Borapetoside C from Tinospora crispa improves insulin sensitivity in diabetic mice

Phytochemical analysis of Tinospora cordifolia and Withania somnifera and their therapeutic activities with special reference to COVID-19

Various important medicines make use of secondary metabolites that are produced by plants. Medicinal plants, such as Withania somnifera and Tinospora cordifolia, are rich sources of chemically active compounds and are reported to have numerous therapeutic applications. The therapeutic use of medicinal plants is widely mentioned in Ayurveda and has folkloric importance in different parts of the world. The aim of this review is to summarize the phytochemical profiles, folkloric importance, and primary pharmacological activity of W. somnifera and T. cordifolia with emphasis on their action against the novel coronavirus.

Indian herb Tinospora cordifolia and Tinospora species: Phytochemical and therapeutic application

Clinical investigations are increasingly focusing on natural materials with medical benefits because, in contrast to medicines, they have extremely few adverse effects. Tinospora species of the Menispermaceae family has many bioactive principles for plant nutraceuticals. A thorough assessment of the existing literature revealed that Indian Tinospora species are an important group of medicinal herbs used for a variety of pharmacological activities. While, Tinospora cordifolia is widely recognized as a significant herb in the Indian System of Medicines (ISM) due to its bioactive components and has been used in the treatment of diabetes, cancer, urinary problems, fever, jaundice, helminthiasis, leprosy, dysentery, skin diseases, and many more. Using the search phrases "phytochemistry," "traditional uses," and "pharmacological evaluation of Indian Tinospora species," appropriate articles were carefully extracted from the MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, and WOS databases. Around 180 articles, related to the India Tinospora species, were selected from a pool of 200 papers published between 1991 and 2023. T. cordifolia has received a lot of scientific attention because of its diverse therapeutic characteristics in treating various diseases. Our present study in this review encompasses 1.) Phytochemistry, traditional uses and pharmacological potential of T. cordifolia as well as other Indian Tinospora species. 2.) Safety and toxicity study and available marketed formulation of T. cordifolia for the treatment of various diseases. The chemical constitution and pharmacological characteristics of other Tinospora species must also be investigated, indicating a need for further scientific research.

Computational pharmacology profiling of borapetoside C against melanoma

Melanoma,also known as a 'black tumor', begins in the melanocytes when cells (that produce pigment) grows out of control. Immunological dysregulation, which raises the risk for multiple illnesses, including melanoma, may be influenced by stress tiggered through viral infection, long term effects of ultraviolet radiation, environmental pollutants etc. Borapetoside C is one of the phytoconstituents from Tinospora crispa, and its biological source has been reported for its antistress property. Network pharmacology and KEGG pathway analysis of borapetoside C-regulated proteins were conducted to identify the hub genes involved in melanoma development. Further, a molecular docking was performed between borapetoside C and targets involved in melanoma. Further, the top 3 complexes were selected based on the binding energy to conduct molecular dynamics simulations to evaluate the stability of ligand-protein complex followed by principal component analysis and dynamic cross-correlation matrix. In addition, borapetoside C was also screened for its pharmacokinetics and toxicity profile. Network Pharmacology studies and KEGG pathway analysis revealed 8 targets involved in melanoma. Molecular docking between borapetoside C and targets involved in melanoma identified 3 complexes with minimum binding i.e. borapetoside C- MAP2K1, MMP9, and EGFR. Further, molecular dynamics simulations showed a stable complex of borapetoside C with MMP9 and EGFR. The present study suggested that borapetoside C may target MMP9 and EGFR to possess an anti-melanoma property. This finding can be useful in developing a novel therapeutic agent against melanoma from a natural source.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Exploration of the main active metabolites from Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson stem as insulin sensitizer in L6.C11 skeletal muscle cell by integrating in vitro, metabolomics, and molecular docking

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson stem (TCS) has long been used as folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Previous study revealed that TCS possesses multi-ingredients and multi-targets characteristic potential as insulin sensitizer activity. However, its mechanisms of action and molecular targets are still obscure.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In the present study, we investigated the effects of TCS against insulin resistance in muscle cells through integrating in vitro experiment and identifying its active biomarker using metabolomics and in molecular docking validation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) to isolate 33 fractions from methanolic extract of TCS, and then used UHPLC-Orbitrap-HRMS to identify the detectable metabolites in each fraction. We assessed the insulin sensitization activity of each fraction using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and then used confocal immunocytochemistry microscopy to measure the translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the cell membrane. The identified active metabolites were further simulated for its molecular docking interaction using Autodock Tools.

RESULTS

The polar fractions of TCS significantly increased insulin sensitivity, as measured by the inhibition of phosphorylated insulin receptor substrate-1 (pIRS1) at serine-312 residue (ser312) also the increasing number of translocated GLUT4 and glycogen content. We identified 58 metabolites of TCS, including glycosides, flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, and nucleotides groups. The metabolomics and molecular docking simulations showed the presence of minor metabolites consisting of tinoscorside D, higenamine, and tinoscorside A as the active compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that TCS is a promising new treatment for insulin resistance and the identification of the active metabolites in TCS could lead to the development of new drugs therapies for diabetes that target these pathways.

Medicinal plants used by rural Thai people to treat non-communicable diseases and related symptoms

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are becoming more common in remote regions, whereas previously they were more common in middle-class to wealthy societies. The rising prevalence and severity of NCDs has increased the demand for medical innovation in this space. In this regard, knowledge of traditional medicines used in the treatment of NCDs, by people in the remote communities of Thailand, represents an innovation opportunity. This study aims to use data on ethnomedicinal plants used by local Thai people to identify plant candidates for study of safety and efficacy against a range of specified NCDs. Data were taken from both the literature and interviews from 230 locations in Thailand. The consulted literature was published in the years from 1990 to 2020. Ethnomedicinal field observations were made in person, in villages in Nan and Chiang Rai provinces, in 2021. Data includes names of plants used to target NCDs, and names of target diseases. Important plant species were identified based on the number of use reports and use values together with results from Bayesian approach. A total of 766 plant species were recorded in the treatment of NCDs. Most of the species that were described by informants were used to target diabetes, hypertension, chronic respiratory and renal diseases. This study proposes several plant species that have potential as treatments against NCDs. Many of these important species have insufficient scientific data to support their uses. The study suggests that assessment of efficacy and safety should be the next logical steps.

An updated and comprehensive review on the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity and toxicological profile of Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson (Menispermaceae) is a plant indigenous to Africa and South-East Asia. It is widely used in ethnomedicine to alleviate various diseases including hypertension, diabetes, rheumatism, jaundice, inflammation, fever, fractures, scabies, and urinary disorders. A total of 167 phytoconstituents, belonging to 12 different chemical categories, including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds have thus far been isolated from various parts of T. crispa. Numerous in vitro and in vivo investigations have already established the antidiabetic, anticancer, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, analgesic, antipyretic, antihyperuricemic, and pesticidal activity of this plant, as well as its effects on the cardiac and the central nervous system. Most pharmacological investigations to date have been carried out on plant extracts and fractions. The exact identity of the phytoconstituents responsible for the observed biological effects and their mode of action at the molecular level are yet to be ascertained. Toxicological studies have demonstrated that T. crispa is relatively safe, although dose-dependent hepatotoxicity is a concern at high doses. This review presents a comprehensive update and analysis on studies related to the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity and toxicological profile of T. crispa. It provides some critical insights into the current scientific knowledge on this plant and its future potential in pharmaceutical research.

Network pharmacology integrated molecular dynamics reveals the bioactive compounds and potential targets of Tinospora crispa Linn. as insulin sensitizer

Insulin resistance is a metabolic disorder characterized by the decreased response to insulin in muscle, liver, and adipose cells. This condition remains a complex phenomenon that involves several genetic defects and environmental stresses. In the present study, we investigated the mechanism of known phytochemical constituents of Tinospora crispa and its interaction with insulin-resistant target proteins by using network pharmacology, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. Tinoscorside A, Makisterone C, Borapetoside A and B, and β sitosterol consider the main phytoconstituents of Tinospora crispa by its binding with active sites of main protein targets of insulin resistance potential therapy. Moreover, Tinoscorside A was revealed from the docking analysis as the ligand that binds most strongly to the target protein, PI3K. This finding was strengthened by the results of MD simulation, which stated that the conformational stability of the ligand-protein complex was achieved at 15 ns and the formation of hydrogen bonds at the active site. In conclusion, Tinospora crispa is one of the promising therapeutic agent in type 2 diabetes mellitus management. Regulation in glucose homeostasis, adipolysis, cell proliferation, and antiapoptosis are predicted to be the critical mechanism of Tinospora crispa as an insulin sensitizer.

Potential of Diterpenes as Antidiabetic Agents: Evidence from Clinical and Pre-Clinical Studies

Diterpenes are a diverse group of structurally complex natural products with a wide spectrum of biological activities, including antidiabetic potential. In the last 25 years, numerous diterpenes have been investigated for antidiabetic activity, with some of them reaching the stage of clinical trials. However, these studies have not been comprehensively reviewed in any previous publication. Herein, we critically discussed the literature on the potential of diterpenes as antidiabetic agents, published from 1995 to September, 2021. In the period under review, 427 diterpenes were reported to have varying degrees of antidiabetic activity. Steviol glycosides, stevioside (1) and rebaudioside A (2), were the most investigated diterpenes with promising antidiabetic property using in vitro and in vivo models, as well as human subjects. All the tested pimaranes consistently showed good activity in preclinical evaluations against diabetes. Inhibitions of α-glucosidase and protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP 1B) activities and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma (PPAR-γ) agonistic property, were the most frequently used assays for studying the antidiabetic activity of diterpenes. The molecular mechanisms of action of the diterpenes include increased GLUT4 translocation, and activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent signaling pathways. Our data revealed that diterpenes hold promising antidiabetic potential. Stevioside (1) and rebaudioside A (2) are the only diterpenes that were advanced to the clinical trial stage of the drug discovery pipeline. Diterpenes belonging to the abietane, labdane, pimarane and kaurane class have shown promising activity in in vitro and in vivo models of diabetes and should be further investigated.

Computational study and in vitro alpha-glucosidase inhibitory effects of medicinal plants from a Thai folk remedy

The number of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has increased worldwide. Although an instant cure was achieved with the standard treatment acabose, unsatisfactory symptoms associated with cardiovascular disease after acabose administration have been reported. Therefore, it is important to explore new treatments. A Thai folk recipe has long been used for T2DM treatment, and it effectively decreases blood glucose. However, the mechanism of this recipe has never been proven. Therefore, the potential anti-T2DM effect of this recipe, which is used in Thai hospitals, was determined to involve alpha-glucosidase (AG) inhibition with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50). In vitro experiments showed that crude Cinnamomum verum extract (IC50 = 0.35 ± 0.12 mg/mL) offered excellent inhibitory activity, followed by extracts from Tinospora crispa (IC50 = 0.69 ± 0.39 mg/mL), Stephania suberosa (IC50 = 1.50 ± 0.17 mg/mL), Andrographis paniculate (IC50 = 1.78 ± 0.35 mg/mL), and Thunbergia laurifolia (IC50 = 4.66 ± 0.27 mg/mL). However, the potencies of these extracts were lower than that of acabose (IC50 = 0.55 ± 0.11 mg/mL). Therefore, this study investigated and developed a formulation of this recipe using computational docking. Among 61 compounds, 7 effectively inhibited AG, including chlorogenic acid (IC50 = 819.07 pM) through 5 hydrogen bonds (HBs) and 2 hydrophobic interactions (HIs); β-sitosterol (IC50 = 4.46 nM, 6 HIs); ergosterol peroxide (IC50 = 4.18 nM, 6 HIs); borapetoside D (IC50 = 508.63 pM, 7 HBs and 2 HIs); borapetoside A (IC50 = 1.09 nM, 2 HBs and 2 His), stephasubimine (IC50 = 285.37 pM, 6 HIs); and stephasubine (IC50 = 1.09 nM, 3 HBs and 4 HIs). These compounds bind with high affinity to different binding pockets, leading to additive effects. Moreover, the pharmacokinetics of six of these seven compounds (except ergosterol peroxide) showed poor absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, which would allow for competitive binding to AG in the small intestine. These results indicate that the development of these 6 compounds into oral antidiabetic agents is promising.

Exploring Phytotherapeutic Alternatives for Obesity, Insulin Resistance and Diabetes Mellitus

At present, the pathologic spectrum of obesity-insulin resistance (IR)-diabetes mellitus (DM) represents not only a pressing matter in public health but also a paramount object of study in biomedical research, as they constitute major risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD), and other chronic non-communicable diseases (NCD). Phytotherapy, the use of medicinal herbs (MH) with treatment purposes, offers a wide array of opportunities for innovation in the management of these disorders; mainly as pharmacological research on small molecules accumulates. Several MH has displayed varied mechanisms of action relevant to the pathogenesis of obesity, IR and DM, including immunological and endocrine modulation, reduction of inflammation and oxidative stress (OS), regulation of appetite, thermogenesis and energy homeostasis, sensitisation to insulin function and potentiation of insulin release, among many others. However, the clinical correlates of these molecular phenomena remain relatively uncertain, with only a handful of MH boasting convincing clinical evidence in this regard. This review comprises an exploration of currently available preclinical and clinical research on the role of MH in the management of obesity, IR, and DM.

Medicinal plants utilized in Thai Traditional Medicine for diabetes treatment: Ethnobotanical surveys, scientific evidence and phytochemicals

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Diabetes mellitus remains the most lethal metabolic disease of contemporaneous times and despite the therapeutic arsenal currently available, research on new antidiabetic agents remains a priority. In recent years, the revitalization of Thai Traditional Medicine (TTM) became a clear priority for the Thai government, and many efforts have been undertaken to accelerate research on herbal medicines and their use in medical services in various hospitals. Additionally, and particularly in rural areas, treatment of diabetes and associated symptomatology frequently relies on herbal preparations recommended by practitioners of TTM. In the current work, medicinal plants used in Thailand for treating diabetes, as well as their hypoglycaemic pharmacological evidences and potential therapeutic use for diabetes-related complications were reviewed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnopharmacological information on the plant materials used in TTM for diabetes treatment was collected through literature search in a range of scientific databases using the search terms: diabetes, folk medicine, Thailand medicinal plants, traditional medicine. Information regarding scientific evidence on the antidiabetic effects of surveyed species was obtained considering not only the most common taxonomic designation, but also taxonomic synonyms, and including the keywords 'diabetes' and 'hypoglycaemic effect'.

RESULTS

A total of 183 species known to be used for diabetes management in TTM were reviewed, with 30% of them still lacking experimental evidences to support claims regarding the mechanisms and phytochemicals underlying their antidiabetic properties. Moreover, a total of 46 bioactives displaying effective antidiabetic effects have been isolated from 24 species, their underlying mechanism(s) of action being fully or partially disclosed.

CONCLUSIONS

We deliver the most extensive survey dealing with the ethnomedicinal knowledge of Thai medicinal plants utilized on diabetes management. We are certain that the current review will spark further research on Thai plants for the development of new standardized phytomedicines through drug discovery programmes.

Hypoglycemia induced by Plasmodium berghei infection is prevented by treatment with Tinospora crispa stem extract

During Plasmodium malaria parasite infection in a human, the intraerythrocytic stages lead to the clinical manifestations of the disease, especially hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia is a recognized feature of severe malaria and linked with a high risk of mortality for children. Hence, the present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of T. crispa stem extract on hypoglycemia induced by P. berghei infection tested with a mouse model. ICR mice were inoculated with 1 × 10⁷ parasitized erythrocytes of P. berghei ANKA (PbANKA) by intraperitoneal injection and given 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg of ethanolic extract for 4-consecutive days. The results showed that T. crispa stem extract exerted a protective effect (100%) on hypoglycemia induced by PbANKA infection at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg. A significantly (p < .05) prolonged mean survival time (28.0 ± 1.9 days) of the extract treated mice was also observed. Additionally, no effect on blood glucose levels was seen in normal mice treated with all doses of extract. It can be concluded that T. crispa stem extract may have beneficial properties in protecting against hypoglycemia, and in increasing survival time during malaria infection.

Borapetoside E, a Clerodane Diterpenoid Extracted from Tinospora crispa, Improves Hyperglycemia and Hyperlipidemia in High-Fat-Diet-Induced Type 2 Diabetes Mice

An insidious increase in the incidence of obesity, insulin resistance, and hyperlipidemia has led to an epidemic of type 2 diabetes worldwide. Tinospora crispa (T. crispa) is a familiar plant traditionally used in herbal medicine for diabetes; however, the major active ingredients of this plant are still unclear. In this study, we identified the therapeutic effects of borapetoside E, a small molecule extracted from T. crispa, in high-fat-diet (HFD)-induced obesity in mice. The therapeutic effects of borapetoside E in HFD-induced obese mice were assessed physiologically, histologically, and biochemically following intraperitoneal injection. Furthermore, we analyzed the expression of glucose and lipid metabolism-related genes and proteins in borapetoside E-treated obese mice. Compared with vehicle-treated mice, borapetoside E markedly improved hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, hyperlipidemia, and oxygen consumption in obese mice, and the effects were comparable to or better than the drug metformin. In addition, borapetoside E suppressed the expression of sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) and their downstream target genes related to lipid synthesis in the liver and adipose tissue. Borapetoside E showed beneficial effects in vivo, demonstrating that borapetoside E may be a potential therapy for the treatment of diet-induced type 2 diabetes and related metabolic syndromes.

Varic acid analogues from fungus as PTP1B inhibitors: Biological evaluation and structure-activity relationships

Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) inhibitors as potential therapies for diabetes and obesity have attracted much attention in recent years. Six varic acid analogues were isolated from two strains of fungi and evaluated for PTP1B inhibition activities. The structure-activity relationships were also characterized and predicted by molecular modeling. Further kinetic studies indicated the reversible and competitive inhibition manner of varic acid analogues. Trivaric acid showed insulin-sensitizing effect not only in vitro but also in vivo, representing a promising lead compound for further optimization.

Applicability of Isolates and Fractions of Plant Extracts in Murine Models in Type II Diabetes: A Systematic Review

Type II diabetes mellitus is one of the most common public health problems worldwide. Its increasing prevalence in several countries and the difficult metabolic control of individuals with the disease justify studying strategies for primary prevention. The population has sought alternative and cheaper ways to treat the disease, including the use of plants considered medicinal by the population. In this study, we carried out a systematic review on the applicability of isolates and fractions of plant extracts in animal models in type II diabetes. A literature search was performed in MEDLINE/PubMed and Scopus databases. Studies using other experimental animals (horses, rabbits, and monkeys) and humans as well as articles in Chinese, German, and Russian were excluded. We assessed the quality of the studies included by using the criteria described in the ARRIVE guidelines. In general, the animals that received fractions or isolates presented reduced blood glucose levels, normalization of body weight and plasma insulin levels, and reduced total triglycerides and cholesterol. In addition, we observed wide variation among the analyzed parameters, which hindered comparison between the studies found. In further studies, standardized reports and experimental design would help to establish comparable study groups and advance the overall knowledge, thus facilitating translatability from animal data to human clinical conditions.

Clerodane Diterpenoids with Anti-hyperglycemic Activity from Tinospora crispa

Four new clerodane diterpenoids, tinosporols A-C (2-4) and tinosporoside A (5), together with six known analogues were isolated from the vines of Tinospora crispa. Their structures were established by extensive spectroscopic analysis. The relative configuration at C-12 in the known diterpenoid borapetoside E (1), the major component of the plant, was firstly established with the aid of molecular model. Compound 1 significantly reduced serum glucose levels at dose-dependent manners in alloxan-induced hyperglycemic mice and db/db type 2 diabetic mice.

Genus Tinospora: Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology

The genus Tinospora includes 34 species, in which several herbs were used as traditional medicines by indigenous groups throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, Africa, and Australia. The extensive literature survey revealed Tinospora species to be a group of important medicinal plants used for the ethnomedical treatment of colds, headaches, pharyngitis, fever, diarrhea, oral ulcer, diabetes, digestive disorder, and rheumatoid arthritis. Indian ethnopharmacological data points to the therapeutic potential of the T. cordifolia for the treatment of diabetic conditions. While Tinospora species are confusing in individual ingredients and their mechanisms of action, the ethnopharmacological history of those plants indicated that they exhibit antidiabetic, antioxidation, antitumor, anti-inflammation, antimicrobial, antiosteoporosis, and immunostimulation activities. While the clinical applications in modern medicine are lacking convincing evidence and support, this review is aimed at summarizing the current knowledge of the traditional uses, phytochemistry, biological activities, and toxicities of the genus Tinospora to reveal its therapeutic potentials and gaps, offering opportunities for future researches.

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson: A Review of Its Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Aspects

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson (Menispermaceae), found in the rainforests or mixed deciduous forests in Asia and Africa, is used in traditional medicines to treat numerous health conditions. This review summarizes the up-to-date reports about the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, toxicology, and clinical trials of the plant. It also provides critical assessment about the present knowledge of the plant which could contribute toward improving its prospect as a source of lead molecules for drug discovery. The plant has been used traditionally in the treatment of jaundice, rheumatism, urinary disorders, fever, malaria, diabetes, internal inflammation, fracture, scabies, hypertension, reducing thirst, increasing appetite, cooling down the body temperature, and maintaining good health. Phytochemical analyses of T. crispa revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and flavone glycosides, triterpenes, diterpenes and diterpene glycosides, cis clerodane-type furanoditerpenoids, lactones, sterols, lignans, and nucleosides. Studies showed that the crude extracts and isolated compounds of T. crispa possessed a broad range of pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, cytotoxic, antimalarial, cardioprotective, and anti-diabetic activities. Most pharmacological studies were based on crude extracts of the plant and the bioactive compounds responsible for the bioactivities have not been well identified. Further investigations are required to transform the experience-based claims on the use of T. crispa in traditional medicine practices into evidence-based information. The plant extract used in pharmacological and biological studies should be qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed based on its biomarkers. There should be detail in vitro and in vivo studies on the mechanisms of action of the pure bioactive compounds and more elaborate toxicity study to ensure safety of the plant for human use. More clinical trials are encouraged to be carried out if there are sufficient preclinical and safety data.

Therapeutic effect of Zhuang herb Hanyitai on duck hepatitis B

AIM: To investigate the therapeutic effect of Zhuang herb Hanyitai on liver function, viral replication, immune regulation and liver inflammation in a duck model infected by duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV).

METHODS: Duck hepatitis B was induced by intraperitoneal injection of DHBV positive serum into one-day-old Guangxi sheldrakes. On the day before treatment (T0), 7 d (T7) and 14 d (T14) during treatment, and 3 d (P3) after treatment, jugular blood and liver tissue samples were collected to detect aspartate aminotransferase (ALT), alanine aminotransferase (AST), interleukin-2 (IL-2), DHBV DNA, and liver pathology.

RESULTS: In the model group, ALT, AST and IL-2 levels were significantly increased after DHBV infection for one week and two weeks (P = 0.028, 0.036; P = 0.005, 0.04; P = 0.045), the amount of virus was relatively stable, and severe fatty degeneration was observed in liver tissues. In the lamivudine group, ALT and IL-2 levels were significantly decreased after treatment for one week and two weeks (P = 0.001, 0.042; P = 0.023), AST level showed no significant changes, the replication of virus was significantly inhibited (P = 0.034; 0.007), without rebounding after medication withdrawal for three days (P = 0.013), and liver tissue pathology showed moderate liver steatosis. In the high dose Hanyitai group, ALT, AST, and IL-2 levels were significantly reduced after treatment for one week and two weeks (P = 0.047, 0.035; P = 0.007, 0.003; P = 0.026, 0.049), the replication of virus was inhibited significantly as the lamivudine group (P = 0.025; P = 0.012; P = 0.011), and liver tissue pathology displayed moderate liver steatosis. In the usual dose Hanyitai group, ALT, AST, and IL-2 levels were significantly reduced after treatment for one week and two weeks (P = 0.015; P = 0.038; P = 0.024, 0.004), but at T14, ALT and AST level rebounded, the replication of virus was inhibited moderately, and moderate or severe steatosis was noted.

CONCLUSION: Hanyitai can reduce transaminase levels, inhibit DHBV DNA replication, and reduce IL-2 secretion in a dose-dependent manner. Hanyitai could protect liver cells, relieve hepatic steatosis, and reduce acute immunological liver injury.

Cocoa-rich diet ameliorates hepatic insulin resistance by modulating insulin signaling and glucose homeostasis in Zucker diabetic fatty rats

Insulin resistance is the primary characteristic of type 2 diabetes and results from insulin signaling defects. Cocoa has been shown to exert anti-diabetic effects by lowering glucose levels. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for this preventive activity and whether cocoa exerts potential beneficial effects on the insulin signaling pathway in the liver remain largely unknown. Thus, in this study, the potential anti-diabetic properties of cocoa on glucose homeostasis and insulin signaling were evaluated in type 2 diabetic Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats. Male ZDF rats were fed a control or cocoa-rich diet (10%), and Zucker lean animals received the control diet. ZDF rats supplemented with cocoa (ZDF-Co) showed a significant decrease in body weight gain, glucose and insulin levels, as well as an improved glucose tolerance and insulin resistance. Cocoa-rich diet further ameliorated the hepatic insulin resistance by abolishing the increased serine-phosphorylated levels of the insulin receptor substrate 1 and preventing the inactivation of the glycogen synthase kinase 3/glycogen synthase pathway in the liver of cocoa-fed ZDF rats. The anti-hyperglycemic effect of cocoa appeared to be at least mediated through the decreased levels of hepatic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and increased values of glucokinase and glucose transporter 2 in the liver of ZDF-Co rats. Moreover, cocoa-rich diet suppressed c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 activation caused by insulin resistance. These findings suggest that cocoa has the potential to alleviate both hyperglycemia and hepatic insulin resistance in type 2 diabetic ZDF rats.

Tinospora crispa Ameliorates Insulin Resistance Induced by High Fat Diet in Wistar Rats

The antidiabetic properties of Tinospora crispa, a local herb that has been used in traditional Malay medicine and rich in antioxidant, were explored based on obesity-linked insulin resistance condition. Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups, namely, the normal control (NC) which received standard rodent diet, the high fat diet (HFD) which received high fat diet only, the high fat diet treated with T. crispa (HFDTC), and the high fat diet treated with orlistat (HFDO). After sixteen weeks of treatment, blood and organs were harvested for analyses. Results showed that T. crispa significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the body weight (41.14 ± 1.40%), adiposity index serum levels (4.910 ± 0.80%), aspartate aminotransferase (AST: 161 ± 4.71 U/L), alanine aminotransferase (ALT: 100.95 ± 3.10 U/L), total cholesterol (TC: 18.55 ± 0.26 mmol/L), triglycerides (TG: 3.70 ± 0.11 mmol/L), blood glucose (8.50 ± 0.30 mmo/L), resistin (0.74 ± 0.20 ng/mL), and leptin (17.428 ± 1.50 ng/mL) hormones in HFDTC group. The insulin (1.65 ± 0.07 pg/mL) and C-peptide (136.48 pmol/L) hormones were slightly decreased but within normal range. The histological results showed unharmed and intact liver tissues in HFDTC group. As a conclusion, T. crispa ameliorates insulin resistance-associated with obesity in Wistar rats fed with high fat diet.

RA abrogates hepatic gluconeogenesis and insulin resistance by enhancing IRS-1 and AMPK signalling in experimental type 2 diabetes

RA abrogates hyperglycemia and insulin resistance, the primary features of type 2 diabetes (T2DM).

Immunomodulatory effect of an isolated fraction from Tinospora crispa on intracellular expression of INF-γ, IL-6 and IL-8

Background

Immunomodulators are substances that modify immune system response to a threat. Immunomodulators modulate and potentiate the immune system, keeping it highly prepared for any threat. The immunomodulatory effect of the traditional medicine Tinospora crispa is investigated in this work.

Methods

T. crispa ethanol extract was fractionated by using different solvents. The ethanol extract and effective isolated fraction were used to investigate the potential immunomodulatory effect of different T. crispa doses ranging from 25 μg/mL to 1000 μg/mL on RAW 246.7 cells by detecting intracellular INF-γ, IL-6, and IL-8 expressions. The antioxidant activity of T. crispa was evaluated through FRAP and DPPH. The total phenolic and total flavonoid contents were also quantified.

Results

Results show that T. crispa extract has higher antioxidant potential than ascorbic acid. The FRAP value of T. crispa extract is 11011.11 ± 1145.42 μmol Fe⁺²/g, and its DPPH inhibition percentage is 55.79 ± 7.9, with 22 μg/mL IC50. The results also reveal that the total phenolic content of T. crispa extract is 213.16- ± 1.31 mg GAE/g dry stem weight, and the total flavonoid content is 62.07- ± 39.76 mg QE/g dry stem weight. T. crispa crude extract and its isolated fraction significantly stimulate RAW264.7 cell viability (P ≤ 0.05) and intracellular INF-γ, IL-6, and IL-8 expressions. The results of LC-MS show that four of the active compounds detected in the T. crispa isolated fraction are cordioside, quercetin, eicosenoic acid (paullinic acid), and boldine.

Conclusions

The results of this study obviously indicate that T. crispa has immunomodulatory effects through the stimulation of INF-γ, IL-6, and IL-8 expressions. LC-MS phytochemical analysis showed that the T. crispa fraction has cordioside, quercetin, eicosenoic acid (paullinic acid), and boldine, which may be responsible for the immunostimulator effect of T. crispa.

Antidiabetic plants improving insulin sensitivity

BACKGROUND

Globally, the prevalence of diabetes mellitus is increasing at an alarming rate. This chronic pathology gravely troubled the human health and quality of life. Both insulin deficiency and insulin resistance are involved in the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus. Moreover, insulin resistance is being diagnosed nowadays in a growing population of diabetic and obese patients, especially in industrialized societies. There are lots of conventional agents available to control and to treat diabetes, but total recovery from this disorder has not been reported up to this date. Plants provided a potential source of hypoglycemic drugs and are widely used in several traditional systems of medicine to prevent diabetes. A few reviews with less attention paid to mechanisms of action have been published on antidiabetic plants.

OBJECTIVES

The present review focuses on the various plants that have been reported to be effective in improving insulin sensitivity associated with diabetes.

KEY FINDINGS

In this work, an updated systematic review of the published literature has been conducted to review the antidiabetic plants improving insulin sensitivity and 111 medicinal plants have been reported to have a beneficial effect on insulin sensitivity using several in-vitro and in-vivo animal models of diabetes.

CONCLUSION

The different metabolic and cellular effects of the antidiabetic plants improving insulin sensitivity are reported indicating the important role of medicinal plants as potential alternative or complementary use in controlling insulin resistance associated with diabetes mellitus.

Antidiabetic Effect of Oral Borapetol B Compound, Isolated from the Plant Tinospora crispa, by Stimulating Insulin Release

Aims. To evaluate the antidiabetic properties of borapetol B known as compound 1 (C1) isolated from Tinospora crispa in normoglycemic control Wistar (W) and spontaneously type 2 diabetic Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats. Methods. The effect of C1 on blood glucose and plasma insulin was assessed by an oral glucose tolerance test. The effect of C1 on insulin secretion was assessed by batch incubation and perifusion experiments using isolated pancreatic islets. Results. An acute oral administration of C1 improved blood glucose levels in treated versus placebo groups with areas under glucose curves 0–120 min being 72 ± 17 versus 344 ± 10 mmol/L (P < 0.001) and 492 ± 63 versus 862 ± 55 mmol/L (P < 0.01) in W and GK rats, respectively. Plasma insulin levels were increased by 2-fold in treated W and GK rats versus placebo group at 30 min (P < 0.05). C1 dose-dependently increased insulin secretion from W and GK isolated islets at 3.3 mM and 16.7 mM glucose. The perifusions of isolated islets indicated that C1 did not cause leakage of insulin by damaging islet beta cells (P < 0.001). Conclusion. This study provides evidence that borapetol B (C1) has antidiabetic properties mainly due to its stimulation of insulin release.

Hypoglycemic action of borapetoside A from the plant Tinospora crispa in mice

AIM

This study explores the hypoglycemic effects of borapetoside A, the most active principle among three major diterpenoids (borapetosides A, B, and C) isolated from ethanol extract of Tinospora crispa vines.

METHODS

We employed mouse mitogenic C2C12 and hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3B cells in this study. Furthermore, the mice were divided into three groups, including streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes mellitus, diet-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus, and normal control. The mice in each group were treated with assigned vehicle control, borapetoside A, or other active agents.

RESULTS

Borapetoside A was shown to increase the glycogen content and decrease the plasma glucose concentration in a concentration or dose-dependent manner in vitro and in vivo. The hypoglycemic effects in the normal mice and the mice with type 2 diabetes mellitus were associated with the increases of the plasma insulin levels; whereas, the insulin levels remained unchanged in the mice with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Borapetoside A not only attenuated the elevation of plasma glucose induced by an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test, but also increased the glycogen synthesis of IL-6 treated C2C12 cells. Moreover, the elevated protein expression levels of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase were reversed after borapetoside A treatment twice a day for 7 days.

CONCLUSIONS

The hypoglycemic effects of borapetoside A were mediated through both the insulin-dependent and the insulin-independent pathways. Furthermore, borapetoside A was shown to increase the glucose utilization in peripheral tissues, to reduce the hepatic gluconeogenesis, and to activate the insulin signaling pathway; they thereby contributed to the lowering of the plasma glucose. Comparison of the structures of three borapetosides suggests clearly that the C-8 stereochemistry plays a key role in hypoglycemic effect since the active borapetoside A and C possess 8R-chirality but the inactive borapetoside B possess 8S-chirality. The location of glycoside at C-3 for borapetoside A but C-6 for borapetoside C and the formation of lactone between C-4 and C-6 for borapetoside A, could account for the different potency in hypoglycemic action for these two compounds.

In vitro anti-HBV effect of polyherbal medicine of Chuang herb HanYiTai

AIM: To compare the effect of polyherbal medicine and single herb of Chuang herb HanYiTai in resisting HBV by detecting HBV antigen and HBV DNA.

METHODS: Different concentrations of HanYiTai and other compounded herbs were co-incubated with 2215 cells in vitro, and their toxic effects were detected by XTT method to determine the safe concentrations of HanYiTai and other herbs. Polyherbal compounds were matched with a variety of intoxic concentrations of herbs. Culture medium was changed once every 3 d, and supernatants were collected 9 d later. The contents of HBsAg and HBeAg in supernatants were measured using ELISA. Meanwhile, the secretion of HBV-DNA was detected using fluorescent quantitative PCR.

RESULTS: The inhibitory effect of polyherbal medicine on the secretion of HBsAg antigen was slightly stronger than that of single HanYiTai group, but the difference was not statistically significant. The inhibitory effect of polyherbal medicine F3-F5 on the secretion of HBeAg and HBVDNA was significantly stronger than that of corresponding concentrations of single HanYiTai (P = 0.002-0.009; P = 0.038-0.05). Polyherbal medicine at low and middle concentrations (F3-F5) showed stronger inhibitory effect on the secretion of HBVDNA than that at high concentrations (F1-F2) (P = 0.048-0.015).

CONCLUSION: Anti-HBV effect of low concentration of polyherbal medicine was better than that of high concentration of polyherbal medicine and corresponding concentration of HanyiTai single herb. The mutual influence and synergy of various pharmaceutical ingredients can not only reduce the concentration of a single drug but also produce a superimposed synergistic effect.

Cocoa flavonoids improve insulin signalling and modulate glucose production via AKT and AMPK in HepG2 cells

SCOPE

Cocoa and (-)-epicatechin (EC), a main cocoa flavanol, have been suggested to exert beneficial effects in diabetes, but the mechanism for their insulin-like effects remains unknown. In this study, the modulation of insulin signalling by EC and a cocoa phenolic extract (CPE) on hepatic HepG2 cells was investigated by analysing key proteins of the insulin pathways, namely insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrate (IRS) 1 and 2, PI3K/AKT and 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), as well as the levels of the glucose transporter GLUT-2 and the hepatic glucose production.

METHODS AND RESULTS

EC and CPE enhanced the tyrosine phosphorylation and total insulin receptor, IRS-1 and IRS-2 levels and activated the PI3K/AKT pathway and AMPK in HepG2 cells. CPE also enhanced the levels of GLUT-2. Interestingly, EC and CPE modulated the expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a key protein involved in the gluconeogenesis, leading to a diminished glucose production. In addition, EC- and CPE-regulated hepatic gluconeogenesis was prevented by the blockage of AKT and AMPK.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that EC and CPE strengthen the insulin signalling by activating key proteins of that pathway and regulating glucose production through AKT and AMPK modulation in HepG2 cells.