Exploring relations between shyness and social anxiety disorder: The role of sociability

Age-related differences in behavioral problems between shy adults and shy children

Although both concurrent and longitudinal relations between shyness and behavioral problems are well-established in childhood, there is relatively less work exploring these associations in emerging adulthood. In addition, age-related differences in the strength of these relations in child and adult samples have not been fully explored within the same study. We collected measures of shyness, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and social problems in a sample of 94 typically developing 6-year-old children (50 female; Mage = 78.3 months, SD = 3.1 months) and 775 undergraduate students (633 female, Mage = 18.2 years, SD = 0.9 years) from parent-reported and self-reported questionnaires, respectively. Shyness interacted with age in predicting internalizing behaviors and social problems, but not externalizing behaviors. Specifically, shyness was concurrently and positively related to internalizing and social problems in young adulthood, but this relation was not found in childhood. Findings are discussed in terms of developmental consequences of shyness across the lifespan and limitations of relying on ratings from different informants when examining age-related differences.

Is shyness related to depression and suicide risk?

INTRODUCTION

Suicidal behavior is an important health issue, representing a leading cause of mortality, particularly among young adults. Depression was found to be predictive of suicide risk and predicted by shyness. Consequently, we tested a model wherein shyness leads to depression, which in turn leads to suicide risk. Moreover, we expected gender to moderate the effect of shyness on depression and suicide risk.

METHODS

A convenience sample of 478 first-year college students (51% women, Age: M = 25.42, SD = 3.61) completed online self-report questionnaires assessing suicide risk, depression, shyness, and demographic variables.

RESULTS

As expected, shyness was significantly correlated with depression (r = 0.40) and suicide risk (r = 0.24), and depression and suicide risk were also correlated with each other (r = 0.57). Depression statistically mediated the relationship between shyness and suicide risk (indirect effect for women = 0.92, SE = 0.16; for men = 0.72, SE = 0.17). Gender did not moderate the mediation effect. However, a direct link between shyness and suicide risk was found only among men (direct effect = 0.52, SE = 0.21).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that shyness may be a significant factor in the development of depression and suicide risk, potentially serving as a valuable marker for identifying at-risk individuals. Moreover, clinicians should be aware of these associations, particularly among men, in order to maintain and support mental health as well as reduce suicidality.

Developmental patterns of children's shyness: Relations with physiological, emotional, and regulatory responses to being treated unfairly

The dysregulation of social fear has been widely studied in children's shyness, but we know little about how shy children regulate during unfair treatment. We first characterized developmental patterns of children's shyness (N = 304, ngirls  = 153; 74% White, 26% Other) across 2 (Mage  = 2.07), 3 (Mage  = 3.08), 4 (Mage  = 4.08), and 6 (Mage  = 6.58) years of age. Data collection occurred from 2007 to 2014. At age 6, the high stable group had higher cardiac vagal withdrawal and lower expressed sadness and approach-related regulatory strategy than the low stable group when being treated unfairly. Although shy children may be more physiologically impacted by being treated unfairly, they may mask their sadness to signal appeasement.

Relationship between Social Media Use and Social Anxiety in College Students: Mediation Effect of Communication Capacity

An increasing number of college students are experiencing social anxiety in an era of prevalent social networking. College students' social anxiety may be related to their social media use. However, this relationship has not been confirmed. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between different types of social media use and social anxiety among college students, and the mediation effects of communication capacity in this context. A large sample of 1740 students from seven colleges in China was analyzed. Bivariate correlation and structural equations analysis showed that passive social media use was positively correlated with social anxiety. Active social media use was negatively correlated with social anxiety. Communication capacity partially mediated the relationship between social media use (passive/active) and social anxiety. Active social media use may reduce social anxiety by positively mediating communication capacity, while improved communication capacity may reduce the contribution of passive use to social anxiety. The differences in the effects of different social media use on social anxiety deserve the attention of educators. Developing communication capacity education around college students may help reduce their social anxiety.

Childhood inhibition predicts adolescent social anxiety: Findings from a longitudinal twin study

An enduring issue in the study of mental health is identifying developmental processes that explain how childhood characteristics progress to maladaptive forms. We examine the role that behavioral inhibition (BI) has on social anxiety (SA) during adolescence in 868 families of twins assessed at ages 8, 13, and 15 years. Multimodal assessments of BI and SA were completed at each phase, with additional measures (e.g., parenting stress) for parents and twins. Analyses were conducted in several steps: first, we used a cross-lagged panel model to demonstrate bidirectional paths between BI and SA; second a biometric Cholesky decomposition showed that both genetic and environmental influences on childhood BI also affect adolescent SA; next, multilevel phenotypic models tested moderation effects between BI and SA. We tested seven potential moderators of the BI to SA prediction in individual models and included only those that emerged as significant in a final conditional model examining predictors of SA. Though several main effects emerged as significant, only parenting stress had a significant interaction with BI to predict SA, highlighting the importance of environmental moderators in models examining temperamental effects on later psychological symptoms. This comprehensive assessment continues to build the prototype for such developmental psychopathology models.

Reciprocal associations between shyness, depression, and Internet gaming disorder among Chinese adolescents: A cross-lagged panel study

While video games are one of the most common online entertainment activities, Internet gaming disorder (IGD) in adolescents is a critical issue that has become a widely raised public concern. This one-year longitudinal study examined the reciprocal associations between shyness, depression, and IGD symptoms in a sample of Chinese adolescents. A fully cross-lagged panel design was used, in which shyness, depression, and IGD symptoms were assessed at two time points with an interval of one year (T1 and T2). A total of 1,047 junior high school students (504 boys; 543 girls; mean age = 12.45 years) participated in the study. Cross-lagged analysis results indicated a significant positive correlation between shyness, depression, and IGD symptoms, as well as a dynamic and bidirectional relationship between them. Specifically, T1 shyness positively predicted T2 depression symptoms (β = 0.167, p < 0.001), T1 depression symptoms positively predicted T2 shyness (β = 0.141, p < 0.01), and T1 IGD symptoms positively predicted T2 depression symptoms (β = 0.073, p < 0.05). In addition to these findings, gender differences were identified in shyness (T1 and T2), IGD symptoms (T1 and T2), and depression symptoms (T2). The results also indicated that shyness and symptoms of depression could significantly positively predict each other over time, and IGD symptoms could significantly predict depression symptoms. However, depression symptoms could not significantly predict IGD symptoms over the one-year study period, and there was no significant two-way prediction between shyness and IGD symptoms. Thus, this study reveals possible reciprocal associations between shyness, depression, and IGD symptoms in Chinese adolescents and provides insights and suggestions for reducing online gaming addiction among adolescents from the perspective of shyness and depression.

Electrophysiological Correlates of Shyness Affected by Facial Attractiveness

Previous neurological studies of shyness have focused on the hemispheric asymmetry of alpha spectral power. To the best of our knowledge, few studies have focused on the interaction between different frequencies bands in the brain of shyness. Additionally, shy individuals are even shyer when confronted with a group of people they consider superior to them. This study aimed to reveal the neural basis of shy individuals using the delta-beta correlation. Further, it aimed to investigate the effect of evaluators’ facial attractiveness on the delta-beta correlation of shyness during the speech anticipation phase. We recorded electroencephalogram (EEG) activity of 94 participants during rest and anticipation of the public speaking phase. Moreover, during the speech anticipation phase, participants were presented with high or low facial attractiveness. The results showed that, as predicted, the delta-beta correlation in the frontal region was more robust for high shyness than for low shyness during the speech anticipation phase. However, no significant differences were observed in the delta-beta correlation during the baseline phase. Further exploration found that the delta-beta correlation was more robust for high facial attractiveness than low facial attractiveness in the high shyness group. However, no significant difference was found in the low-shyness group. This study suggests that a stronger delta-beta correlation might be the neural basis for shy individuals. Moreover, high facial attractiveness might enhance the delta-beta correlation of high shyness in anticipation of public speaking.

The Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates of Social Anxiety Disorder: A Focused National Survey

Background

Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is among the most common anxiety disorders worldwide with data largely emerging from the Euro-American and Pacific Rim populations. In contrast, there is a dearth of studies among the populations of Arabian Gulf countries including Oman. This study has two interrelated aims: (i) to explore the prevalence of SAD among Omani adults, and (ii) to tease out the links between socio-demographic factors and SAD in Oman.

Methods

A cross-sectional study via an online survey was conducted among 1019 adult Omani nationals residing in Oman. The presence of SAD was assessed using the Arabic version of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS).

Results

Nearly half the participants (45.9%, n = 468) exhibited “caseness” for SAD as defined by LSAS. In the multivariate logistic analysis, participants below 40 years of age were 1.6 times (OR = 1.568, p = .026) more likely to have caseness for SAD than those who were 40 and older. Women were 1.3 times (OR = 1.348, p = .038) more likely to exhibit caseness for SAD than men. Participants who had secondary or undergraduate education were respectively 1.5 times (OR = 1.45, p = .014) and 2.5 times (OR = 2.509, p < .001) to have caseness for SAD than those who were graduates.

Conclusion

The present data suggest that 45.9% of the participants reached the cut-off for caseness in LSAS, which is high compared to reports from other populations. The present accrued frequency is discussed within the context of the accrued response rate, socio-cultural factors as well as the tendency for self-reported measures to “produce” spurious results is also highlighted which, in turn, calls for studies that adopt more inclusive survey methods.

The Development of Explicit and Implicit Game-Based Digital Behavioral Markers for the Assessment of Social Anxiety

Social relationships are essential for humans; neglecting our social needs can reduce wellbeing or even lead to the development of more severe issues such as depression or substance dependency. Although essential, some individuals face major challenges in forming and maintaining social relationships due to the experience of social anxiety. The burden of social anxiety can be reduced through accessible assessment that leads to treatment. However, socially anxious individuals who seek help face many barriers stemming from geography, fear, or disparities in access to systems of care. But recent research suggested digital behavioral markers as a way to deliver cheap and easily accessible digital assessment for social anxiety: As earlier work shows, players with social anxiety show similar behaviors in virtual worlds as in the physical world, including tending to walk farther around other avatars and standing farther away from other avatars. The characteristics of the movement behavior in-game can be harnessed for the development of digital behavioral markers for the assessment of social anxiety. In this paper, we investigate whether implicit as well as explicit digital behavioral markers, proposed by prior work, for social anxiety can be used for predicting the level of social anxiety. We show that both, explicit and implicit digital behavioral markers can be harnessed for the assessment. Our findings provide further insights about how game-based digital behavioral markers can be used for the assessment of social anxiety.

Longitudinal investigation of shyness and physiological vulnerability: Moderating influences of attention biases to threat and safety

Shyness has long been identified as a vulnerability factor to developing psychosocial problems, but there is heterogeneity in these observed outcomes. One potential factor underlying these relations is individual differences in threat sensitivity. Using a longitudinal design, we examined whether attentional biases toward social threat and safety measured during adulthood moderated the association between shyness measured in emerging adulthood (N = 83, n_female = 48; M_age = 23.56 years, SD_age = 1.09 years) and frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry at rest, a physiological index of vulnerability to psychopathology, measured nearly a decade later in adulthood (M_age = 31.68 years, SD_age = 2.27 years). We found that only biases to threat moderated the association between shyness and resting frontal EEG asymmetry longitudinally. In individuals who displayed relative vigilance to social threat, shyness was associated with greater relative right frontal EEG activity at rest (i.e., increased physiological vulnerability). These findings suggest that attentional biases to threat may play a role in understanding the relation between shyness and some known physiological vulnerabilities to psychopathology in adults.

Shyness and susceptibility to social influence: Stronger concordance between norms and drinking among shy individuals

Despite a large body of work exploring associations between perceived norms and drinking and norms-based interventions for drinking, less work has examined moderators of associations between norms and drinking outcomes to determine potential sub-groups that might benefit most from brief norms-based interventions. The present study investigates shyness as a moderator of associations between drinking norms and alcohol use. We hypothesized that shyness would moderate associations between drinking norms and alcohol use such that individuals who are higher in shyness might be more sensitive to social influence and thus show stronger associations between drinking norms and alcohol use. Participants included 250 college students (70% female; 44.5% White/Caucasian) aged 18-26 (M = 21.02, SD = 2.16) who met heavy drinking criteria (4/5 drinks on one or more occasions in the past month for women/men). Participants completed measures of demographics, shyness, alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, and drinking norms remotely at baseline and one-month follow-up (N = 169). Drinking norms were negatively associated with shyness and positively associated with baseline and follow-up drinking. Shyness was negatively associated with baseline drinking but not associated with follow-up drinking. Interaction models tested longitudinal associations between shyness, descriptive drinking norms, and follow-up drinking, controlling for baseline drinking and gender. Results showed that associations between drinking norms and drinks per week were strongest among people who were higher in shyness. Individuals who are shy may be more susceptible to social influence and thus may benefit more from a norms-based drinking intervention. Future work may explore shyness as a moderator of norms-based intervention efficacy.

Trait and State: Interoceptive Accuracy during Anticipation of Public Speaking in Junior Secondary Shy Students from an Eastern Province of China

This study investigated the interoceptive accuracy (IAc) of shy adolescents during anticipation of public speaking with a 2 × 2 factorial design. Altogether, 637 junior secondary students in an eastern province of China were sampled and screened with the Chinese version of Cheek and Buss shyness scale. The top 27% of students were considered the shy group (n = 30, 16 girls, M_age = 13.03, SD = 0.67), whereas the bottom 27% were labelled the non-shy group (n = 31, 16 girls, M_age = 13.16, SD = 0.86). The two groups of participants estimated their heart rates during specified intervals using a mental tracking paradigm in two conditions (baseline vs. anticipation), while their actual heart rates were simultaneously measured. The results indicated that: (1) the shy adolescents were more accurate in estimating their actual heart rate than non-shy adolescents; and (2) both shy and non-shy adolescents exhibit enhanced IAc in anticipation conditions when compared with baseline conditions. Implications of the higher IAc of shy adolescents and the state feature of IAc are discussed.

Revisiting Shyness and Sociability in Schizophrenia: A Psychometric Examination of Measurement Invariance and Mean Level Differences

Although there is a long and rich empirical history of demonstrating differences on psychological self-report measures between people with schizophrenia and healthy controls, the question of whether both groups respond to psychological measures in the same way has gone largely unexplored. That is, is there measurement equivalence, or invariance, across the samples? To our knowledge, there have been no published studies on measurement equivalency in personality measures across groups diagnosed with and without schizophrenia. Here we examined the question of measurement invariance on two widely used questionnaires assessing temperament, the Cheek and Buss Shyness and Sociability Scales (CBSHY and CBSOC, respectively) between 147 stable adult outpatients with schizophrenia and 147 healthy age- and sex-matched controls. Results supported measurement invariance of the CBSHY and CBSOC across our clinical and non-clinical groups. These findings suggested that stable adult outpatients with schizophrenia and age- and sex-matched controls respond to the shyness and sociability items in the same way. We found that adults with schizophrenia reported higher levels of shyness and lower levels of sociability than healthy controls, consistent with prior studies. Findings are discussed concerning their relevance more broadly to self-report assessments of personality and psychological traits in clinical populations.

Trajectories of internalizing symptoms in early childhood: Associations with maternal internalizing symptoms and child physiology

Research has shown that children's internalizing symptom development during early childhood are shaped by biopsychosocial processes including physiology and parental symptoms. However, associations between maternal internalizing symptoms, child physiology and trajectories of child internalizing symptoms are not well understood. We used growth curve models to examine how maternal internalizing symptoms, child physiology and the interaction between maternal internalizing symptoms and child physiology may be associated with trajectories of internalizing symptoms during early childhood. Mothers reported their children's internalizing symptoms when children were 3, 4, 5 and 6 years of age, and mothers self-reported their own internalizing symptoms when children were 3. Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) was collected when children were 3.5-years-old. Results showed that there is a non-linear, quadratic trajectory across all participants from age 3 to 6. Maternal internalizing symptoms were not associated with children's internalizing symptoms at age 6, but were associated with both linear and quadratic change. Lower resting RSA was associated with greater increases in children's internalizing symptoms over time. Interactions between maternal internalizing symptoms and RSA were not associated with children's internalizing symptom development. The findings demonstrate that maternal internalizing symptoms and child physiology are independently associated with internalizing symptom development during early childhood.

Positive Shyness in the Brain: Frontal Electroencephalogram Alpha Asymmetry and Delta-Beta Correlation in Children

Positive shyness is thought to be an approach-dominant form of shyness, whereas non-positive shyness is thought to be an avoidance-dominant form of shyness. This study examined electrocortical and behavioral correlates of motivation and emotion in relation to these shy subtypes in 67 children (M_age  = 10.41 years, SD = 3.23). Using resting state electroencephalography, findings revealed that positive shy and low shy children had greater relative left frontal alpha asymmetry compared to non-positive shy children, and positive shy children had a higher frontal delta-beta correlation compared to other groups. Non-positive shy children scored highest on parent-reported school avoidance. These findings converge with previous work reporting distinct correlates in positive and non-positive shyness, extending this to two brain measures of motivation and emotion.

A review and preview of developments in the measurement of sociability

Sociability is a complex, multifactorial trait. Its importance is underscored by a multitude of negative physical and mental health effects related to loneliness and social isolation. However, current measures of sociability primarily rely on subjective recall and self- report, which have inherent weaknesses and limitations. Although objective and automatic measurements could help to avoid some of these issues, they are still in early stages of development. In this article, the authors review past and present methods of measuring sociability and social interactions. This encompasses both subjective and objective subsets of qualitative and quantitative measurement modalities to gain a broader, more accurate perspective on sociability. Through an analysis of advantages and disadvantages of measurement methods within these categories, a foundational knowledge of sociability measurement can be understood. Utilizing current technology and research methods holds promise to more accurately represent individuals' social networks and social patterns.

Trajectories of Resting Heart Period and Shyness in Adolescent Females Exposed to Child Maltreatment

Relatively little is known about the psychophysiological processes underlying the development of socioemotional vulnerabilities that are common among adolescents exposed to child maltreatment. Using a prospective, longitudinal design, we investigated whether trajectories of resting heart period (HP; a physiological correlate of stress vulnerability) across three visits (separated by 6 months) was associated with shyness (a type of socioemotional vulnerability) in adolescent females exposed to child maltreatment (N = 55; M_age = 14.07 years). Adolescents' resting HP across visits was best characterized by two latent trajectories: a stable high class (25.5%) and a stable low class (74.5%). The stable low HP trajectory was associated with higher shyness at Time 1 (T1), and HP trajectory moderated the association between T1 and Time 3 (T3) shyness. Females in the stable low HP trajectory demonstrated stability of shyness from T1 to T3, whereas T1 and T3 shyness were unrelated for females in the stable high HP trajectory. We also found that shyness at T1 and T3 was associated with greater levels of anxiety at T3. These findings illustrate heterogeneity in the developmental patterns of resting autonomic activity in adolescent females exposed to child maltreatment; such differences may influence the continuity of some traits linked with socioemotional vulnerability such as shyness.

Frontal brain maturation and the stability of children's shyness

Recent evidence suggests that relative to nonshy children, shy children exhibit a lower overall frontal EEG alpha/delta ratio (ADR) during middle childhood, possibly reflecting relatively less frontal brain maturation at this age. We examined this same ADR measure in relation to the stability of observed shyness and parent-reported child social anxiety measured across two laboratory visits separated by approximately 1 year during late childhood in 51 children (33% female, age range 10-16 years). We found that the overall frontal ADR score was significantly lower among children with high, stable observed shyness and parent-reported child social anxiety compared to children in the low, stable class. Findings provide convergent evidence suggesting that the stability of shyness in late childhood may be linked to relatively less overall frontal brain maturation at this age. We speculate on the adaptive function of delaying frontal brain maturation in the origins and maintenance of children's shyness.

Individual Differences in Self-Talk Frequency: Social Isolation and Cognitive Disruption

Despite the popularity of research on intrapersonal communication across many disciplines, there has been little attention devoted to the factors that might account for individual differences in talking to oneself. In this paper, I explore two possible explanations for why people might differ in the frequency of their self-talk. According to the “social isolation” hypothesis, spending more time alone or having socially isolating experiences will be associated with increased self-talk. According to the “cognitive disruption” hypothesis, having self-related experiences that are cognitively disruptive will be associated with increased self-talk frequency. Several studies using the Self-Talk Scale are pertinent to these hypotheses. The results indicate good support for the social isolation hypothesis and strong support for the cognitive disruption hypothesis. I conclude the paper with a wide range of implications for future research on individual differences in self-talk and other kinds of intrapersonal communication.

Behavioral inhibition system and self-esteem as mediators between shyness and social anxiety

Shyness has been demonstrated to be an important factor associating with social anxiety. However, it is less clear on the mechanisms responsible for such association. The aim of the present study was to examine whether behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and self-esteem mediated the relationship between shyness and social anxiety. A sample of 521 healthy volunteers in the age range of 18-25 years completed self-report measures of BIS, self-esteem, shyness and social anxiety. Our correlational analyses showed that shyness was positively associated with social anxiety, supporting the overlapping and continuum hypotheses. Furthermore, BIS was positively correlated with shyness and social anxiety while self-esteem was negatively related to them, indicating that BIS and self-esteem were different in the relation between shyness and social anxiety. Importantly, results from structural equation modeling revealed that the relation between shyness and social anxiety was partially mediated by BIS and self-esteem, which suggested that they might play important roles in the relation between shyness and social anxiety.

Bidirectional Mediating Role of Loneliness in the Association Between Shyness and Generalized Pathological Internet Use in Chinese University Students: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Analysis

This 1-year longitudinal study examined the bidirectional mediating role of loneliness in the association between shyness and generalized pathological Internet use (GPIU) in a sample of 291 Chinese university students (143 men, mean age = 19.07 years). A fully cross-lagged panel design was used in which shyness, loneliness, and GPIU were assessed at 3 time points separated by 6-month intervals (named T1, T2, and T3). The results indicated that relationships among shyness, loneliness, and GPIU were dynamic and bidirectional. Specifically, T1 shyness positively predicted increased T2 loneliness, T2 shyness positively predicted increased T3 loneliness, and T2 loneliness positively predicted increased T3 shyness. Additionally, T1 GPIU positively predicted increased T2 loneliness, T2 GPIU positively predicted increased T3 loneliness, and T2 loneliness positively predicted increased T3 GPIU. Loneliness was found to play a bidirectional mediating role in the association between shyness and GPIU. Specifically, T1 shyness and T3 GPIU were mediated through increased loneliness at T2, and T1 GPIU and T3 shyness were mediated through increased loneliness at T2. Furthermore, relationships among shyness, loneliness, and GPIU were the same across the 2 groups, with the strength of relationships being stronger for men.

Social Withdrawal and Social Surrogacy in Emerging Adulthood

Shyness has been well established as a hindrance to social adjustment and may be problematic for emerging adults attending university, given the high social expectations placed upon students. Previous studies suggest emerging adults high in shyness recruit their friends to act as social surrogates in order to help reduce the stress of entering social interactions; yet, whether other less studied forms of social withdrawal (i.e., avoidance, unsociability) are associated with social surrogacy remains uninvestigated. The goal of the present study was to examine differences between subtypes of withdrawal as related to social surrogacy, while considering the roles of social anxiety and social self-efficacy. Participants were 961 emerging adults (76% female; 67% Caucasian) between the ages of 18 and 25 (M = 20.15, SD = 1.71). The results indicated that patterns of social surrogacy varied between withdrawal subtypes, such that social surrogacy was positively related to shyness, and negatively related to unsociability, whereas avoidance yielded mixed results. The findings highlight the importance of considering withdrawal motivations in understanding social surrogacy.

Trajectory of heart period to socioaffective threat in shy children

Although shyness is characterized by distinct psychophysiological correlates, we know very little about the development of these correlates. In this longitudinal study, we examined how children's shyness was associated with trajectories of heart period (HP) to socioaffective threat across four assessments spanning approximately 2 years. Children (M_age  = 6.39 years) viewed age-appropriate, socioaffective videos at each visit while having their HP measured concurrently. A growth curve analysis revealed that low shy children had a relatively lower HP at enrollment, but experienced increases in HP across visits, while high shy children exhibited relatively stable low HP across visits while viewing threat-related socioaffective video stimuli. These patterns did not exist for HP during resting baseline or HP to nonthreatening video stimuli. These findings suggest that longitudinal patterns of HP among shy children may reflect a stable, characteristic way of responding to socioaffective threat, and possibly a physiological mechanism underlying shyness in some children.

Inhibitory control in typically developing preschoolers: Relations among temperament, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, and behavior at age 4

Although inhibitory control (IC) is associated with children's positive adjustment, we know relatively little about factors underlying its development. We examined whether baseline and on-task respiratory sinus arrhythmia [(RSA); a physiological measure of self-regulation] and private speech (a behavioral measure of self-regulation) interacted to confer differences on directly observed IC in 52 typically developing 4-year olds. We found that baseline RSA moderated the association between private speech and IC, such that private speech positively predicted IC in children with relatively higher baseline RSA, but was unrelated to IC in children with relatively lower RSA. We also found that children with a concordant physiological-behavioral pattern (i.e., high RSA and high private speech; low RSA and low private speech) had higher IC, higher effortful control, and lower negative emotionality than those with a discordant physiological-behavioral pattern (i.e., high RSA and low private speech; low RSA and high private speech). Individual differences in physiological and behavioral self-regulation indices may represent distinct regulation pathways that interact to confer differences in IC during the preschool years.

The Bright, the Dark, and the Blue Face of Narcissism: The Spectrum of Narcissism in Its Relations to the Metatraits of Personality, Self-Esteem, and the Nomological Network of Shyness, Loneliness, and Empathy

Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism seem to be uncorrelated in empirical studies, yet they share at least some theoretical similarities. In the current study, we examine the relation between grandiose (conceptualized as admiration and rivalry) and vulnerable narcissism in the context of the Big Five personality traits and metatraits, self-esteem, and their nomological network. To this end, participants (N = 314) filled in a set of self-report measures via an online survey. Rivalry was positively linked with both admiration and vulnerable narcissism. We replicated the relations of admiration and rivalry with personality traits and metatraits—as well as extended existing knowledge by providing support for the theory that vulnerable narcissism is simultaneously negatively related to the Stability and Plasticity. Higher scores on vulnerable narcissism and rivalry predicted having fragile self-esteem, whereas high scores on admiration predicted having optimal self-esteem. The assumed relations with the nomological network were confirmed, i.e., vulnerable narcissism and admiration demonstrated a contradictory pattern of relation to shyness and loneliness, whilst rivalry predicted low empathy. Our results suggest that the rivalry is between vulnerable narcissism and admiration, which supports its localization in the self-importance dimension of the narcissism spectrum model. It was concluded that whereas admiration and rivalry represent the bright and dark face of narcissism, vulnerable narcissism represents its blue face.