Acute exercise ameliorates craving and inhibitory deficits in methamphetamine: An ERP study

Enhancing Substance Use Disorder Recovery through Integrated Physical Activity and Behavioral Interventions: A Comprehensive Approach to Treatment and Prevention

The global issue of substance abuse demands ongoing initiatives aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. With drug use remaining prevalent worldwide, interventions are critical to addressing the associated health challenges and societal implications. Exercise and physical activities have emerged as integral components of substance use disorder (SUD) treatment, offering promising avenues for prevention, intervention, and recovery. Recent research underscores the efficacy of exercise in reducing substance cravings, promoting abstinence, and improving overall well-being. However, integrating exercise into SUD recovery programs presents challenges such as dropout rates and cultural considerations. This paper synthesizes existing literature on exercise integration into SUD recovery, highlighting strategies for enhancing treatment outcomes and addressing barriers to exercise adherence. Drawing on cognitive-behavioral therapy, experiential learning, motivational interviewing, and goal-setting techniques, the holistic approach outlined in this paper aims to empower individuals both mentally and physically, fostering resilience and supporting long-term recovery. In conclusion, new initiatives need to be taken by advocating for inclusive policies, promoting community engagement, and fostering collaborations across sectors. By doing so, stakeholders can optimize the effectiveness of exercise programs and contribute to sustainable rehabilitation efforts for individuals with SUD.

Effects of exercise interventions on negative emotions, cognitive performance and drug craving in methamphetamine addiction

Introduction

Methamphetamine is currently one of the most commonly used addictive substances with strong addiction and a high relapse rate. This systematic review aims to examine the effectiveness of physical activity in improving negative emotions, cognitive impairment, and drug craving in people with methamphetamine use disorder (MUD).

Methods

A total of 17 studies out of 133 found from Embase and PubMed were identified, reporting results from 1836 participants from MUD populations. Original research using clearly described physical activity as interventions and reporting quantifiable outcomes of negative mood, cognitive function and drug craving level in people with MUD were eligible for inclusion. We included prospective studies, randomized controlled trials, or intervention studies, focusing on the neurological effects of physical activity on MUD.

Results

Taken together, the available clinical evidence showed that physical activity-based interventions may be effective in managing MUD-related withdrawal symptoms.

Discussion

Physical exercise may improve drug rehabilitation efficiency by improving negative emotions, cognitive behaviors, and drug cravings.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier CRD42024530359.

Understanding physical exercise among individuals with substance use disorders using an integrated theoretical perspective of the health action process approach and theory of planned behavior

Introduction

Physical exercise is considered a useful non-pharmacological adjunctive treatment for promoting recovery from substance use disorders (SUD). However, adherence to physical exercise treatments is low, and little is known about what factors are associated with the initiation and maintenance of physical exercise behaviors. The aim of this study was to explore the psychosocial factors underlying these behaviors in individuals with SUD using an integrated theoretical model based on the health action process approach (HAPA) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB).

Methods

A total of 1,197 individuals with SUDs (aged 37.20 ± 8.62 years) were recruited from 10 compulsory isolation drug rehabilitation centers in Zhejiang Province via convenience sampling according to a set of inclusion criteria. Self-reported data were collected to assess task self-efficacy (TSE), maintenance self-efficacy (MSE), recovery self-efficacy (RSE), outcome expectations (OE), action planning (AP), coping planning (CP), social support (SS), subjective norms (SN), attitude behavior (AB), behavioral intention (BI), perceived behavioral control (PBC), risk perception (RP), exercise stage, and exercise behavior in this integrated model. ANOVA and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to evaluate this model.

Results

One-way ANOVA revealed that the majority of the moderating variables were significantly different in the exercise phase. Further SEM showed that the model fit the data and revealed several important relationships. TSE, RP, SS, AB, and SN were indirectly associated with physical exercise behavior in individuals with SUD through the BI in the SUD initiation stage. In addition, PBC was directly related to physical exercise behavior in individuals with SUD. In the maintenance stage, MSE, AP, CP and exercise behavior were significantly related. Moreover, AP and CP were mediators of BI and MSE.

Conclusion

This study is the first attempt to integrate patterns of physical exercise behavior in individuals with SUD. The HAPA-TPB integration model provides a useful framework for identifying determinants of physical exercise behavioral intentions and behaviors in individuals with SUD and for explaining and predicting the initiation and maintenance of physical exercise behaviors in these individuals. Moreover, the model provides scientific guidance for the enhancement of physical exercise adherence in individuals with SUD.

The influence of volume-matched acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control in late-middle-aged and older adults: A neuroelectric study

Acute aerobic exercise has been shown to benefit inhibitory control; however, less attention has been devoted to the effects of varying intensity and duration with a predetermined exercise volume. The current study assessed the influence of three distinct exercise conditions, each equated with a predesignated exercise volume but varied in terms of exercise durations and intensities, on inhibitory control utilizing both behavioral and neuroelectric measures obtained among late-middle-aged and older adults. Thirty-four adults (61.76 ± 0.80 years) completed three exercise conditions [i.e., a 30-min low-intensity exercise (LIE), a 20-min moderate-intensity exercise (MIE), and a 16-min high-intensity exercise (HIE)] and a non-exercise reading control condition (CON) on separate days. The exercise volumes of LIE and HIE were designed to match the exercise volume of MIE. Following cessation of each condition, the Stroop task was performed while event-related potentials were recorded. Improved behavioral performance (i.e., shorter response time, higher accuracy, and smaller interference scores) was observed after LIE, MIE, and HIE than CON (ps < .005). Additionally, whereas a larger P3b amplitude was only observed following MIE compared to CON (p < .01), larger N2 and smaller N450 amplitudes were observed following all three exercise conditions compared to CON (ps < .005). These findings suggested that while MIE may provide additional benefits for attentional resource allocation, exercise conditions volume matched to MIE resulted in superior inhibitory control, paralleled by modulations of the neural underpinnings of conflict monitoring/detection.

Effect of aerobic exercise on brain metabolite profiles in the mouse models of methamphetamine addiction: LC-MS-based metabolomics study

Methamphetamine (MA) abuse is recognized as a brain disorder, and physical activity has clear benefits for MA use disorders. The specific mechanisms by which physical activity alleviates MA use disorders are currently not fully understood. Based on this, the present study used untargeted metabolomics using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to analyze the metabolic changes induced by MA in the brains of mice by exercise intervention. It was found that after 2 weeks of treadmill training, aerobic exercise modulated MA-induced brain metabolic disorders, in which 129 metabolites existed that were significantly differentiated in response to MA induction, and 32 metabolites were significantly affected by exercise. These differential metabolites were mainly enriched in glycerophospholipid metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis and degradation, and renin-angiotensin system pathways. To our knowledge, this study is the first to use LC-MS to investigate the effects of aerobic exercise on MA-induced brain metabolic profiling. The findings of this study provide new insights into exercise therapy using MA.

Effects of cognitive demand during acute exercise on inhibitory control and its electrophysiological indices: A randomized crossover study

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of cognitive demand during acute exercise on the behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory control. In a within- participants design, 30 male participants (age range = 18-27 years) performed 20-min sessions of high cognitive-demand exercise (HE), low cognitive-demand exercise (LE), and an active control (AC) on separate days in a randomized order. A moderate-to-vigorous intensity interval step exercise was used as the exercise intervention. During the exercise periods, the participants were instructed to respond to the target among competing stimuli to impose different cognitive demands with their feet. A modified flanker task was administered to assess inhibitory control before and after the interventions, and electroencephalography was used to derive stimulus-elicited N2 and P3 components. Behavioral data showed that the participants performed significantly shorter reaction time (RT), regardless of congruency and a reduced RT flanker effect following HE and LE compared with the AC condition with large (ds = -0.934 to -1.07) and medium effect sizes (ds = -0.502 to -0.507), respectively. Electrophysiological data revealed that compared with the AC condition, acute HE and LE had facilitative effects on stimuli evaluation, as indicated by significantly shorter N2 latency for congruent trials and P3 latency regardless of congruency with medium effect sizes (ds = -0.507 to -0.777). Compared with the AC condition, only acute HE elicited more efficient neural processes in conditions requiring high inhibitory control demand, as indicated by significantly shorter N2 difference latency, with a medium effect size (d = -0.528). Overall, the findings suggest that acute HE and LE facilitate inhibitory control and the electrophysiological substrates of target evaluation. Acute exercise with higher cognitive demand may be associated with more refined neural processing for tasks demanding greater amounts of inhibitory control.

A systematic review of the prediction of consumer preference using EEG measures and machine-learning in neuromarketing research

Introduction

The present paper discusses the findings of a systematic review of EEG measures in neuromarketing, identifying which EEG measures are the most robust predictor of customer preference in neuromarketing. The review investigated which TF effect (e.g., theta-band power), and ERP component (e.g., N400) was most consistently reflective of self-reported preference. Machine-learning prediction also investigated, along with the use of EEG when combined with physiological measures such as eye-tracking.

Methods

Search terms ‘neuromarketing’ and ‘consumer neuroscience’ identified papers that used EEG measures. Publications were excluded if they were primarily written in a language other than English or were not published as journal articles (e.g., book chapters). 174 papers were included in the present review.

Results

Frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) was the most reliable TF signal of preference and was able to differentiate positive from negative consumer responses. Similarly, the late positive potential (LPP) was the most reliable ERP component, reflecting conscious emotional evaluation of products and advertising. However, there was limited consistency across papers, with each measure showing mixed results when related to preference and purchase behaviour.

Conclusions and implications

FAA and the LPP were the most consistent markers of emotional responses to marketing stimuli, consumer preference and purchase intention. Predictive accuracy of FAA and the LPP was greatly improved through the use of machine-learning prediction, especially when combined with eye-tracking or facial expression analyses.

Reducing short- and long-term cocaine craving with voluntary exercise in male rats

BACKGROUND

In a previous study in female rats, voluntary wheel running attenuated incubation of cocaine craving after 30 but not 3 days (Zlebnik and Carroll Zlebnik and Carroll, Psychopharmacology 232:3507-3413, 2015). The present study in male rats, using the same procedure, showed that wheel running reduced incubated craving after both 30 and 3 days of abstinence.

METHODS

Male rats self-administered i.v. cocaine (0.4 mg/kg) during 6-h sessions for 10 days. They were then moved from the operant chamber to a home cage with an attached running wheel or stationary wheel, for 6 h daily for a 3- or 30-day period when cocaine craving was hypothesized to incubate. Rats were then returned to the operant chamber for a 30-min test of cocaine seeking, or "craving," indicated by responses on the former "drug" lever was formerly associated with drug stimulus lights and responses (vs. no drug stimuli), and lever responding was compared to responses on the "inactive" that was illuminated and counted lever pressing.

RESULTS

Mean wheel revolutions were similar across the 3- and 30-day incubation groups, when both groups of rats were given access to wheel running vs. access to a stationary wheel in controls. Subsequently, when rats were tested in the operant chamber for "relapse" responding (drug-lever responding) on the lever formerly associated with drug access, cocaine craving was reduced by recent running wheel access (vs. stationary wheel access) in both the 3- and 30-day wheel exposure groups.

CONCLUSION

Voluntary, self-initiated, and self-sustained physical exercise reduced cocaine craving after short- (3 days) and long-term (30 days) abstinence periods in male rats that previously self-administered cocaine. This was contrasted with reduction of cocaine seeking in females after 30-day, but not 3-day, incubation periods under the wheel running vs. stationary wheel conditions in a previous study (Zlebnik and Carroll Zlebnik and Carroll, Psychopharmacology 232:3507-3413, 2015). These initial findings suggest males may be more sensitive to incubated craving for cocaine than females.

Comparison of the acute effects of Tai chi versus high-intensity interval training on inhibitory control in individuals with substance use disorder

Objective

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of a single session of Tai chi (TC) exercise and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on inhibitory control in individuals with substance use disorder (SUD).

Methods

A total 47 males with methamphetamine dependence were recruited from a compulsory drug rehabilitation center; participation in this study was voluntary. The participants were randomly assigned to the TC group or the HIIT group, and computer-based Go/No-go and Stroop tasks were used to assess inhibitory control in an indoor setting prior to and following exercise. Independent sample t-test was applied for baseline comparison of continuous variables, while analysis of variance was applied to test differences in the effect of each intervention before and after a single session of exercise.

Results

In Go/No-go test, the reaction time of the TC and HIIT groups in the post-test was shorter than that at the baseline, and the response accuracy of the post-test were higher than that of the baseline. In the Stroop task, the reaction time of two groups in the post-test was shorter than that at the baseline; while, greater improvement in response accuracy was observed in HIIT group in the post-test than that of the baseline.

Conclusion

Both TC and HIIT can promote inhibitory control in individuals with SUD. Compared with the TC group, the HIIT group showed greater improvements in response accuracy. These findings demonstrate the potential of TC and HIIT in improving cognition in SUD.

Clinical trial registration

[http://www.chictr.org.cn/], identifier [ChiCTR1900022158].

Aerobic exercise as a promising nonpharmacological therapy for the treatment of substance use disorders

Despite the prevalence and public health impact of substance use disorders (SUDs), effective long-term treatments remain elusive. Aerobic exercise is a promising, nonpharmacological treatment currently under investigation as a strategy for preventing drug relapse. Aerobic exercise could be incorporated into the comprehensive treatment regimens for people with substance abuse disorders. Preclinical studies of SUD with animal models have shown that aerobic exercise diminishes drug-seeking behavior, which leads to relapse, in both male and female rats. Nevertheless, little is known regarding the effects of substance abuse-induced cellular and physiological adaptations believed to be responsible for drug-seeking behavior. Accordingly, the overall goal of this review is to provide a summary and an assessment of findings to date, highlighting evidence of the molecular and neurological effects of exercise on adaptations associated with SUD.

Changes in inhibitory control, craving and affect after yoga vs. aerobic exercise among smokers with nicotine dependence

Objectives

This study investigated the acute effects of yoga and aerobic exercise on response inhibition and the underlying neural mechanisms in individuals with nicotine dependence, along with changes in craving and affect.

Materials and methods

Study participants included 30 yoga-naïve adult smokers with moderate-to-high nicotine dependence. Based on a within-subjects design, all participants participated in three experimental sessions: baseline, 30-min yoga, and 30-min aerobic exercise; one session was conducted per day. The pre- and post-exercise Questionnaire of Smoking Urges and the Visual Analogue Scale were used to measure cigarette craving, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule was used to assess affective change. For cognitive measurement of inhibition, participants performed a Go/Nogo task consisting of Smoking-Go, Smoking-Nogo, Neutral-Go, and Neutral-Nogo stimulus conditions. Neuroelectric data were collected and the event-related potential (ERP) N2 and P3 amplitudes and latencies were analyzed.

Results

Both yoga and aerobic exercise significantly reduced negative affect, whereas a reduction in craving was only observed after yoga. ERP results indicated that the P3 amplitudes after yoga were lower than those after aerobic exercise, suggesting increased neural efficiency after yoga, with reduced neural activity while maintaining the same level of cognitive performance as aerobic exercise.

Conclusion

As yoga and aerobic exercise were equally effective in attenuating negative affect, smokers may expect greater benefits from yoga in craving reduction and inhibitory control with less physical and cognitive effort. We also believe that video-based yoga practice may provide additional benefits to these effects, reaching a large number of smokers in a non-face-to-face manner.

Exercise Regulates the Metabolic Homeostasis of Methamphetamine Dependence

Physical exercise is effective in enhancing cognitive function, reducing anxiety and depressive symptoms, reducing cravings, and improving quality of life in methamphetamine (METH) addiction. However, little is known about the effect of exercise on metabolic profiles. We performed LC/MS-based targeted metabolic profiling on serum samples to investigate the metabolic characteristics of METH dependence and find the differences between METH-dependent individuals and nonusers and evaluated the metabolomic profiles of individuals with METH dependence following aerobic exercise training. We identified a total of 201 metabolites, among which 115 were differentially expressed under METH use. Among the differentially regulated metabolites, 72 were selected as potential biomarkers. Further analysis identified 19 pathways, among which glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism; alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism; and citrate cycle were most significantly affected by METH. The aerobic exercise intervention differentially regulated 55 metabolites, of which 51 were selected as potential biomarkers and were mainly enriched in 10 pathways. Interestingly, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism and nitrogen metabolism were the remarkably affected pathways. Furthermore, METH increased the serum levels of glutamate and decreased GABA, whereas exercise decreased the serum levels of glutamate and increased GABA. Results suggested that METH dependency disturbed normal metabolic homeostasis, whereas exercise restored metabolism.

Behavioral and Brain Reactivity Associated With Drug-Related and Non-Drug-Related Emotional Stimuli in Methamphetamine Addicts

Background

Methamphetamine addicts can experience severe emotional processing disorders, with abnormal responses to emotional and drug-related stimuli. These aberrant behaviors are one of the key factors leading to relapse. Nevertheless, the characteristics of addicts’ responses to drug-related stimuli and their responses to emotional stimuli remain controversial.

Methods

52 methamphetamine addicts from China passively viewed three different categories of images: Drug-related; positive emotional; and negative emotional. In the first task, participants completed a 9-point Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) scale, rating the valence of each image. In the second, they performed a cued-action task while electroencephalography (EEG) data were recorded.

Result

Drug-related images were rated negatively, with an average rating of 3.57. However, reaction times to drug-related stimuli were significantly faster than for negative stimuli (p = 0.030), and were indistinguishable from positive stimuli (p &gt; 0.99). Similarly, EPN amplitudes evoked by drug-related images were significantly larger than those evoked by negative stimuli (p &lt; 0.001), but no different than positive stimuli (p &gt; 0.99). LPP amplitudes evoked by drug-related stimuli were significantly smaller than those evoked by negative (p &lt; 0.001) and positive stimuli (p = 0.004).

Conclusion

Despite negative self-assessments of drug-related imagery, MA-addicts reaction times were no slower than positive reactions. Similarly, drug-related and positive imagery EPN amplitudes were indistinguishable. Together, these results suggest increased attentional resources were allocated to the processing of drug-related stimuli and the pathways responsible partially overlap with the those recruited in processing positive emotional imagery in addicts. Moreover, in the late stage of visual processing, MA-addicts showed reduced brain activity in response to drug-related stimuli, suggesting reverse inhibition in response preparation and emotional appraisal. These findings may provide a reference for clinicians treating drug-taking behavior and for the development of new models of rehabilitation therapy.

Does transcranial direct current stimulation enhance cognitive performance in Parkinson's disease mild cognitive impairment? An event-related potentials and neuropsychological assessment study

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease-mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI) is garnering attention as a key interventional period for cognitive impairment. Currently, there are no approved treatments for PD-MCI and encouraging results of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) combined with other interventions have been proposed, though the efficacy and neural mechanisms of tDCS alone have not been studied in PD-MCI yet.

OBJECTIVES

The present double-blind, randomized, sham-controlled study assessed the effects of tDCS over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on cognitive functions via neuropsychological and electrophysiological evaluations in individuals with PD-MCI for the first time.

METHOD

Twenty-six individuals with PD-MCI were administered 10 sessions of active (n = 13) or sham (n = 13) prefrontal tDCS twice a day, for 5 days. Changes were tested through a comprehensive neuropsychological battery and event-related potential recordings, which were performed before, immediately, and 1 month after the administrations.

RESULTS

Neuropsychological assessment showed an improvement in delayed recall and executive functions in the active group. N1 amplitudes in response to targets in the oddball test-likely indexing attention and discriminability and NoGo N2 amplitudes in the continuous performance test-likely indexing cognitive control and conflict monitoring increased in the active group. Active stimulation elicited higher benefits 1 month after the administrations.

CONCLUSION

The present findings substantiate the efficacy of tDCS on cognitive control and episodic memory, along with the neural underpinnings of cognitive control, highlighting its potential for therapeutic utility in PD-MCI.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT 04,171,804. Date of registration: 21/11/2019.

Acute Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control but Not Error Detection in Male Violent Perpetrators: An ERPs Study With the Emotional Stop Signal Task

Violence has been linked to the co-occurrence of cognitive dysfunction and altered activations in several brain regions. Empirical evidence demonstrated the benefits of acute exercise on motor inhibition and error detection and their neuronal processing. However, whether such effects also hold for the population with violent behaviors remains unknown. This study examined the effects of acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control and error monitoring among violent offenders. Fifteen male violent offenders were counterbalanced into experimental protocols, which comprised a 30-min moderately aerobic exercise [60% heart rate (HR) reserve] and a 30-min reading control session. After each session, participants performed an emotional stop signal task while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded simultaneously. Results showed insignificant changes in ERPs components [i.e., N2, P3, error-related negativity (ERN), and error-positivity (Pe) amplitudes] and the behavioral performance in go condition, stop accuracy, and post-error adjustments by exercise. However, the current study demonstrated that the acute exercise facilitated stop signal reaction time (SSRT) when compared to the control session regardless of emotional conditions. This is the first research to exhibit the improvements in inhibitory performance by acute exercise for violent offenders. Most importantly, this effect was independent of affective settings, expanding the existing knowledge of the influences of acute exercise on cognition. Our findings implicate the perspective of acute exercise for clinical and correctional practices.

The Impact of Exercise and Virtual Reality Executive Function Training on Cognition Among Heavy Drinking Veterans With Traumatic Brain Injury: A Pilot Feasibility Study

Executive function (EF) underlies self-control deficits in alcohol use disorder (AUD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Cognitive training is a promising adjunctive treatment targeting TBI- and AUD- related cognitive dysfunction. However, major limitations related to compliance and generalizability in the field of cognitive training exist. Physical activity is associated with enhanced cognitive performance across several executive functions and may enhance the benefits of cognitive training. Virtual reality provides multisensory embodied experiences which are likely to engage brain networks more efficiently than standard cognitive training systems, ultimately resulting in greater near- and far-transfer effects. This pilot study aimed to obtain feasibility data and a preliminary assessment of an enriched virtual reality (VR) EF training (EFT) intervention combined with exercise (NCT03786276). Using an 8-week randomized adaptive design study, 30 AUD treatment seeking U.S. Veterans completed nine sessions of exercise-only (n = 15) or gameplay control (n = 15) over 3 weeks, followed by a week-4 repeat assessment in Phase 1. Twenty-three participants completed and moved onto Phase II, where they completed up to nine sessions of VR-EFT plus exercise and completed a week-8 end-of-study assessment. Primary outcomes included feasibility to retain participants, usability, and satisfaction of using VR-EFT. Secondary and exploratory outcomes included within group assessment of change in cognitive function, alcohol use, alcohol craving, and post-concussive symptoms among the three treatment conditions.VR-EFT was feasible with moderate usability and high acceptability ratings.The most common VR-related adverse effect was motion sickness (n = 2/16, 12.5%). The VR-EFT condition was associated with significant improvement in inhibition-switching and visual scanning (both p < 0.05) during Phase II. Exercise-only was associated with significant improvements in cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, reductions in alcohol craving, and number of standard alcohol drinks per week (all p ≤ 0.05). The gaming-control condition was associated with improvement in cognitive flexibility and visuospatial immediate recall (both p < 0.05) during Phase 1. Recruitment and retention of U.S. veterans with AUD and TBI into an exercise plus VR-EFT intervention is feasible, but technological barriers may impact usability. VR-EFT was associated with improvement in executive function domains that were targeted in as little as 3-week and nine sessions of VR-EFT exposure. Results are promising and indicate the need for a larger controlled investigation to assess the efficacy of VR-EFT to enhance treatment outcomes among AUD treatment-seeking U.S. veterans with co-occurring AUD and TBI.

Clinical Trial Registration

www.ClinicalTrials.gov, Identifier: NCT03786276.

Acute effects of aerobic exercise on conflict suppression, response inhibition, and processing efficiency underlying inhibitory control processes: An ERP and SFT study

Aerobic exercise has been identified as an effective strategy for transiently enhancing inhibitory control, an ability to suppress irrelevant distractors while focusing on relevant information in facilitating the implementation of goal-directed behavior. The purpose of this study was to employ a go/no-go version of the redundant-target task and event-related potential to further determine whether inhibitory control at the perceptual and response levels as well as their underlying processing capacity and neuroelectric alterations are differentially affected by a single bout of aerobic exercise. Twenty-seven young adults completed the redundant-target task while electroencephalogram was recorded before and after one 20-min bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and a sitting control condition on separate days in counterbalanced order. Although behavioral outcomes of mean-level performance did not differ between intervention conditions, time-related decreases in processing capacity for the faster responses were only observed following rest. Aerobic exercise resulted in maintained P3b amplitude from pretest to posttest for all trial types while decreased P3b amplitude from pretest to posttest during single-target and redundant-target trials was observed following rest. Further, the time-related changes in P3b amplitude were positively correlated with improvements in task performance following exercise. These findings suggest that a short bout of aerobic exercise selectively counteracts the time-related decrements in processing capacity as well as neuroelectric processing of attention and conflict suppression that contribute to behavioral outcomes of inhibitory control.

Effects of moderate-intensity exercise on social health and physical and mental health of methamphetamine-dependent individuals: A randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

Methamphetamine (MA)-dependent individuals' health problems are widespread and need to be solved urgently. Exercise is considered a potential treatment for MA dependents. The study aimed to determine the effects of a 12-week aerobic exercise on the social, physical, and mental health of MA-dependent individuals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty MA-dependent individuals were randomly assigned into two groups. Subjects in the exercise group (n = 30) received an exercise intervention five days a week for 60 min each for 12 weeks. Subjects in the control group (n = 30) received regular corrective rehabilitation without exercise in the same setting. Outcome measures, including questionnaires [quality of life scale for drug addiction (QOL-DA), self-rating anxiety scale (SAS), self-rating depression scale (SDS), and Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI)] and physical fitness, were arranged the day before the start of the intervention and the day after the end of the intervention. Two-factor repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare the treatment differences between the two groups.

RESULTS

After 12 weeks of the intervention period, social health was significantly improved in the exercise group (P < 0.01), and there was a statistically significant difference in mental health scores between exercise group and control group, with a greater impact in exercise group.(Psychology: P < 0.01; SAS: P < 0.01; SDS: P < 0.01; PSQI: P < 0.01), physical health improved in the exercise group, physiology (P < 0.01), symptom (P < 0.01), heart rate (P < 0.01), systolic blood pressure (P < 0.01), systolic blood pressure (P < 0.01), vital capacity (P < 0.05), grip (P < 0.01), vertical jump (P < 0.001), sit and reach (P < 0.01), 50-meter run (P < 0.01), and reaction time (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Aerobic exercise intervention is an effective treatment for MA-dependent individuals, and the 12-week intervention improved the social, physical, and mental health of MA-dependent individuals. We recommend that future studies focus more on drug-dependent individuals' overall health status rather than just relapse.Clinical trial registration: [https://www.chictr.org.cn/hvshowproject.aspx?id=131048], identifier [ChiCTR2200055348].

The Relationship between Different Amounts of Physical Exercise, Internal Inhibition, and Drug Craving in Individuals with Substance-Use Disorders

Purpose: To explore the relationship between different amounts of physical exercise and drug craving in individuals with substance-use disorders (SUD), and to reveal the mediating role of internal inhibition between physical activity and drug craving. Method: This study adopted the Physical Activity Rating Scale, Internal Inhibition Scale, and Drug Craving Scale to assess 438 cases of SUD in a compulsory isolation detoxification center in southwest China. Results: (1) The amount of physical exercise individuals with SUD engaged in was positively correlated with internal inhibition and negatively correlated with drug craving, while the amount of physical exercise was negatively correlated with drug craving. (2) The amount of physical exercise was able to negatively predict drug craving in addicts, the amount of physical exercise and internal inhibition were able to jointly predict drug craving, and internal inhibition played a mediating role between the amount of physical exercise and drug craving (the mediating effect was 0.22). (3) There was a dose-effect relationship regarding different amounts of physical exercises and drug craving. Internal inhibition did not mediate between a low amount of physical exercise and drug craving, it played a partial mediating role between a moderate amount of physical exercise and drug craving (the mediating effect was −0.19), and it played a partial mediating role between a high amount of physical exercise and drug craving (the mediating effect was −0.15). Conclusions: Physical activity has a positive effect on reducing drug craving in individuals with SUD. Moreover, in the process of sports rehabilitation for SUD, medium or high amounts of physical activity were required in order to effectively reduce and alleviate drug cravings.

Four-week Tai Chi intervention decreases attention bias to drug cues in individuals with methamphetamine use disorder

Background: Mind-body exercise is used for the rehabilitation of individuals with methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). Attention bias to substances is an important index of MUD. However, whether a mind-body exercise intervention can decrease attention bias is unclear.Objective: This study aimed to test the effect of a four-week Tai Chi (a Chinese traditional mind-body exercise) exercise program on the attention bias of individuals with MUD.Methods: Thirty-two men with MUD and without Tai Chi practice experience were recruited and randomly assigned to either a Tai Chi exercise group or a control group. The Tai Chi group received four-week Tai Chi training, while the control group engaged in daily exercise (including radio gymnastics and Jianxincao, two kinds of free-hand exercises). During a drug-related Stroop task, participants were instructed to respond to the color of the word ignoring the word type (drug-related or neutral words). The reaction time and d' (the index of sensitivity) were measured.Results: The participants showed attention bias to substance cues; the reaction time was slower for drug-related words than for neutral words (p < .05). After the Tai Chi intervention, the Tai Chi group showed a faster reaction time (ps < .05) and a smaller d' (ps < .05) than the baseline across all the word types. In contrast, the control group showed no differences (ps > .05).Conclusion: Four-week Tai Chi intervention reduced sensitivity and attentional bias to drug-related cues in individuals with MUD, suggesting that mind-body exercise might enhance recovery from MUD via attention control.

Effects of Tai Chi on the Executive Function and Physical Fitness of Female Methamphetamine Dependents: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Purpose: Exercise improves the health and mental status of drug dependents. The way by which Tai Chi (TC) as a special exercise treatment affects executive functions (EFs) of methamphetamine (MA) dependents is yet to be established. This study aimed to explore the effects of TC on the EFs and physical fitness of MA dependents. Methods: A total of 76 female MA dependents were randomly assigned to the exercise and control groups. The exercise group underwent three 60-min sessions of TC training per week for 12 weeks. The control group was trained with conventional exercises including the 9th Guang Bo Ti Cao and square dance. Physical fitness and EF assessments that evaluated inhibitory control (IC, go/no-go task), working memory (3-back task) and cognitive flexibility (switching task) were performed at baseline and at 12 weeks. A repeated-measures ANOVA was applied to analyze the differences of group and time. Results: The exercise group showed decreased response time (RT) with a significant main effect of time on the go/no-go task [F (1, 68) = 9.6, p < 0.05]. The interaction effect between time and group was significant on accuracy [F (1, 61) = 4.73, p < 0.05], and the main effect of time was significant on RT [F (1, 61) = 4.66, p < 0.05] in the 3-back task of the exercise group. Significant changes in BMI [F (1, 68) = 19.57, p < 0.05], vital capacity [F (1, 68) = 6.00, p < 0.05], and systolic blood pressure [F (1, 68) = 6.11, p < 0.05] were observed in the exercise group. Conclusion: These findings showed that 3 months of TC training can improve the IC and maintain the working memory and cognitive flexibility of MA dependents. Other data implied that TC may improve the physical fitness of MA dependents. Clinical Trial Registration: http://www.chictr.org.cn/, ChiCTR1900022091.

Voluntary exercise as a treatment for incubated and expanded drug craving leading to relapse to addiction: Animal models

Drug addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder, as more than 80% of former drug users relapse within a year after quit attempts have ended. This review examines incubated craving that develops over long periods of weeks to months after addictive drug use ends, when rats are given a small priming exposure to the formerly used drug, and a large amount of drug seeking occurs, reflecting large increases in craving over time. Expanded craving occurs when not only the recently-used drug, but other related or unrelated drugs of abuse elicit drug seeking that leads to relapse behavior, including common drugs like caffeine or nicotine, Thus, expanded craving is an increase in the conditions that elicit relapse, such as, a variety of drugs, and it persists weeks after drug use ends. Incubated and expanded craving occur with several drugs of abuse, and these forms of craving, can last for weeks to months and end in relapse. Voluntary physical exercise, blocked incubated cocaine craving, and expanded heroin craving elicited by multiple conditions was reduced in female and male rats. This review examines voluntary physical exercise as a long-term, self-initiated, and self-sustainable treatment that reduces long-term drug craving leading to relapse.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness Predicts Higher Inhibitory Control in Patients With Substance Use Disorder

Impaired inhibitory control has been shown in individuals with substance use disorder (SUD). Cardiorespiratory fitness has been described as a potential factor to improve inhibitory control; however, the benefits in individuals with SUD are unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness with general and drug-specific inhibitory control in individuals with SUD. Sixty-two male participants under treatment for SUD performed a general and drug-specific inhibitory control test (go/no-go) and a cardiorespiratory fitness test. Cardiorespiratory fitness, age, and years of drug use were inversely associated with reaction time for both general and drug-specific inhibitory control. In addition, the regression models showed that cardiorespiratory fitness predicts general and drug-specific inhibitory control adjusted for age and time of drug use. However, cardiorespiratory fitness predicts equally both general and drug-specific inhibitory control. These findings suggest that increasing cardiorespiratory fitness could provide benefits in the inhibitory function of individuals with SUD.

Peripheral Inflammatory Biomarkers of Methamphetamine Withdrawal Patients Based on the Neuro-Inflammation Hypothesis: The Possible Improvement Effect of Exercise

Methamphetamine (MA) induced addiction and neuroinflammation has been implicated. Based on the neuroinflammation hypothesis, this study aims to investigate how exercise influences the craving of patients in MA withdrawal, and explore the mechanism of peripheral inflammation. A total of 90 patients in MA withdrawal were recruited. No difference was noted in the number of years of drug use and the frequency of drug use among patients, and the withdrawal time was within 2 months. The subjects were grouped based on the degree of craving induced by the cues: non-craving control group (NCC group), craving control group (CC group), and craving exercise group (CE group). The CE group was subjected to aerobic combined resistance training. Then, the ELISA method was used to detect plasma IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β concentrations; Visual Analog Scale (VAS) measurement of cue-induced cravings under Virtual Reality (VR) exposure (VR-VAS) and the Desires for Drug Questionnaire (DDQ) were used to assess cravings. Consequently, plasma IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, levels, and the VR-VAS and DDQ scores of MA withdrawal patients were significantly reduced after exercise. This study confirmed that 8 weeks of incremental load aerobic combined with resistance training reduces peripheral inflammation and significantly reduces the level of craving for MA.

The effects of acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control and resting state heart rate variability in children with ADHD

The current study examined the effects of acute moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (MAE) on inhibitory control and resting-state heart rate variability (HRV) in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Our data show that acute MAE resulted in higher response accuracy of a modified flanker task regardless of task difficulty for 60 min (p = .001). Aerobic exercise further resulted in more effective conflict detection, as measured by greater amplitude (p = .012) and shorter latency (p = .029) of the N2 component of event-related brain potential, for 60 min regardless of task difficulty. In contrast, acute MAE did not modulate sympathovagal balance signified by HRV at either 30 min or 60 min following exercise cessation. Collectively, our findings suggest that the beneficial effects of acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control are sustained for 60 min in children with ADHD. However, acute aerobic exercise may not modulate sympathovagal balance during the post-exercise recovery. Overall, we highlight the importance of acute aerobic exercise for children with ADHD as a potential means to facilitate brain health.

Effects of exercise programs on neuroelectric dynamics in drug addiction

Exercise interventions have been considered to be an effective treatment for drug addiction. However, there is little dirct evidence that exercise affects brain activity in individuals afftected by drug addiction. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of different exercise programs on detoxification. Cognitive recovery with 64-channel electroencephalography (EEG) recordings was obtained before and after three months of daily aerobic and anaerobic exercise. A total of 63 subjects with methamphetamine addiction were recruited and randomly divided into three groups for cognitive study in four behavioral states: an anaerobic resistance treatment group, an aerobic cycling treatment group and a control group. In addition, four behavioral states were examined: eyes-closed and eyes-open resting states, and exploratory behavior states following either drug- or neutral-cue exposure. Over a 12-week period,the alpha block ratio in the control group showed a slight decrease, while clear increases were observed in the resistance exercise and cycling treatment groups, particularly under the frontal and temporal regions in the eyes-open and drug-cue conditions. The major EEG activity frequency in the resistance treatment group during the drug-cue behavior task decreased compared with the frequencies of the cycling exercise and control groups. Meanwhile, the power of higher brain rhythms in the resistance treatment group was increased. Finally, the brain alpha wave left-lateralization index from EEG recording sites, F1-F2, in the resistance and cycling treatment groups under the eyes-closed condition positively decreased, while the control groups only showed slight decreases. Taken together, these results suggest that different types of exercise may induce distince and different positive therapeutic effects to facilitate detoxification.

The Effect of Physical Activity on Drug Cravings of Drug Addicts With AIDS: The Dual Mediating Effect of Internal Inhibition

Background

As a global infectious disease, Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) poses a serious threat to the safety and health of the society. In recent years, the proportion of drug addicts infected with HIV has been increased, and drug addicts became one of the main carriers of the spread of AIDS, which has attracted worldwide attention. It has been reported that physical activity has positive effects on improving the inhibitory function of drug addicts and reducing their drug craving, but the mechanism of the internal inhibition remains to be further explored.

Method

The drug addicts in an AIDS treatment center in Chongqing were investigated by means of a Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS – 3), Internal Inhibition Scale and Drug Craving Scale, and a structural equation model was established.

Results

(1) There is no gender difference in the internal inhibition and drug craving of drug addicts with AIDS, and there are significant differences across the types and years of drug abuse. (2) The amount of physical activity in drug addicts with AIDS is positively correlated with the intrinsic inhibition, while the internal inhibition is negatively correlated with the drug craving, and the physical exercise amount is negatively correlated with the drug craving. The years of drug abuse were negatively correlated with internal inhibition and positively correlated with drug craving. (3) Internal inhibition plays a partly mediatory role between the physical activity amount and the craving for drugs, and internal inhibition plays a partly mediatory role between the number of years of drug abuse and the craving for drugs, which indicates that internal inhibition has a dual mediating effect.

Conclusion

Actively participate in physical activity, especially high-intensity physical activity, can effectively enhance the internal inhibition of drug addicts with AIDS and reduce their drug craving. Meanwhile, the difference in the drug-taking years among addicts should be paid attention to, and the physical activity prescription should be formulated according to the actual situation.

Acute Aerobic Exercise Ameliorates Cravings and Inhibitory Control in Heroin Addicts: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials and Frequency Bands

Objective

Aerobic exercise is considered a potential adjunctive treatment for heroin addicts, but little is known about its mechanisms. Less severe cravings and greater inhibitory control have been associated with reduced substance use. The aim of the current study was to determine the effects, as measured by behavioral and neuroelectric measurements, of acute aerobic exercise on heroin cravings and inhibitory control induced by heroin-related conditions among heroin addicts.

Design

The present study used a randomized controlled design.

Methods

Sixty male heroin addicts who met the DSM-V criteria were recruited from the Isolated Detoxification Center in China and randomly assigned to one of two groups; one group completed a 20-min bout of acute stationary cycle exercise with vigorous intensity (70-80% of maximum heart rate, exercise group), and the other group rested (control group). The self-reported heroin craving levels and inhibitory control outcomes (measured by a heroin-related Go/No-Go task) were assessed pre- and post-exercise.

Results

The heroin craving levels in the exercise group were significantly attenuated during, immediately following, and 40 min after vigorous exercise compared with before exercise; moreover, during exercise, a smaller craving was observed in the exercise group than in the control group. Acute exercise also facilitated inhibition performance in the No-Go task. After exercise, the participants' accuracy, the N2d amplitudes, and the theta two band spectral power during the No-Go conditions were higher in the exercise group than in the control group. Interestingly, significant correlations between the changes in these sensitive measurements and the changes in cravings were observed.

Conclusions

This is the first empirical study to demonstrate that aerobic exercise may be efficacious for reducing heroin cravings and promoting inhibitory control among heroin addicts.

Effects of Acute Exercise on Drug Craving, Self-Esteem, Mood, and Affect in Adults with Polysubstance Use Disorder: Protocol for a Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Novel treatments for substance use disorders are needed. Acute bouts of exercise can improve mood states and craving in nonclinical populations. Exercise effects in those with polysubstance dependence are understudied; controlled trials are needed.

Objective

This protocol describes a clinical study examining the short-term psychological effects of 2 types of physical activity, soccer and circuit training, in patients with substance use disorders. Effects will be compared with a nonexercise control group. Specific aims are to investigate whether there are differences between the activities and the duration of changes.

Methods

This study is a short-term multicenter randomized control trial with a crossover design. Patients consecutively admitted to 4 inpatient treatment centers were invited to participate in 3 conditions, each lasting 45 minutes, within one week. The order of the conditions was randomized. There were a total of 5 assessments, taken at baseline, immediately before each condition, immediately after each condition, and 1, 2, and 4 hours postintervention, enabling patterns of change over time to be observed. Psychological effects were assessed with self-report questionnaires, which included scales for craving, state anxiety, positive and negative affect, self-esteem, and mood. Exercise intensity was assessed with the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion scale and a heart rate monitor (Polar M200; Polar Electro Ltd). Cortisol was assessed in saliva before and 4 hours after the intervention.

Results

A total of 39 patients were included in the study. Data collection was completed in 2019.

Conclusions

We anticipate larger improvements in the intervention groups than among controls, indicating positive psychological effects during and after exercise. The study will add clinically relevant information about the short-term psychological effects of exercise in the treatment of substance use disorders, using activities that are easily accessible in different clinical settings.

Trial Registration

German Clinical Trials Register DRKS00018869; https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00018869

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/18553

Substances of abuse and the blood brain barrier: Interactions with physical exercise

Substance use disorders pose a common medical, social and financial problem. Among the pathomechanisms of substance use disorders, the disruption and increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier has been recently revealed. Physical exercise appears to be a relatively inexpensive and feasible way to implement behavioral therapy counteracting the blood-brain barrier impairment. Concomitantly, there are also studies supporting a potential protective role of selected substances of abuse in maintaining the blood-brain barrier integrity. In this review, we aim to provide a summary on the modulatory influence of physical exercise, a non-pharmacological intervention, on the blood-brain barrier alterations caused by substances of abuse. Further studies are needed to understand the precise mechanisms that underlie various effects of physical exercise in substance use disorders.

Beyond the tip of the iceberg: A narrative review to identify research gaps on comorbid psychiatric disorders in adolescents with methamphetamine use disorder or chronic methamphetamine use

BACKGROUND

Methamphetamine use disorder (MUD) frequently begins in adolescence, often accompanied by other psychiatric or mental disorders. Up to now, no comprehensive review about MUD and comorbid disorders in adolescents is available. We thus aimed to review the literature on comorbid mental disorders and MUD in adolescents in order to identify future research topics. Method: A PubMed search was conducted in July 2019. Relevant comorbidities were defined as attention-deficit disorder with/without hyperactivity, anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, psychosis, borderline personality disorder, conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder, as well as other substance use disorders. For each comorbidity, we summarized prevalence rates, findings on comorbidity mechanisms, and recommended treatment options, if applicable. Results: Few articles focused on MUD in adolescents. Prevalence rates differed largely between comorbid disorders, with tobacco use disorder, conduct disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, and attention-deficit disorders being the most prevalent comorbidities while eating disorders were rare. Examined onset patterns and comorbidity mechanisms indicated three groups of comorbidities: preexisting disorders self-medicated with methamphetamine, disorders induced by chronic methamphetamine use, and disorders arising due to risk factors shared with MUD. Reviewed comorbidities were frequently associated with worse treatment outcomes. Conclusions: The limited evidence is in stark contrast to the presumably high prevalence and relevance of comorbid mental disorders in adolescents with MUD. Suggestions for future research topics, informed by adult findings, include genetic vulnerabilities, biological changes, and consequences of different use patterns. Surprisingly few MUD treatment programs explicitly integrate comorbid mental disorder modules.

Neurobiology, Clinical Presentation, and Treatment of Methamphetamine Use Disorder: A Review

IMPORTANCE

The prevalence of and mortality associated with methamphetamine use has doubled during the past 10 years. There is evidence suggesting that methamphetamine use disorder could be the next substance use crisis in the United States and possibly worldwide.

OBSERVATION

The neurobiology of methamphetamine use disorder extends beyond the acute effect of the drug as a monoaminergic modulator and includes intracellular pathways focused on oxidative stress, neurotoxic and excitotoxic effects, and neuroinflammation. Similarly, the clinical picture extends beyond the acute psychostimulatory symptoms to include complex cardiovascular and cerebrovascular signs and symptoms that need to be identified by the clinician. Although there are no pharmacologic treatments for methamphetamine use disorder, cognitive behavioral therapy, behavioral activation, and contingency management show modest effectiveness.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

There is a need to better understand the complex neurobiology of methamphetamine use disorder and to develop interventions aimed at novel biological targets. Parsing the disorder into different processes (eg, craving or mood-associated alterations) and targeting the neural systems and biological pathways underlying these processes may lead to greater success in identifying disease-modifying interventions. Finally, mental health professionals need to be trained in recognizing early cardiovascular and cerebrovascular warning signs to mitigate the mortality associated with methamphetamine use disorder.

Review of pathological index detection and new rehabilitation technique of drug addicts

There are two major research issues with regard to detoxification; one is pathological testing of drug users and the other is rehabilitation methods and techniques. Over the years, domestic and foreign researchers have done a lot of work on pathological changes in the brain and rehabilitation techniques for drug users. This article discusses the research status of these two aspects. At present, the evaluation of brain function in drug addicts is still dominated by a single electroencephalography (EEG), near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), or magnetic resonance imaging scan. The multimodal physiological data acquisition method based on EEG–NIRS technique is relatively advantageous for actual physiological data acquisition. The traditional drug rehabilitation method is based on medication and psychological counseling. In recent years, psychological correction (e.g., emotional ventilation, intelligent physical and mental decompression, virtual reality technique and drug addiction suppression system, sports training, and rehabilitation) and physical therapy (transcranial magnetic stimulation) have gradually spread. These rehabilitations focus on comprehensive treatment from the psychological and physical aspects. In recent years, new intervention ideas such as brain–computer interface technique have been continuously proposed. In this review, we have introduced multimodal brain function detection and rehabilitation intervention, which have theoretical and practical significance in drug rehabilitation research.

Non-pharmacological interventions for methamphetamine use disorder: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Methamphetamine (METH) use is on the rise globally, with the number of treatment seekers increasing exponentially across the globe. Evidence-based therapies are needed to meet rising treatment needs. This systematic review intends to appraise the existing evidence to identify effective non-pharmaceutical approaches for the treatment of METH use disorder.

METHODS

Five electronic bibliographic databases-Ovid (Medline), Embase, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Web of Science and PsycINFO- were searched to identify relevant studies that were published between January 1995 to February 2020. Studies were selected and assessed by two independent reviewers. A systematic review of data from both randomised control trials (RCT) and non-RCTs was conducted to appraise the evidence.

RESULTS

A total of 44 studies were included in the review. Behavioural interventions, i.e. cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), contingency management (CM), exercise, residential rehabilitation based therapies, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), and matrix model demonstrated treatment efficacy in promoting abstinence, reducing methamphetamine use or craving in the participants. While CM interventions showed the strongest evidence favouring the outcomes assessed, tailored CBT alone or with CM was also effective in the target population.

CONCLUSIONS

Behavioural interventions should be considered as the first line of treatment for methamphetamine use disorder. Future studies should address the longevity of the effects, and limitations due to smaller sample sizes and high dropout rates to enable better assessment of evidence.

Acute High-Intensity Interval Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control Among Young Adult Males With Obesity

Objective

The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of acute high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) on neural and behavioral measures of inhibitory control in young male adults with obesity.

Design

The present study employed a within-subjects design.

Methods

Sixteen male adults with obesity [body mass index (BMI) > 28 kg/m²] were recruited. Reaction time and response accuracy of the Flanker task as well as P3 and late positive potential (LPP) components of the event-related potential (ERP) were measured following HIIE and a sedentary control, in counterbalanced order. The HIIE session consisted of 30 min of stationary cycle exercise (5-min warm-up, 20-min HIIE, and a 5-min cool-down), whereas the control condition consisted of a time and attention-matched sedentary resting session.

Results

Faster response times were observed following HIIE regardless of Flanker task condition. Faster and more accurate responses were also observed for congruent relative to incongruent conditions across both sessions. Relative to the neuroelectric data, acute HIIE resulted in increased LPP amplitude but did not affect P3 amplitude.

Conclusion

Collectively, a single bout of HIIE has a general beneficial effect on basic information processing and inhibitory control among young adult males with obesity. Acute HIIE was found to impact LPP amplitude, but not the P3, which may suggest a modulation in the ability to successfully maintain attention and filter irrelevant information to achieve successful cognitive inhibition. Future research is warranted to extend these findings to a larger sample size that includes both genders, other cognitive functions, and a comparison of different modes of exercise.

The Benefits of Physical Exercise on Mental Disorders and Quality of Life in Substance Use Disorders Patients. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Physical exercise seems to have a promising effect on numerous variables related to the recovery of drug-dependent patients. However, some contradictions are found in the literature. The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis in order to identify the effect of physical exercise on mental disorders, quality of life, abstinence, and craving, and make a comparison of the effect of exercise depending on the type of program. A search for articles was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. Studies were selected that measured the acute effects or long-term effect (≥2 weeks) of exercise in patients who met criteria for alcohol use disorders or substance use disorders. A total of 59 studies were included. An effect of exercise on quality of life and mental disorders was identified. Subgroup analysis revealed an effect of exercise on stress (SMD = 1.11 (CI: 0.31, 1.91); z = 2.73; p = 0.006), anxiety (SMD = 0.50 (CI: 0.16, 0.84); z = 2.88; p = 0.004) and depression (SMD = 0.63 (CI: 0.34, 0.92); z = 4.31; p < 0.0001), and an effect of exercise on the eight variables included in the SF36 test. The results also showed a trend towards a positive effect on craving (SMD = 0.89 (CI: −0.05, 1.82); z = 1.85, p = 0.06). Body-mind activities and programs based on improving physical conditions produced similar results in mental disorders and quality of life. Available evidence indicates that physical exercise, both body-mind and physical fitness programs, can be effective in improving mental disorders, craving, and quality of life in drug-dependent patients.

Dark Times: The Role of Negative Reinforcement in Methamphetamine Addiction

Methamphetamine use is associated with substantial adverse outcomes including poor mental and physical health, financial difficulties, and societal costs. Despite deleterious long-term consequences associated with methamphetamine, many people use drugs for short-term reduction of unpleasant physical or emotional sensations. By removing these aversive states, drug use behaviors are negatively reinforced. Abstinence from methamphetamine can then result in a return to previous aversive emotional states linked to withdrawal and craving, often contributing to an increased likelihood for relapse. This negative reinforcement cycle is hypothesized to be a motivating and maintaining factor for addiction. Thus, this review highlights the current evidence for negative reinforcement mechanisms in methamphetamine use disorder by integrating studies of subjective experience, behavior, functional magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, and event-related potentials and examining the efficacy of treatments targeting aspects of negative reinforcement. Overall, the literature demonstrates that individuals who use methamphetamine have diminished cognitive control and process emotions, loss of reward, and interoceptive information differently than non-using individuals. These differences are reflected in behavioral and subjective experiments as well as brain-based experiments which report significant differences in various frontal regions, insula, anterior cingulate cortex, and striatum. Together, the results suggest methamphetamine users have an altered experience of negative outcomes, difficulties employing effective emotion regulation, and difficulty engaging in adaptive or goal-directed decision-making. Suggestions for future research to improve our understanding of how negative reinforcement contributes to methamphetamine addiction and to develop effective interventions are provided.

The therapeutic potential of exercise for neuropsychiatric diseases: A review

Exercise is known to have a myriad of health benefits. There is much to be learned from the effects of exercise and its potential for prevention, attenuation and treatment of multiple neuropsychiatric diseases and behavioral disorders. Furthermore, recent data and research on exercise benefits with respect to major health crises, such as, that of opioid and general substance use disorders, make it very important to better understand and review the mechanisms of exercise and how it could be utilized for effective treatments or adjunct treatments for these diseases. In addition, mechanisms, epigenetics and sex differences are examined and discussed in terms of future research implications.

Therapeutic efficacy of environmental enrichment for substance use disorders

Addiction to drug and alcohol is regarded as a major health problem worldwide for which available treatments show limited effectiveness. The biggest challenge remains to enhance the capacities of interventions to reduce craving, prevent relapse and promote long-term recovery. New strategies to meet these challenges are being explored. Findings from preclinical work suggest that environmental enrichment (EE) holds therapeutic potential for the treatment of substance use disorders, as demonstrated in a number of animal models of drug abuse. The EE intervention introduced after drug exposure leads to attenuation of compulsive drug taking, attenuation of the rewarding (and reinforcing) effects of drugs, reductions in control of behavior by drug cues, and, very importantly, relapse prevention. Clinical work also suggests that multidimensional EE interventions (involving physical activity, social interaction, vocational training, recreational and community involvement) might produce similar therapeutic effects, if implemented continuously and rigorously. In this review we survey preclinical and clinical studies assessing the efficacy of EE as a behavioral intervention for substance use disorders and address related challenges. We also review work providing empirical evidence for EE-induced neuroplasticity within the mesocorticolimbic system that is believed to contribute to the seemingly therapeutic effects of EE on drug and alcohol-related behaviors.

Moderate-Intensity Aerobic Exercise Restores Appetite and Prefrontal Brain Activity to Images of Food Among Persons Dependent on Methamphetamine: A Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study

The brain prefrontal control system is critical to successful recovery from substance use disorders, and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) regulates striatal reward-related processes. Substance-dependent individuals exhibit an increased response to drug rewards and decreased response to natural, nondrug rewards. Short-term aerobic exercise can ameliorate craving and inhibitory deficits in methamphetamine users, but the effect of exercise on food reward is unknown. This study used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure the effects of moderate- and high-intensity short-term aerobic exercise on prefrontal activity related to food images and recorded the subjective feelings of appetite in methamphetamine-dependent users. In total, 56 men who met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition) criteria for methamphetamine dependence, with a mean (SD) body mass index of 24.7 (3.5) kg/m2 and age of 30.2 (5.1) years, were randomly assigned to one of two exercise groups: moderate intensity (n = 28; 65%-75% of maximum heart rate) and high intensity (n = 28; 76%-85% of heart rate maximum). Each group also performed a resting control session for 35 min 1 week before or after the exercise, in a counterbalanced order. Mean oxygenated hemoglobin concentration changes in the PFC when viewing visual food cues were assessed by fNIRS, and subjective feelings of appetite were self-rated using visual analog scales after moderate- or high-intensity aerobic exercise and after the resting control session. A continuous-wave NIRS device was used to obtain functional data: eight sources and seven detectors were placed on the scalp covering the PFC, resulting in 20 channels per participant. We found that moderate-intensity aerobic exercise significantly increased both, the activation of the left orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) to images of high-calorie food (P = 0.02) and subjective sensations of hunger (F (1,54) = 7.16, P = 0.01). To our knowledge, this study provides the first evidence that moderate-intensity aerobic exercise increases OFC activity associated with high-calorie food images and stimulates appetite in methamphetamine-dependent individuals. These changes suggest that exercise may reestablish the food reward pathway hijacked by drugs and restore sensitivity to natural rewards. This evidence may contribute to the development of specific exercise programs for populations with methamphetamine dependence.

Effects of physical training on brain functional connectivity of methamphetamine dependencies as assessed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to assess the effects of physical training based on the functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and heart rate signals.

METHODS

The oxygenated hemoglobin concentration (Delta [HbO₂]) signals were recorded from the left prefrontal cortex (LPFC), right prefrontal cortex (RPFC), left motor cortex (LMC) and right motor cortex (RMC) of 23 subjects with methamphetamine (METH) dependencies at resting, spinning training and strength training states. The wavelet phase coherence (WPCO) values were calculated in four frequency intervals: I, 0.6-2; II, 0.145-0.6; III, 0.052-0.145; and IV, 0.021-0.052 Hz. During the spinning training and strength training states, heart rate signals were recorded at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 min, respectively.

RESULTS

After physical training, the brain regions of LPFC, RPFC and LMC showed different degrees of activation in the subjects with METH dependencies (p <  0.05). The WPCO values between the brain regions significantly altered after spinning training and strength training (p <  0.05) in frequency intervals I, II, III and IV.

CONCLUSIONS

The altered WPCO values indicated physical training could affect brain functional connectivity (FC) to a certain extent in the subjects with METH dependencies. These findings provide a method for the assessment of the effects of physical training in FC and will contribute to the development of drug rehabilitation methods in subjects with METH dependencies.

Effect of Physical Activity on Drug Craving of Women With Substance Use Disorder in Compulsory Isolation: Mediating Effect of Internal Inhibition

Background

Women with substance use disorder has attracted widespread attention as a prominent social issue. According to reports, physical exercise can improve the internal inhibition, effectively reduce the substance user's drug graving, and improve withdrawal symptoms, however, the specific mechanism of internal inhibition should be further considered. This study was designed to determine the critical role of internal inhibition in the path of physical exertion affecting the drug cravings of women drug users.

Methods

By means of Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3), internal Inhibition Scale and Drug Craving Scale, this study investigated the individuals with substance use disorder under rehabilitation in the women compulsory isolation rehabilitation center in Chongqing, China.

Results

(1) Women with traditional drug users had the strongest internal inhibition and new drug use disorder had the highest drug craving. The longer the duration of drug abuse, the lower the internal inhibition and the higher the drug craving. Women with moderate-intensity activity had the strongest internal inhibition and the lowest drug craving. (2) The physical activity intensity was negatively correlated with drug craving, positively correlated with intrinsic inhibition, and negatively correlated with drug craving. (3) Internal inhibition played a partial mediating effect between physical activity intensity and drug craving.

Conclusion

Physical activity has a positive effect on inhibiting drug craving among drug addicts, while moderate-intensity activity seems to be more conducive to enhancing the internal inhibition of addicts, to improving their resistance to drugs, and thus more conducive to reducing drug craving.

Psychosocial treatment for methamphetamine use and the associated mental health symptoms

Purpose

Methamphetamine users commonly experience induced methamphetamine associated mental health symptoms. Currently, psychosocial treatment is implemented to reduce use; however, to date, the effectiveness of psychosocial treatment in methamphetamine use and the associated mental health symptoms has not been reviewed. The paper aims to discuss this issue.

Design/methodology/approach

A systematic literature review was performed by searching databases (PubMed, Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, PsychINFO and CINAHL) and following clear inclusion/exclusion criteria.

Findings

In total, 12 studies met the inclusion/exclusion criteria, measuring a variety of psychosocial interventions and measuring a variety of different mental health outcomes. Decreased methamphetamine use was observed in the five studies which recorded this.

Research limitations/implications

Most studies in this review were preliminary trials and only three were RCTs. Additionally, methamphetamine use is a particular problem in Japan and is becoming more prevalent in Europe, yet neither primary nor secondary searching identified papers from these regions.

Practical implications

While the findings may not provide sufficient supporting evidence to instigate changes in clinical practice, this work should be developed further, as it is clear that psychosocial interventions can be successful in treating this population.

Social implications

This review demonstrates that psychosocial treatments can improve symptoms associated with methamphetamine use. Reduction in mental health symptoms has been shown to attract individuals to drug use treatment and thus indirectly reducing methamphetamine use.

Originality/value

Given the consequences of methamphetamine for individuals and communities treatment options must be explored. A review of psychosocial interventions in the treatment of methamphetamine use and associated mental health symptoms had not been done previously. This review provides a foundation for further research.

Assessing the severity of methamphetamine use disorder beyond the subjective craving report: the role of an attention bias test

Background

Methamphetamine (MA) is one of the most commonly abused illicit psychostimulant drugs and MA use disorder constitutes a universal health concern across the world. Despite many intervention approaches to MA use disorder, the indicator of addiction severity is mainly limited to subjective craving score to drug-related cues, which is influenced by many factors such as social approval and self-masking.

Aim

The present study investigates whether self-reported craving for drug use in response to MA cues is a reliable indicator for addiction severity in MA users, and then tests the validity of the cue-induced attention bias test in addiction severity assessment.

Methods

Fifty-two male MA users completed the cue-induced craving test and attention bias task, and were required to report clinical characteristics of addiction severity. For the attention bias test, subjects were required to discriminate the letter superimposed onto MA use-related or neutral scenes. The reaction time delay during MA-use condition relative to neutral condition was used as an index of the attention bias.

Results

The results showed that 24 of the 52 MA users rated non-zero in cue-induced craving test, and they showed a significant attention bias to drug-related pictures. However, the other 28 users who rated zero in cue-induced craving evaluation showed a similar attention bias to drug-related cues. In addition, the attention bias to MA use-related cues was significantly and positively correlated with the clinical indexes of addiction severity, but the relationship was absent between subjective craving evaluation and the indexes of addiction severity.

Conclusion

These results suggest that attention bias to MA cues may be a more reliable indicator than experiential craving report, especially when subjective craving is measured in the compulsory rehabilitation centre.

Long-term high physical activity modulates event-related potential indices of inhibitory control in postmenopausal women

Background

Inhibition processing is sensitive to aging, and an age-related decline in inhibition processing has been associated with an accelerated rate of progression to Alzheimer disease. Elderly women are two to three times more likely than age-matched men to have Alzheimer disease. Therefore, this study examined whether long-term high physical activity affects inhibitory processing, specifically among postmenopausal women.

Methods

In total, 251 candidates were screened using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices to assess their cognitive abilities and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (Chinese version) to assess their physical activity levels. The participants were then grouped into either a long-term high physical activity group (defined as more than 3 days of high intensity activity per week and gross metabolic equivalent minutes (MET-minutes) higher than 1,500 MET-minutes/week or a gross MET higher than 3,000 MET-minutes/week obtained through walking or other moderate or high intensity activity) or a control group and matched for demographic and health characteristics as well as cognitive scores. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded as participants performed a Go/No-go task to assess inhibition processing.

Results

The long-term high physical activity group (n = 30) had faster Go reaction times than the control group (n = 30), whereas no significant difference between the two groups was found in their performance accuracy on the No-go task. For the ERP results, the latency of N2 component was significantly shorter in the long-term high physical activity group than that in the control group.

Discussion

The results of this study suggested that long-term high physical activity may increase the efficiency of the inhibitory control system by increasing the activity of response monitoring processes.