A longitudinal analysis of salivary testosterone concentrations and competitiveness in elite and non-elite women athletes

Sex differences and athletic performance. Where do trans individuals fit into sports and athletics based on current research?

There are well known sex differences in parameters of physical fitness/performance due to changes occurring during sexual development. Thus, many sport and athletic events have regulations separating male and female participants. However, the inclusion or exclusion of transgender individuals in athletics has recently received outsized attention despite relatively few cases of transgender athletes. When determining which athletic gender category trans individuals should be permitted to compete in, it is important to understand the level of physical fitness/performance these individuals possess relative to their cisgender counterparts. Unfortunately, there are few studies investigating this topic, and several complications that confound this research. The current review seeks to discuss sex and gender as concepts, review sex differences in fitness/performance and how they develop, and then, consider how current evidence suggests that trans individuals compare to cis individuals. Finally, this review seeks to offer considerations for whether trans individuals should be excluded from sports and athletics, and how future research should proceed to better understand this marginalized population.

The Effect of Menstrual Cycle on Perceptual Responses in Athletes: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis

This article aimed to investigate the effects of menstrual cycle phases on perceptual responses in athletes by means of systematic review and meta-analysis. The search was conducted in the PubMed, Web of Science, and Sport Discus databases considering articles with two or more menstrual phases for comparison. The PECO criteria were used for the keywords “menstrual cycle,” “athletes,” and “perceptual responses” with their respective entry terms. Of 1.165 records identified, 14 articles were available for the final evaluation, while eight articles were eligible for a meta-analysis. The perceptual responses evaluated in the studies were: motivation, competitiveness, sleep quality, stress, muscle soreness, fatigue, perceived effort, mood, menstrual symptoms, perceived endurance, and readiness. The meta-analysis was conducted for perceived effort only. The results showed that the level of perceived exertion does not differ two phases of the menstrual cycle (MD = 3.03, Q = 1.58, df = 1, p = 0.209), whereas RPE was 19.81 ± 0.05 and 16.27 ± 0.53 at day 1–5 and day 19–24, respectively. Two studies found statistically significant changes in motivation and competitiveness during the cycle, with better outcomes in ovulatory phase compared to follicular and luteal. One study found an increase in mood disturbance in the pre-menstrual phase (vs. mid-cycle); one decreased vigor in the menstrual phase (vs. luteal); one increased the menstrual symptoms in the follicular phase (vs. ovulation), and one study reported increased fatigue and decreased sleep quality on luteal phase (vs. follicular). The remaining studies and variables were not affected by the menstrual cycle phase. Based on the results from the studies selected, some perceptual responses are affected in different menstrual cycle phases. A “favorable” subjective response in athletes was noticed when the ovarian hormones present an increase in concentration levels compared to phases with lower concentration. Different perceptual variables and methodological approaches limit the generalization of the conclusion.

Exploring Finger Digit Ratios (2D:4D) in Surgeons, Professional Rugby Players, and Political Journalists to Form a Directional Hypothesis: Could Finger Length Predict Attention and Focus?

In this short report we explore the predictive nature of finger digit ratio (i.e., second/index finger length divided by fourth/ring finger length; 2D:4D) and achievement. This research, with niche and specialized populations, was intended to support and grow on knowledge obtained from other large population 2D:4D studies and help form a directional hypothesis for future work exploring finger digit ratio and “success.” Twenty-nine professional rugby players aged 25.1 ± 4.2 years, height 185.2 ± 6.3 cm and weight 101.9 ± 11.8 kg; n = 16 orthopedic surgeons aged 55.3 ± 9.3 years with height 183.8 ± 10.2 cm and weight 90.8 ± 14.0 kg; and n = 18 political journalists with age, height and weight of 38.8 ± 7.3 years, 182.8 ± 7.8 cm, and 84.4 ± 11.4 kg, respectively, were recruited. Three experiments were conducted where we (1) explored relationships for 2D:4D with testosterone and cortisol responsiveness to low stress exercise, (2) explored relationships for 2D:4D with pupil constriction and pupil constriction latency (pupillometry measures related to testosterone and cortisol responsiveness and to attentiveness), and (3) compared 2D:4D between rugby players, surgeons, and journalists. Our results revealed 2D:4D was not predictive of testosterone and cortisol responsiveness to low-level exercise stress. However, relationships exist for 2D:4D and pupillometry measures (p < 0.05). Journalists right minus left 2D:4D difference was significantly different to rugby players’ and surgeons (p < 0.05). We argue 2D:4D is likely predictive of testosterone sensitivity and associated ability to focus attention; a skill important to high achievement in various contexts.

An introduction to the Special Issue on “Sports Science: Evolutionary Perspectives and Biological Mechanisms”

The goal of the special issue on “Sports science: evolutionary perspectives and biological mechanisms” was to build a bridge to help the development of a coherent and unifying approach to the study of sport science within an evolutionary framework. By focusing specifically on the biological and psychological dynamics of sport performance and competition, we asked if sports can be used to study the evolution of human behavior, biology and psychology. Likewise, we asked whether this evolutionary approach could improve our understandings of the physical and psychological limits of human athletic performance and health.

Menstrual variation in the acute testosterone and cortisol response to laboratory stressors correlate with baseline testosterone fluctuations at a within- and between-person level

Studies have compared HPA and HPG stress reactivity across the follicular and luteal phases to assess the menstrual impact of estradiol and progesterone fluctuations. Ovulatory shifts in baseline and stressor-induced testosterone among athletic women offer a new framework to explore these responses. Here we investigated menstrual variation in baseline testosterone as a predictor of the acute testosterone and cortisol response to laboratory stressors in female athletes. Using a semi-randomized crossover design, thirty athletic women completed a physical (4 × 6-s bike sprints) and psychological (5 × 2-min cognitive tests with social evaluation) stressor on day seven (D7), 14 (D14), and 21 (D21) of a menstrual cycle. Baseline fluctuations and acute changes in salivary testosterone and cortisol were measured. The D14 testosterone response to both stressors (13.7%) exceeded D7 (7.3%) and D21 (7.0%), whereas cortisol was less responsive on D14 (9.8%) than D7 (13.0%) and D21 (12.0%); all moderate to large effect size differences (p < 0.01). Baseline testosterone, which presented large individual and menstrual variation with a D14 peak, was significantly related (moderate correlations) to testosterone and cortisol stress reactivity on a between-person level. Both outcomes were related (weak correlations) to within-person fluctuations in baseline testosterone, but these effects were mediated by testing day. In conclusion, menstrual variation in baseline testosterone concentration correlated with testosterone and cortisol reactivity to a physical and psychological stressor. Thus, gradients of stressor-induced hormonal change showed some dependency to endogenous testosterone, both individual differences and fluctuations over time, among naturally cycling athletic women.Lay summaryThe female menstrual cycle is accompanied by dramatic shifts in estradiol and progesterone concentration, but less is known about testosterone variability and its role in stress regulation. In this study, menstrual fluctuations in baseline testosterone concentration correlated with acute testosterone and cortisol reactivity to laboratory stressors.

The Specificities of Elite Female Athletes: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Female athletes have garnered considerable attention in the last few years as more and more women participate in sports events. However, despite the well-known repercussions of female sex hormones, few studies have investigated the specificities of elite female athletes. In this review, we present the current but still limited data on how normal menstrual phases, altered menstrual phases, and hormonal contraception affect both physical and cognitive performances in these elite athletes. To examine the implicated mechanisms, as well as the potential performances and health risks in this population, we then take a broader multidisciplinary approach and report on the causal/reciprocal relationships between hormonal status and mental and physical health in young (18-40 years) healthy females, both trained and untrained. We thus cover the research on both physiological and psychological variables, as well as on the Athlete Biological Passport used for anti-doping purposes. We consider the fairly frequent discrepancies and summarize the current knowledge in this new field of interest. Last, we conclude with some practical guidelines for eliciting improvements in physical and cognitive performance while minimizing the health risks for female athletes.

Testosterone and Dihydrotestosterone Changes in Male and Female Athletes Relative to Training Status

PURPOSE

To establish if training volume was associated with androgen baselines and androgen responsiveness to acute exercise.

METHODS

During a "high-volume" training phase, 28 cyclists (14 men and 14 women) undertook oxygen-uptake and maximal-work-capacity testing. Two days later, they completed a repeat-sprint protocol, which was repeated 3 weeks later during a "low-volume" phase. Blood and saliva samples were collected before and after (+5 and +60 min) the repeat-sprint protocol. Blood was assayed for total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT), and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and saliva, for testosterone and DHT.

RESULTS

Pretrial TT, FT, and DHT concentration was greater for males (P < .001, large effect size differences), and in both genders TT, DHT, and saliva for DHT was higher during high-volume loading (moderate to large effect size). Area-under-the-curve analysis revealed larger TT, FT, and DHT responses to the repeat-sprint protocol among females, and high-volume training was linked to larger TT, DHT, and saliva for DHT responses (moderate to large effect size). Baseline TT and FT correlated with oxygen uptake and work capacity in both genders (P < .05).

CONCLUSION

DHT showed no acute performance correlation but was responsive to volume of training, particularly in females. This work informs on timelines and relationships of androgenic biomarkers in males and females across different training loads, adding to the complexity that should be considered in interpretation thereof. The authors speculate that testosterone may impact acute performance via behavioral mechanisms of motivation and attention; DHT, via training volume-induced androgenic promotion, may facilitate long-term adaptive changes, especially for females.

The Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Elite Athlete Performance: A Critical and Systematic Review

Background: In elite athletes, training individualization is widely recommended to optimize competitive performance. Previous studies have evidenced the impact of hormonal fluctuations on different performance parameters among female athletes. While consideration of menstrual cycle (MC) phases as a parameter in training individualization strategies is necessary, systematic evidence identifying such impacts in elite athletes should be evaluated. Objective: Systematically review publications that have investigated the link between MC phases and performance in elite female athletes. The overarching aim is to identify whether a consensus across studies exists enabling evidence-based recommendations for training individualization depending on menstrual cycle phases. Methods: This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Three major scientific publication databases were searched from inception until November 3, 2020. Studies included focused on the influence of physiological or psychological parameters throughout at least one phase of the menstrual cycle of elite athletes. Results: A total of 780 search results were yielded and 26 references from a past bibliography were added manually. About 662 papers were reviewed of which 218 studies were assessed for eligibility. Of these, only seven (1%) precisely investigated the influence of a performance or physical parameter during at least one menstrual cycle phase. These seven studies included a total of 314 elite female participants (20.58 ± 1.91 years). Three used interviews, questionnaires or prospective analyses of reports. Four conducted several performance tests or included physical measures although only two performed tests during training or before/during competition. Among the seven studies, five performed hormonal testing through sampling of blood, saliva, or urine. The remaining relied on athletes' menstruation diaries. The current evidence suggests a variable association between menstrual cycle and a few performance-related outcomes, such as endurance or power resistance, ligament stiffness, decision making skills, psychology, or competitiveness. Conclusion: Different sports performance-related parameters are affected during the menstrual cycle among elite athletes, but the parameters themselves and the magnitude and the direction of the effects are inconclusive. Additional longitudinal and prospective studies to systematically monitor on-field performance parameters are urgently required in order to enable recommendations and training individualization in female elite athletes.

Home-based training program during the SARS-CoV- 2 quarantine: training load, motivation, and wellbeing in professional elite female basketball players

BACKGROUND

due to the quarantine caused by the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), professional team-sports adapted their training routine to maintain the athletes' performance and minimize the negative emotional effects. The purpose of the present study was to describe a home-based training program and extra-activities applied during the quarantine in elite professional female basketball players, and to compare the internal training load (ITL), session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE), motivation, and wellbeing responses before and during the quarantine.

METHODS

nine female elite players (25.7 ± 7.0 years; 180.0 ± 8.0 cm; 79.0 ± 11.0 kg) belonging to a professional basketball team performed a home-based training program during the quarantine. ITL, s-RPE, training motivation, and wellbeing were examined before (phase 1), at the beginning (phase 2), and during (phase 3) of the quarantine.

RESULTS

ITL was higher (main effect) in phase 1 (449.5 ± 62.8 a.u.) compared to phase 2 (265.5 ± 39.0 a.u.) and phase 3 (423.1 ± 18.7 a.u.); s-RPE was higher in phase 1 (4.50 ± 0.63 a.u.) compared to phase 2 (3.8 ± 0.6 a.u.), but not to phase 3 (4.37 ± 0.79 a.u.). Motivation was higher in phase 1 (3.6 ± 0.3 a.u.) compared to phase 2 (2.3 ± 0.6 a.u.) and phase 3 (2.4 ± 0.5 a.u.).

CONCLUSIONS

in conclusion, the results of the study demonstrated that extra-activities involving online athletes' socialization were implemented to rouse the motivation, but the quarantine period induced a reduction in ITL and influenced the player's training motivation.

Bidirectional Interactions between the Menstrual Cycle, Exercise Training, and Macronutrient Intake in Women: A Review

Women have a number of specificities that differentiate them from men. In particular, the role of sex steroid hormones and the menstrual cycle (MC) significantly impact women's physiology. The literature has shown nonlinear relationships between MC, exercise, and nutritional intake. Notably, these relationships are bidirectional and less straightforward than one would suppose. For example, the theoretical implications of the MC's phases on exercise performance do not always translate into relevant practical effects. There is often a disconnect between internal measures (e.g., levels of hormone concentrations) and external performance. Furthermore, it is not entirely clear how nutritional intake varies across the MC's phases and whether these variations impact on exercise performance. Therefore, a thorough review of the existing knowledge could help in framing these complex relationships and potentially contribute to the optimization of exercise prescription and nutritional intake according to the naturally occurring phases of the MC. Throughout this review, an emerging trend is the lack of generalizability and the need to individualize interventions, since the consequences of the MC's phases and their relationships with exercise and nutritional intake seem to vary greatly from person to person. In this sense, average data are probably not relevant and could potentially be misleading.

A longitudinal investigation of bidirectional and time-dependent interrelationships between testosterone and training motivation in an elite rugby environment

In sport, testosterone has been positioned as a substrate for motivation with both directional and time dependencies. However, evidence is scarce when considering the complexities of competitive sport and no work has explicitly modeled these dependencies. To address these gaps, we investigated the bidirectional and time-dependent interrelationships between testosterone and training motivation in an elite rugby environment. Thirty-six male athletes were monitored across training weeks before and after eight international rugby matches. Pre-breakfast measures of salivary testosterone and training motivation (1-10 rating) were taken on training, competition, and recovery days (up to 40 tests). Using a continuous-time (CT) model, within-person estimates of autoregressive effects (persistence) and cross-lagged effects (relationships) were derived. A stronger, more persistent temporal association was identified for testosterone than for motivation. Cross-lagged effects verified that training motivation was positively related to testosterone at latter time points (p < 0.001). Discrete-time analyses revealed a non-linear association; increasing in strength from a zero-time lag to peak after 2.83 days (standardized effect = 0.25), before dissipation over longer lagged intervals. The testosterone relationship with ensuing training motivation was also positive, but non-significant. Match effects also appeared (p < 0.001) with a predicted decline in training motivation, but a rise in testosterone, at match onset. In summary, a positive association emerged between within-person fluctuations in self-appraised motivation to train and testosterone concentration in an elite rugby environment. The lagged, non-linear nature of this relationship and match predictions on both outcomes support, and extend, theoretical models linking testosterone and competitive behaviors.

Competition phase affect motivation and perceived performance but not the pre-competitive anxiety on professional dancers

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of competition phase on pre-competitive anxiety, motivation and perceived of performance on professional contemporary dancers. Eight professional dancers from the same company were evaluated on basal condition, classificatory and final phase. Anxiety and motivation state were evaluated pre-competition and perceived of performance (PP) post-competition. ANOVA with repeated measures presented no difference for anxiety state between the competitive phases (p > 0.05). Motivation and PP were significantly higher during the final phase, tested by Friedman test (p ≤ 0.05). The data suggest competing in a final phase may lead to a major motivation and perceived of performance on professional contemporary dancers.

Whole-Body Cryotherapy: Potential to Enhance Athlete Preparation for Competition?

The final hours of preparation before competition are important for performance. Recovery, preparation and warm up protocols are evolving continuously and include passive and active modalities often developed by "trial and error" approaches. Passive modalities, such as whole-body cryotherapy (WBC), have the potential to enhance both recovery and preparation. Whole-body cryotherapy has generally been used within a recovery setting after competition or strenuous training for athletes, and in clinical settings for the general population. However, the acute hormonal, anti-inflammatory, perceptual and psychological responses yielded by a single, or repeated, bouts of WBC indicate that this practice could enhance an athlete's competition readiness when used alongside traditional elements of active warm-ups in the hours before competition in addition to aiding recovery in the hours after. Here we summarize and evaluate the acute effects of WBC exposures on physiological, performance and perceptual responses, and examine the likelihood these responses could theoretically translate into enhanced athletic performance. The potential to enhance an athlete's performance using acute passive WBC exposure is a novel intervention that requires further investigation.

Within- and between-person variation in morning testosterone is associated with economic risk-related decisions in athletic women across the menstrual cycle

Literature suggests that women experience ovulatory shifts in risk-taking behaviours across different domains, which might be partly attributed to changes in testosterone (T). Thus, we investigated associations between menstrual variability in T concentrations and economic risk-related decisions among athletic women. Thirty-five women were monitored across three consecutive menstrual cycles. Testing occurred on day seven (D7), 14 (D14) and 21 (D21) following the onset of menses. The morning (7 to 8 am) assessment of salivary T (sal-T) and cortisol (sal-C) was followed by the economic Hawk-Dove game (11 am to 12 pm) played in pairs, where hawk decisions were used to index risk. Morning sal-T concentration increased from D7 to D14, before decreasing on D21 (p < 0.001), representing moderate effect size (ES) changes of 0.6 to 0.8. Morning sal-C did not vary over time. Hawk choices paralleled the sal-T results, being elevated on D14 (p < 0.001) with large ES changes of 1.8. Regression analyses revealed that morning sal-T concentration was positively related (p ≤ 0.01) to the number of hawks chosen between- (beta = 0.47) and within-participants (beta = 0.10) when controlling for training hours and menstrual day. In summary, the risk-related choices of athletic women during a dyadic contest covaried with morning sal-T concentrations across the menstrual cycle. Both outcomes were positively correlated on a within- and between-person level. Confirming the major sources of T variation across the menstrual cycle, whilst discerning its relationship with other risk-related behaviours, would be worthwhile avenues for research.

The digit ratio (2D:4D) relationship with testosterone is moderated by physical training: Evidence of prenatal organizational influences on activational patterns of adult testosterone in physically-active women

BACKGROUND

The 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) is regarded as a sexually dimorphic trait governed by prenatal testosterone (T) and estradiol exposure. However, relationships between the 2D:4D and adult sex hormone concentrations are inconsistent in females. Environmental contingencies (e.g., physical training) may provide a stronger basis for establishing these linkages, particularly if the relationships are plastic and not fixed.

AIMS

To investigate associations between 2D:4D, training hours and salivary T (sal-T) measures in physically-active women.

STUDY DESIGN

Descriptive and quasi-experimental monitoring across the follicular (day 7), ovulatory (day 14) and luteal (day 21) phases of three menstrual cycles.

SUBJECTS

35 naturally-cycling women training regularly for sport (range 3-12 h a week).

OUTCOME MEASURES

Morning sal-T concentrations and changes in sal-T to a physical and psychological stimulus (~10 min) were measured.

RESULTS

Both 2D:4D and training hours were related to morning sal-T concentrations in all three menstrual phases (p < 0.01) and their interaction was significant during ovulation. Follow-up testing revealed a negative 2D:4D and sal-T association in women reporting high, but not low, training hours each week. Participant 2D:4D was also related to sal-T changes under physical and/or psychological challenge across each menstrual phase (p < 0.01), whereas training hours and its interaction with 2D:4D were not significant predictors of these outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

2D:4D linkages with basal and challenge-induced sal-T changes were identified in women undertaking regular physical training. Training hours also moderated the 2D:4D link to morning sal-T, but with some menstrual-phase dependency. These complexities and environmental relationships may help reconcile conflicting results.

The salivary testosterone response to a chance-determined contest is associated with face-gazing behaviours in athletic women

Human gaze is an important indicator of dominant and submissive behaviours related to positioning in a social hierarchy. This study investigated face gazing after a chance-determined contest and its linkage to salivary testosterone (sal-T) reactivity in athletic women. Twenty-six women athletes completed a coin-toss game on days 7 (D7), 14 (D14) and 21 (D21) of a single menstrual cycle. The game was played against an unknown opponent of similar age with the winner congratulated and rewarded with all coins. Gazing towards an opponent's head or face was timed after each contest (over 2 min) from video footage. Salivary T (sal-T) was assessed before and 15 min after these contests. The sal-T residuals increased after winning and decreased after losing on D7, D14 and D21 (p < 0.05). Gaze times were longer after a loss (M = 7.8 s) than a win (M = 3.1 s) across all days. Regression analyses revealed that the sal-T residuals and contest outcome interacted to predict gaze time. Upon deconstruction we found that, when losing a contest, a larger sal-T response (i.e., smaller decline) predicted a longer gaze (β = 1.71, p = 0.004), but no association was evident when winning (β = -0.06, p = 0.821), and these slope patterns differed (p = 0.011). In conclusion, winning a contest by chance increased sal-T responsivity and decreased opponent gaze across the menstrual cycle. A positive relationship between individual sal-T reactivity and gaze duration was observed, but only when losing. These preliminary results support suggestions that women's T may help modulate post-competition behaviours (e.g., face gazing) possibly to achieve social cohesion and cooperation.