA, DYGALO NN. proBDNF Is a Major Product of bdnf Gene Expressed in the Perinatal Rat Cortex. Physiol Res 2015; 64:925-34. [DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.932996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In the developing brain, mature brain derived neurotrophic factor (mBDNF) and its precursor (proBDNF) exhibit prosurvival and proapoptotic functions, respectively. However, it is still unknown whether mBDNF or proBDNF is a major form of neurotrophin expressed in the immature brain, as well as if the level of active caspase-3 correlates with the levels of BDNF forms during normal brain development. Here we found that both proBDNF and mBDNF were expressed abundantly in the rat brainstem, hippocampus and cerebellum between embryonic day 20 and postnatal day 8. The levels of mature neurotrophin as well as mBDNF to proBDNF ratios negatively correlated with the expression of active caspase-3 across brain regions. The immature cortex was the only structure, in which proBDNF was the major product of bdnf gene, especially in the cortical layers 2-3. And only in the cortex, the expression of BDNF precursor positively correlated with the levels of active caspase-3. These findings suggest that proBDNF alone may play an important role in the regulation of naturally occurring cell death during cortical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. N. MENSHANOV
- Functional Neurogenomics Laboratory, Institute of Cytology and Genetics Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
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Thyroid Hormone Potentially Benefits Multiple Sclerosis via Facilitating Remyelination. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:4406-16. [PMID: 26243185 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9375-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Myelin destruction due to inflammatory damage of oligodendrocytes (OLs) in conjunction with axonal degeneration is one of the major histopathological hallmarks of multiple sclerosis (MS), a common autoimmune disorder affecting the central nervous system (CNS). Therapies over the last 20 years mainly focus on the immune system and, more specifically, on the modulation of immune cell behavior. It seems to be effective in MS with relapse, while it is of little benefit to progressive MS in which neurodegeneration following demyelination outweighs inflammation. Otherwise, remyelination, as a result of oligodendrocyte production from oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), is considered to be a potential target for the treatment of progressive MS. In this review, positive effects of remyelination on MS will be discussed in view of the critical role played by thyroid hormone (TH), focusing on the following points: (1) promising treatment of TH on MS that potentially targets to remyelination; (2) the active role of TH that is able to promote remyelination; (3) the regulative role of TH that works on endogenous stem and precursor cells; (4) the effect of TH on gene transcription; and (5) a working hypothesis which is developed that TH can alleviate MS by promoting remyelination, and the mechanism of which is its regulative role in gene transcription of OPCs.
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35
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Ge JF, Xu YY, Li N, Zhang Y, Qiu GL, Chu CH, Wang CY, Qin G, Chen FH. Resveratrol improved the spatial learning and memory in subclinical hypothyroidism rat induced by hemi-thyroid electrocauterization. Endocr J 2015; 62:927-38. [PMID: 26228795 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej15-0253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of resveratrol (RES) on the spatial learning and memory ability in subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) rat model and the potential mechanism. A SCH rat model was induced by hemi-thyroid electrocauterization and the activity of hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis was detected. The spatial learning and memory ability was tested using Morris water maze (MWM) and Y-maze. The protein expressions of synaptotagmin-1 (syt-1) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus were measured via western blot. The results showed that SCH rat model was successfully duplicated. The SCH rats showed impaired learning and memory in the behavioral tests. However, these changes were reversed by the treatment of RES (15mg/kg) and levothyroxine (LT4). Moreover, RES treated rats exhibited reduced plasma TSH level and hypothalamic thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) mRNA expression, which suggested that the imbalance of HPT axis in the SCH rats could be reversed by RES treatment. Furthermore, RES treatment up-regulated the protein levels of syt-1 and BDNF in hippocampus. These findings indicated an amelioration effect of RES on the spatial learning and memory in the SCH rats, the mechanism of which might be involved with its ability of modifying the hyperactive HPT axis and up-regulating the hippocampal hypo-expression of syt-1 and BDNF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Fang Ge
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Bioactivity of Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, Anhui, China
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Baek JH, Kang ES, Fava M, Mischoulon D, Nierenberg AA, Lee D, Heo JY, Jeon HJ. Thyroid stimulating hormone and serum, plasma, and platelet brain-derived neurotrophic factor during a 3-month follow-up in patients with major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 2014; 169:112-7. [PMID: 25189990 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid dysfunction and elevated thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) are common in patients with depression. TSH might exert its function in the brain through blood levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). BDNF decreases during depressed states and normalize after treatment. The gap is that the association between TSH and BDNF in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) is unknown. METHODS We studied 105 subjects ≥18 years of age with MDD and measured serum, plasma, and platelet BDNF at baseline, 1 month and 3 months during antidepressant treatment. Other baseline measurements included hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis hormones such as TSH, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4); hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hormones and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis hormones and prolactin. RESULTS Linear mixed model effect analyses revealed that baseline TSH level was negatively associated with changes of serum BDNF from baseline to 3 months (F=7.58, p=0.007) after adjusting for age, sex, and body mass index, but was not associated with plasma and platelet BDNF. In contrast, T3 and T4, HPA axis hormones, HPG axis hormones, and prolactin were not associated with serum, plasma, or platelet BDNF levels. Patients in the highest quartile of TSH showed significantly lower serum BDNF than in the other quartiles (F=4.54, p=0.038), but no significant differences were found based on T3 and T4 levels. LIMITATIONS TSH was only measured at baseline. CONCLUSIONS Higher TSH is associated with lower baseline and reduced the increase of serum BDNF levels during antidepressant treatment in patients with MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyun Baek
- Department of Psychiatry, Depression Center, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Bipolar Clinic and Research Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Eun-Suk Kang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Maurizio Fava
- Depression Clinical and Research Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - David Mischoulon
- Depression Clinical and Research Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Andrew A Nierenberg
- Depression Clinical and Research Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Bipolar Clinic and Research Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Dongsoo Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Depression Center, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Yoon Heo
- Department of Psychiatry, Depression Center, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Jin Jeon
- Department of Psychiatry, Depression Center, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology (SAIHST), Seoul, Republic of Korea; Bipolar Clinic and Research Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.
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Nam SM, Kim YN, Yoo DY, Yi SS, Choi JH, Hwang IK, Seong JK, Yoon YS. Hypothyroidism affects astrocyte and microglial morphology in type 2 diabetes. Neural Regen Res 2014; 8:2458-67. [PMID: 25206556 PMCID: PMC4146114 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.26.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we investigated the effects of hypothyroidism on the morphology of astrocytes and microglia in the hippocampus of Zucker diabetic fatty rats and Zucker lean control rats. To induce hypothyroidism, Zucker lean control and Zucker diabetic fatty rats at 7 weeks of age orally received the vehicle or methimazole, an anti-thyroid drug, treatment for 5 weeks and were sacrificed at 12 weeks of age in all groups for blood chemistry and immunohistochemical staining. In the methimazole-treated Zucker lean control and Zucker diabetic fatty rats, the serum circulating thyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) levels were significantly decreased compared to levels observed in the vehicle-treated Zucker lean control or Zucker diabetic fatty rats. This reduction was more prominent in the methimazole-treated Zucker diabetic fatty group. Glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoreactive astrocytes and ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1)-immunoreactive microglia in the Zucker lean control and Zucker diabetic fatty group were diffusely detected in the hippocampal CA1 region and dentate gyrus. There were no significant differences in the glial fibrillary acidic protein and Iba-1 immunoreactivity in the CA1 region and dentate gyrus between Zucker lean control and Zucker diabetic fatty groups. However, in the methimazole-treated Zucker lean control and Zucker diabetic fatty groups, the processes of glial fibrillary acidic protein tive astrocytes and Iba-1 immunoreactive microglia, were significantly decreased in both the CA1 region and dentate gyrus compared to that in the vehicle-treated Zucker lean control and Zucker diabetic fatty groups. These results suggest that diabetes has no effect on the morphology of astrocytes and microglia and that hypothyroidism during the onset of diabetes prominently reduces the processes of astrocytes and microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Min Nam
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
| | - Yo Na Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
| | - Dae Young Yoo
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
| | - Sun Shin Yi
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, College of Biomedical Sciences, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 336-745, South Korea
| | - Jung Hoon Choi
- Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, South Korea
| | - In Koo Hwang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
| | - Je Kyung Seong
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
| | - Yeo Sung Yoon
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
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Bastian TW, Prohaska JR, Georgieff MK, Anderson GW. Fetal and neonatal iron deficiency exacerbates mild thyroid hormone insufficiency effects on male thyroid hormone levels and brain thyroid hormone-responsive gene expression. Endocrinology 2014; 155:1157-67. [PMID: 24424046 PMCID: PMC3929725 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Fetal/neonatal iron (Fe) and iodine/TH deficiencies lead to similar brain developmental abnormalities and often coexist in developing countries. We recently demonstrated that fetal/neonatal Fe deficiency results in a mild neonatal thyroidal impairment, suggesting that TH insufficiency contributes to the neurodevelopmental abnormalities associated with Fe deficiency. We hypothesized that combining Fe deficiency with an additional mild thyroidal perturbation (6-propyl-2-thiouracil [PTU]) during development would more severely impair neonatal thyroidal status and brain TH-responsive gene expression than either deficiency alone. Early gestation pregnant rats were assigned to 7 different treatment groups: control, Fe deficient (FeD), mild TH deficient (1 ppm PTU), moderate TH deficient (3 ppm PTU), severe TH deficient (10 ppm PTU), FeD/1 ppm PTU, or FeD/3 ppm PTU. FeD or 1 ppm PTU treatment alone reduced postnatal day 15 serum total T4 concentrations by 64% and 74%, respectively, without significantly altering serum total T3 concentrations. Neither treatment alone significantly altered postnatal day 16 cortical or hippocampal T3 concentrations. FeD combined with 1 ppm PTU treatment produced a more severe effect, reducing serum total T4 by 95%, and lowering hippocampal and cortical T3 concentrations by 24% and 31%, respectively. Combined FeD/PTU had a more severe effect on brain TH-responsive gene expression than either treatment alone, significantly altering Pvalb, Dio2, Mbp, and Hairless hippocampal and/or cortical mRNA levels. FeD/PTU treatment more severely impacted cortical and hippocampal parvalbumin protein expression compared with either individual treatment. These data suggest that combining 2 mild thyroidal insults during development significantly disrupts thyroid function and impairs TH-regulated brain gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Bastian
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmaceutical Sciences (T.W.B., G.W.A.), College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota Duluth, Duluth, Minnesota 55812; Department of Biomedical Sciences (J.R.P.), University of Minnesota Medical School Duluth, Duluth, Minnesota 55812; Department of Pediatrics and Center for Neurobehavioral Development (M.K.G.), School of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55454
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Abedelhaffez A, Hassan A. Brain derived neurotrophic factor and oxidative stress index in pups with developmental hypothyroidism: Neuroprotective effects of selenium. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 100:197-210. [DOI: 10.1556/aphysiol.100.2013.2.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Johnstone AFM, Gilbert ME, Aydin C, Grace CE, Hasegawa M, Gordon CJ. Thermoregulatory deficits in adult Long Evans rat exposed perinatally to the antithyroidal drug, propylthiouracil. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2013; 39:1-8. [PMID: 23732561 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2013.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Developmental exposure to endocrine disrupting drugs and environmental toxicants has been shown to alter a variety of physiological processes in mature offspring. Body (core) temperature (T(c)) is a tightly regulated homeostatic system but is susceptible to disruptors of the hypothalamic pituitary thyroid (HPT) axis. We hypothesized that thermoregulation would be disrupted in adult offspring exposed perinatally to an HPT disruptor. Propylythiouracil (PTU) was used as a prototypical compound because of its well known antithyroidal properties. PTU was added to the drinking water of pregnant rats in concentrations of 0, 1, 2, 3, and 10 ppm from gestational day (GD) 6 through postnatal day (PND) 21. Adult male offspring were implanted with radiotransmitters to monitor Tc and motor activity (MA) and were observed undisturbed at an ambient temperature of 22 °C for 12 consecutive days. Data were averaged into a single 24 hour period to minimize impact of ultradian changes in T(c) and MA. All treatment groups showed a distinct circadian temperature rhythm. Rats exposed to 10 ppm PTU exhibited a marked deviation in their regulated T(c) with a reduction of approximately 0.4 °C below that of controls throughout the daytime period and a smaller reduction at night. Rats exposed to 1 or 2 ppm also had smaller but significant reductions in T(c). MA was unaffected by PTU. Overall, developmental exposure to moderate doses of an antithyroidal drug led to an apparent permanent reduction in T(c) of adult offspring that was independent of changes in MA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew F M Johnstone
- Toxicology Assessment Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
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Liu Y, Zhang L, Li J, Shan Z, Teng W. Maternal marginal iodine deficiency affects the expression of relative proteins during brain development in rat offspring. J Endocrinol 2013; 217:21-9. [PMID: 23328070 DOI: 10.1530/joe-12-0410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Marginal iodine deficiency is a major health problem in pregnant women, but its impact on nerve and intelligence development in offspring has been rarely reported. Our study aimed to investigate the effects of maternal marginal iodine deficiency on nerve and cognitive development in offspring and the related mechanisms. Marginal iodine-deficient rats were given 3 μg iodine per day, while normal control rats were given 4 μg iodine daily. Western blot was used to detect the amounts of brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and early growth response protein 1 (EGR1) in the hippocampus of each group. Immunohistochemistry was used to measure c-jun and c-fos expression in the hippocampal CA1 region. Finally, the water maze method was used to measure spatial performance. Free thyroxine (FT₄) levels in marginal iodine-deficient rats decreased by about 30%. Seven days after birth, EGR1 and BDNF protein levels significantly decreased in the hippocampus of marginal iodine deficiency rats compared with the normal control group. In addition, c-jun and c-fos expression in the hippocampus of 40-day-old rats was decreased in marginal iodine-deficient rats, compared with control. The spatial learning and memory ability of 40-day-old marginal iodine-deficient rats had a downward trend compared with the normal control group. FT₄ significantly decreased after pregnancy in rats with marginal iodine deficiency, affecting the expression of related proteins in the brain of offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhui Liu
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Endocrine Diseases, The First Hospital of China Medical University, No.155 Nanjing Bei Street, Hepig District, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China
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Gilbert ME, Lasley SM. Developmental thyroid hormone insufficiency and brain development: a role for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)? Neuroscience 2012. [PMID: 23201250 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (TH) are essential for normal brain development. Even modest degrees of TH disruption experienced in utero can result in neuropsychological deficits in children despite normal thyroid status at birth. Neurotrophins have been implicated in a host of brain cellular functions, and in particular, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has a well documented role in development and function of the nervous system. A number of laboratories have reported the effects of TH administration or severe deprivation on neurotrophin expression in brain. This review provides an overview and update of recent developments in the thyroid field as they relate to the nervous system. Secondly, we describe an animal model of low level TH insufficiency that is more relevant for studying the neurological consequences associated with the modest TH perturbations of subclinical hypothyroidism, or that would be anticipated from exposure to environmental contaminants with a mode-of-action that involves the thyroid. Finally, we review the available in vivo literature on TH-mediated alterations in neurotrophins, particularly BDNF, and discuss their possible contribution to brain impairments associated with TH insufficiency. The observations of altered BDNF protein and gene expression have varied as a function of hypothyroid model, age, and brain region assessed. Only a handful of studies have investigated the relationship of neurotrophins and TH using models of TH deprivation that are not severe, and dose-response information is sparse. Differences in the models used, species, doses, regions assessed, age at assessment, and method employed make it difficult to reach a consensus. Based on the available literature, the case for a direct role for BDNF in thyroid-mediated effects in the brain is not compelling. We conclude that delineation of the potential role of neurotrophins in TH-mediated neuronal development may be more fruitful by examining additional neurotrophins (e.g., nerve growth factor), moderate degrees of TH insufficiency, and younger ages. We further suggest that investigation of BDNF invoked by synaptic activation (i.e., plasticity, enrichment, trauma) may serve to elucidate a role of thyroid hormone in BDNF-regulated synaptic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Gilbert
- Toxicity Assessment Division, Neurotoxicology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
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Zhang HM, Lin N, Dong Y, Su Q, Luo M. Protein kinase Cα is involved in impaired perinatal hypothyroid rat brain development. J Neurosci Res 2012; 91:211-9. [PMID: 23152155 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 07/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinase Cα (PKCα) has been implicated in the regulation of a variety of cellular functions, such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, in response to a diverse range of stimuli. Activated PKCα mediates oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammatory reaction. Thyroid hormone (TH) is essential for the proper development of the mammalian central nervous system. TH deficiency during critical periods of brain development results in permanent cognitive and neurological impairments. In the present study, we attempted to explore whether PKCα is involved in impaired brain function in developing hypothyroid rat brain. Severe perinatal hypothyroidism was obtained by administration of 30 mg/day propylthiouracil to dams. Brain PKC activity in hypothyroid pups was increased significantly in cytosol and membrane fractions. The change of membrane PKC activity was more marked than that of cytosol, and hypothyroidism led to a higher ratio of membrane PKC activity to that in cytosol, which means abnormal activation of PKC in developing hypothyroid rat brain. Thyroxine replacement partially corrected these changes. After being treated with bisindolmaleimide XI, a mainly selective inhibitor for PKCα, the hypothyroid pups showed improved place navigation test results, and further Western blot analysis showed that PKCα expression in cytosol fractions was increased in hypothyroid rat brain with or without bisindolmaleimide XI treatment, but, after treatment with bisindolmaleimide XI, PKCα content in membrane fractions decreased almost to normal. Therefore, we conclude that PKCα appears to be involved in the impaired brain development observed in perinatal hypothyroid rat brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Mei Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Xin Hua Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Bastian TW, Anderson JA, Fretham SJ, Prohaska JR, Georgieff MK, Anderson GW. Fetal and neonatal iron deficiency reduces thyroid hormone-responsive gene mRNA levels in the neonatal rat hippocampus and cerebral cortex. Endocrinology 2012; 153:5668-80. [PMID: 23054056 PMCID: PMC3473211 DOI: 10.1210/en.2012-1067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and thyroid hormone (TH) deficiencies produce similar defects in late brain development including hypomyelination of axons and impaired synapse formation and function, suggesting that these micronutrient deficiencies share a common mechanism contributing to these derangements. We previously demonstrated that fetal/neonatal Cu and Fe deficiencies lower circulating TH concentrations in neonatal rats. Fe deficiency also reduces whole-brain T(3) content, suggesting impaired TH action in the developing Fe-deficient brain. We hypothesized that fetal/neonatal Cu and Fe deficiencies will produce mild or moderate TH deficiencies and will impair TH-responsive gene expression in the neonatal cerebral cortex and hippocampus. To test this hypothesis, we rendered pregnant Sprague Dawley rats Cu-, Fe-, or TH-deficient from early gestation through postnatal d 10 (P10). Mild and moderate TH deficiencies were induced by 1 and 3 ppm propylthiouracil treatment, respectively. Cu deficiency did not significantly alter serum or tissue TH concentrations or TH-responsive brain mRNA expression. Fe deficiency significantly lowered P10 serum total T(3) (45%), serum total T(4) (52%), whole brain T(3) (14%), and hippocampal T(3) (18%) concentrations, producing a mild TH deficiency similar to 1 ppm propylthiouracil treatment. Fe deficiency lowered Pvalb, Enpp6, and Mbp mRNA levels in the P10 hippocampus. Fe deficiency also altered Hairless, Dbm, and Dio2 mRNA levels in the P10 cerebral cortex. These results suggest that some of the brain defects associated with Fe deficiency may be mediated through altered thyroidal status and the concomitant alterations in TH-responsive gene transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Bastian
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Minnesota Duluth, College of Pharmacy, Minnesota 55812, USA
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Zhang L, Teng W, Liu Y, Li J, Mao J, Fan C, Wang H, Zhang H, Shan Z. Effect of maternal excessive iodine intake on neurodevelopment and cognitive function in rat offspring. BMC Neurosci 2012; 13:121. [PMID: 23043431 PMCID: PMC3479063 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-13-121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Iodine deficiency and iodine excess are both associated with adverse health consequences. Iodine deficiency during pregnancy leads to insufficient maternal thyroid hormone, subsequently causing irreversible adverse effects on the neurological and cognitive functions of the offspring. The results of our previous epidemiological study suggested that mild iodine excess might increase the prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism. In the present study, female Wistar rats maintained on low-iodine grain were randomly assigned to three groups based on iodated water concentration: low iodine (LI, 1.2 μg/d), normal iodine (NI, 5–6 μg/d), and 3-fold high iodine (3HI, 15–16 μg/d). The present study investigated whether higher-than-normal iodine intake (3HI) by rats from before pregnancy until breastfeeding affects the postnatal (PN) neurodevelopment (PN7 and PN45) of their offspring during particularly sensitive periods in brain development. Results After 12 weeks of treatment (before pregnancy), iodine concentrations in urine and thyroid tissue and circulating thyroxine of adult females correlated with iodine intake. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the hippocampi of pups on PN7 and PN45 was decreased in 3HI group compared to the NI controls (P < 0.05, all) On PN7 and PN45, the BDNF levels of the 3HI pups were 83.5% and 88.8%, respectively, that of the NI pups. In addition, the 3HI group had a higher neuroendocrine-specific protein A (NSP-A) level than the NI controls on PN7 (P < 0.05). NSP-A levels of the 3HI pups were 117.0% that of the NI pups. No significant difference was observed in the expressions of c-Fos or c-Jun in the hippocampal CA1 region of the 3HI group compared to the controls (P > 0.05). Results from the Morris water maze test revealed that pups of the 3HI group had mild learning and spatial memory deficits. Conclusions The neurodevelopmental and cognitive deficits of the 3HI pups were mild and temporary, likely related to the changes in hippocampal protein expressions of BDNF and NSP-A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China
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Chakraborty G, Magagna-Poveda A, Parratt C, Umans JG, MacLusky NJ, Scharfman HE. Reduced hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in neonatal rats after prenatal exposure to propylthiouracil (PTU). Endocrinology 2012; 153:1311-6. [PMID: 22253429 PMCID: PMC3384077 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone is critical for central nervous system development. Fetal hypothyroidism leads to reduced cognitive performance in offspring as well as other effects on neural development in both humans and experimental animals. The nature of these impairments suggests that thyroid hormone may exert its effects via dysregulation of the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is critical to normal development of the central nervous system and has been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders. The only evidence of BDNF dysregulation in early development, however, comes from experimental models in which severe prenatal hypothyroidism occurred. By contrast, milder prenatal hypothyroidism has been shown to alter BDNF levels and BDNF-dependent functions only much later in life. We hypothesized that mild experimental prenatal hypothyroidism might lead to dysregulation of BDNF in the early postnatal period. BDNF levels were measured by ELISA at 3 or 7 d after birth in different regions of the brains of rats exposed to propylthiouracil (PTU) in the drinking water. The dose of PTU that was used induced mild maternal thyroid hormone insufficiency. Pups, but not the parents, exhibited alterations in tissue BDNF levels. Hippocampal BDNF levels were reduced at both d 3 and 7, but no significant reductions were observed in either the cerebellum or brain stem. Unexpectedly, more males than females were born to PTU-treated dams, suggesting an effect of PTU on sex determination. These results support the hypothesis that reduced hippocampal BDNF levels during early development may contribute to the adverse neurodevelopmental effects of mild thyroid hormone insufficiency during pregnancy.
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Hypothyroid states mitigate the diabetes-induced reduction of calbindin D-28k, calretinin, and parvalbumin immunoreactivity in type 2 diabetic rats. Neurochem Res 2011; 37:253-60. [PMID: 22037839 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0602-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the differences in calbindin D-28k (CB), calretinin, (CR) and parvalbumin (PV) immunoreactivity in the hippocampus of Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats and Zucker lean control (ZLC) rats. In addition, we observed the effects of hypothyroidism on the levels of immunoreactivity of these proteins in ZDF rats. For this study, 7-week-old ZDF rats were used, and methimazole treatment was continued for 5 weeks to induce hypothyroidism. The animals were sacrificed at 12 weeks of age. ZDF rats showed increased blood glucose levels compared to those in ZLC rats. Methimazole intervention significantly reduced total and free T3 levels, and it ameliorated the increase of blood glucose levels in ZDF rats. In ZLC rats, CB, CR, and PV immunoreactivity was detected in regions of the hippocampus proper. In vehicle-treated ZDF rats, CB, CR, and PV immunoreactivity was significantly decreased in the hippocampus. However, in the methimazole-treated rats, CB, CR, and PV immunoreactivity was significantly increased compared to that in the vehicle-treated rats. These results suggest that hypothyroidism ameliorated the diabetes-induced reduction of CB, CR, and PV immunoreactivity in the hippocampus.
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Gilbert ME. Impact of Low-Level Thyroid Hormone Disruption Induced by Propylthiouracil on Brain Development and Function. Toxicol Sci 2011; 124:432-45. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
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