A review of the chemistry of the genus Crataegus

Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Activity of Cornus mas L. and Crataegus monogyna Fruit Extracts

The present study evaluated three green extraction methods, accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), and laser irradiation extraction (LE), for the polyphenolic compounds and vitamin C extraction of Cornus mas L. and Crataegus monogyna fruit extracts. The polyphenols and vitamin C of extracts were quantified using HPLC-DAD, and the total phenolic content, flavonoid content, antioxidant activity (DPPH and reducing power), and antidiabetic activity were also studied. The antidiabetic activity was examined by the inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase, and in vitro on a beta TC cell line (β-TC-6). The results showed significant differentiation in the extraction yield between the methods used, with the ASE and LE presenting the highest values. The C. mas fruit extract obtained by ASE exhibited the best antioxidant activity, reaching an IC50 value of 31.82 ± 0.10 µg/mL in the DPPH assay and 33.95 ± 0.20 µg/mL in the reducing power assay. The C. mas fruit extracts obtained by ASE and LE also have the highest inhibitory activity on enzymes associated with metabolic disorders: α-amylase (IC50 = 0.44 ± 0.02 µg/mL for the extract obtained by ASE, and 0.11 ± 0.01 µg/mL for the extract obtained by LE at combined wavelengths of 1270 + 1550 nm) and α-glucosidase (IC50 of 77.1 ± 3.1 µg/mL for the extract obtained by ASE, and 98.2 ± 4.7 µg/mL for the extract obtained by LE at combined wavelengths of 1270 + 1550 nm). The evaluation of in vitro antidiabetic activity demonstrated that the treatment with C. mas and C. monogyna fruit extracts obtained using ASE stimulated the insulin secretion of β-TC-6 cells, both under normal conditions and hyperglycemic conditions, as well. All results suggest that C. mas and C. monogyna fruit extracts are good sources of bioactive molecules with antioxidant and antidiabetic activity.

A New Alternative Nutritional Source Hawthorn Vinegar: How It Interacts with Protein, Glucose and GLP-1

(1) Background: There is a balance between nutrition, glycemic control, and immune response. Their roles in physiological mechanisms are essential for maintaining life quality. This study aimed to evaluate hawthorn vinegar's metabolic effects, and describe its possible mechanism. We also pointed out several vinegar production methods to clarify the antioxidant features. (2) Methods: In the study, three vinegar techniques were applied to vinegar: traditional production of hawthorn vinegar (N), thermal pasteurization (P), and ultrasound method (U). Thirty-two female adult Wistar albino rats were randomly separated into four groups: Control, N1 (regular vinegar; 1 mL/kg bw), P1 (pasteurized vinegar; 1 mL/kg bw), and U1(ultrasound treated vinegar; 1 mL/kg bw). Vinegar was administered by oral gavage daily for 45 days. Initial and final weights, the percentage changes of body weight gains, and Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT) values of plasma and liver were measured. The total protein, globulin, and albumin values of plasma, liver, and intestinal tissue were determined. In addition, plasma glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose concentrations were evaluated. (3) Results: There was a statistical increase in total intestinal protein value and an increasing tendency in total protein in plasma and liver in group U1 compared to group Control. However, the GGT concentrations in plasma and liver were slightly lower in group U1 than in group Control. In addition, there were significant increases in plasma GLP-1 values in all experimental groups compared to the Control group (p: 0.015; 576.80 ± 56.06, 773.10 ± 28.92, 700.70 ± 17.05 and 735.00 ± 40.70; respectively groups control, N1, P1, and U1). Also, liver GLP-1 concentrations in groups P1 and U1 were higher than in group Control (p: 0.005; 968.00 ± 25.54, 1176 ± 17.54 and 1174.00 ± 44.06, respectively groups control, P1 and U1). On the other hand, significant decreases were found in plasma glucose concentrations in groups N1 and U1 as to the Control group (p: 0.02; Control: 189.90 ± 15.22, N1: 133.10 ± 7.32 and U1: 142.30 ± 4.14). Besides, liver glucose levels were lower in all experimental groups than in group Control statistically (p: 0.010; 53.47 ± 0.97, 37.99 ± 1.46, 44.52 ± 4.05 and 44.57 ± 2.39, respectively groups control, N1, P1, and U1). (4) Conclusions: The findings suggest that hawthorn vinegar can balance normal physiological conditions via intestinal health, protein profiles, and glycemic control. Additionally, ultrasound application of vinegar may improve the ability of hawthorn vinegar, and have positive effects on general health.

The investigation of selected bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties of Crataegus monogyna L

This work presents investigation of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of ethanolic extracts of leaves with flowers and berries prepared by ultrasound and Soxhlet extractions of Crataegus monogyna from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Total phenolic, flavonoid, and anthocyanin contents were measured by spectrophotometric methods. The sample of leaves with flowers extracted by Soxhlet extraction was the richest in the content of total phenolic compounds (14.43 mg GAE/g DW) and total flavonoids (2.22 mg QE/g DW). Same extract showed the best antioxidant activity with an IC50 value of 0.71 mg/mL for DPPH and 0.38 mg/mL for ABTS assay, as well as the highest content of gallic acid, caffeic acid, and hyperoside 0.04 mg GAE/g DW, 0.60 mg CA/g DW and 2.61 mg HYP/g DW, respectively, determined by HPLC-ED. Vitexin was not detected. The extract of berries obtained by ultrasound extraction had the highest amount of total anthocyanins (1.69 mg/100 g DW).

UPLC-ESI-TQD-MS/MS Identification and Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, Anti-Diabetic, Anti-Obesity and Anticancer Properties of Polyphenolic Compounds of Hawthorn Seeds

Hawthorn seeds are a by-product of fruit processing and due to the scale of processing of this raw material, they can be an important source of bioactive compounds. This work is the first report on the phenolic composition of hawthorn seeds and their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiobesity and anticancer activities. In the isolated phenolic fraction of six seed species, 23 phenolic compounds were identified using the UPLC-ESI-TQD-MS/MS method, the key ones of which included the B-type procyanidin dimer. The seeds of the tested species showed high antioxidant activity (mainly by scavenging O2•- and OH• radicals), anti-inflammatory (mainly through LOX inhibition), anti-diabetic, anti-obesity and anti-cancer, with the highest activity against colon cancer cells (Dld-1 line), showing no activity against healthy colon epithelial cells (CCD841CoN). This activity was significantly dependent on the analyzed hawthorn species and, according to PCA analysis, on the content of flavan-3-ols. These discoveries provided the theoretical basis for the possibility of industrial use of hawthorn seeds.

High-density genetic map and quantitative trait loci map of skin color in hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida bge. Var. major N.E.Br.)

Fruit skin color is an important trait of the hawthorn tree, which has an important influence on fruit quality. Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. var. Major N.E.Br. Is one of the most widely cultivated varieties in China and has a long history of medicinal use. In recent years, it has attracted the attention of the world due to its nutritional and medicinal values. Skin color is the focus of breeders and food processors. At present, skin color-related genes have still not been mapped. In this study, "Shandong Da Mianqiu" (♀, red skin color), "Da Huang Mianzha" (♂, yellow skin color) and 131 F1 hybrids were used to construct genetic map of hawthorn by RAD-seq, and QTL mapping was performed by combining these features with the hue angle and the observed color. In this study, 13,260 SNP was assigned to 17 linkage groups, with an integrated map covering 2,297.75 cM was constructed. A total of 5 QTLs related to hawthorn skin color were detected on LG1, LG3 and LG15. Whether hue angle or pericarp color acts as phenotype for QTL mapping, the candidate genes include bHLH086, WD repeat regions and Myb-like. bHLH, WD and Myb play an important role in the color regulation of Hawthorn skin color. These results lay a solid foundation for QTL mapping and molecular marker-assisted breeding of hawthorn.

An Interpretable Screening Approach Derived Through XGBoost Regression for the Discovery of Hypolipidemic Contributors in Chinese Hawthorn Leaf and its Counterfeit Malus Doumeri Leaf

The active ingredient group is a prominent feature reflecting the inherent characteristics of plant-based functional foods. Chinese hawthorn leaf (CHL), a tea substitute possessing intrinsic nutritional properties in anti-hyperlipidemia, was first found to be adulterated with Malus doumeri leaf (MDL) owing to similar commercial labels. In this context, the above-mentioned two contrasting species were explored through phytochemical profiling and activity assessment. The amelioration effect of CHL on free fatty acids-elicited lipid deposition in HepG2 cells was significantly better than that of MDL. Molecular networking-based metabolic profiles identified 68 and 67 components in CHL and MDL, with 33 shared components. Extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) algorithm with outstanding performance was selected to screen candidate components contributing to hypolipidemic activity, and the output was later interpreted by Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) method. Twelve and eight components were separately screened as hyperlipidemic inhibitors in CHL and MDL, while only four constituents were shared. The bioactivity evaluation of selected ingredients and combinations further confirmed their anti-hyperlipidemia capacity. These findings emphasized the feasibility of filtering bioactivity-related compounds using interpretable machine learning approaches and illustrated that related species may contain different hypolipidemic contributors, even if shared constituents existed.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and safety concerns of hawthorn (Crataegus genus): A comprehensive review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Crataegus (hawthorn), a member of the Rosaceae family, encompasses several species with broad geographical distribution across the Northern Hemisphere, including Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Hawthorn is recognized as an edible medicinal plant with applications related to strengthening the digestive system, promoting blood circulation, and resolving blood stasis.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This study critically summarized the traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties to provide a theoretical basis for further studies on hawthorn and its applications in medicine and food.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information on hawthorn was gathered from scientific databases (including Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Baidu Scholar, CNKI, online ethnobotanical databases, and ethnobotanical monographs, and considered data from 1952 to 2023). Information about traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and safety concerns of the collected data is comprehensively summarized in this paper.

RESULTS

The literature review revealed that hawthorn includes more than 1000 species primarily distributed in the northern temperate zone. Traditional uses of hawthorn have lasted for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Within the past decade, 337 chemical compounds, including flavonoids, lignans, fatty acids and organic acids, monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids, terpenoids and steroids, have been identified from hawthorn. Modern pharmacological studies have confirmed numerous bioactivities, such as cardiovascular system influence, antitumor activity, hepatoprotective activity, antimicrobial properties, immunomodulatory functions, and anti-inflammatory activities. Additionally, evaluations have indicated that hawthorn lacks toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on its traditional uses, chemical composition, and pharmacological studies, hawthorn has significant potential as a medicinal and edible plant with a diverse range of pharmacological activities. Traditional uses of the hawthorn include the treatment of indigestion, dysmenorrhea, and osteoporosis. However, modern pharmacological research primarily focuses on its cardiovascular and cerebrovascular system effects, antitumor effects, and liver protection properties. Currently, there is a lack of correlative research involving its traditional uses and pharmacological activities. Moreover, phytochemical and pharmacological research has yet to focus on many types of hawthorn with traditional applications. Therefore, it is imperative to research the genus Crataegus extensively.

Phytochemical Properties of Crataegus azarolus Berries Decoction Extract and Evaluation of its Protective Activity Against Acetic Acid-Induced Ulcerative Colitis in Rats

The present study aims to evaluate the protective effect of Crataegus azarolus berries decoction extract (CAB-DE) against acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis as well as the mechanisms implicated in such protection. Adult male Wistar rats were separated into seven groups: Control (H2O), acetic acid (AA), AA + various doses of CAB-DE (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, b.w.,p.o.), and AA + sulfasalazine (100 mg/kg, b.w.,p.o.) or gallic acid (50 mg/kg, b.w.,p.o.) during 10 days. All rats were kept fasting overnight and ulcerative colitis was induced by rectal infusion of AA (300 mg kg-1, b.w.) (3%, v/v, 5 mL kg-1 b.w), for 30 s. The colon was rapidly excised and macroscopically examined to measure ulcerated surfaces and the ulcer index. In vitro, we found that CAB-DE exhibited a high antioxidant activity against DPPH radical (IC50 = 164.17 ± 4.78 μg/mL). In vivo, pretreatment with CAB-DE significantly protected the colonic mucosa against AA-induced damage by stimulating mucus secretion, reducing ulcer index as well as histopathological changes. Also, CAB-DE limited the oxidative status induced by AA in the colonic mucosa, as assessed by MDA and H2O2 increased levels and the depletion of both enzymatic activities and non-enzymatic levels. In addition, AA intoxication increased iron and calcium levels in colonic mucosa and plasma, while CAB-DE pretreatment regulated all intracellular mediators deregulation and significantly reduced inflammatory markers such as CRP (1.175 ± .04 ─ .734 ± .06 μg/dl) and ALP (161.53 ± 5.02 ─ 98.60 ± 4.21 UI/L) levels. We suggest that CAB-DE protected against AA-induced ulcerative colitis due in part to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Chemical Profile and Health-Promoting Activities of Crataegus laciniata (Rosaceae) Flowers

In the present study, we focused our attention on Crataegus laciniata Ucria (Rosaceae), which is wild growing in western Sicily (Italy). The chemical profile of the C. laciniata flower's (CLF) ethanolic (70%) extract showed the presence of both C-flavonoid and O-flavonoid derivatives. Beyond the main metabolites, like hyperoside and vitexin, there are several luteolin derivates, in addition to catechin and epicatechin dimers or trimers. Regarding the antioxidant activities, CLF showed a strong ability to scavenge DPPH and ABTS radicals and a good Fe3+-reducing antioxidant power. The investigation into the key enzymes in diabetes showed strong inhibition on α-amylase and α-glucosidase, whereas the skin-whitening properties are linked to inhibitory effects on tyrosinase. Moreover, we employed Danio rerio (zebrafish) for toxicity assessment, as it represents an ideal in vivo model due to its high correlation with humans in response to pharmaceutical and cosmetic testing. Zebrafish embryos exposed to CLF (25-100 µg/mL) showed marked depigmentation compared to phenylthiourea (PTU), in addition to a high survival percentage and the absence of malformations. In conclusion, this experimental study outlines that C. laciniata flowers could be a potential source of bioactive compounds for application in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

Expanding annotation of chemical compounds in hawthorn fruits and their variations in thermal processing using integrated mass spectral similarity networking

Chemical structural characterization of chemical compounds from hawthorn fruits and its thermal processed products was carried out in present study. By linking Global Natural Products Social (GNPS) Molecular Networking and MolNetEnhancer workflow, seventy-four chemical compounds in hawthorn fruits and its thermal processed products were tentatively identified. Three quercetagetin derivatives (quercetagetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetagetin-di-glucoside and its isomer), five quercetin or kaempferol derivatives (quercetin-acetylapiosyl-hexoside, quercetin-3-O-(6″-malonyl-hexoside), quercetin-3-O-(6″-malonyl-hexoside)-(1 → 2)-O-hexoside, quercetin-3-O-(6″-malonyl-hexoside)-(1 → 2)-O-deoxyhexoside, kaempferol-3-O-(6″-malonyl-hexoside)), six procyanidins including four (E)C-ethyl-procyanidins and two A-type procyanidins digallate, as well as 13 triterpenoids including ursolic aldehyde, triterpenoid glycosides, and triterpene acids were reported for the first time in hawthorn fruits. In addition, triterpenoids exhibited considerable thermal stability, while all of flavonoid glycosides, proanthocyanidins and 10 in 13 organic acids showed dramatic decrease after thermal processing.

Quality control, phytochemical profile, and biological activities of Crataegus monogyna Jacq. and Crataegus laciniata Ucria fruits aqueous extracts

The current study aimed to evaluate the phytochemical composition, quality control, and antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antihyperglycemic activities, and toxicity assessment of Crataegus monogyna Jacq (C. monogyna) and Crataegus laciniata Ucria (C. laciniata) fruits aqueous extracts. The quality control of the plant material revealed that it is free of heavy metals and the acidity and ash parameters comply with international standards. HPLC-DAD analysis revealed the presence of eight phenolic compounds in the C. monogyna extract and nine compounds in the C. laciniata extract, with coumaric acid present only in the C. laciniata extract. According to the findings, both extracts are high in total polyphenols, total flavonoids, and condensed tannins. The results of the antioxidant activity revealed that our extracts have significant effects against 2, 2-diphényl 1-picrylhydrazyle (DPPH), and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP). The antibacterial test revealed that the two extracts tested were effective against four bacterial strains, including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, and Shigella dysenteria, but were ineffective against Salmonella typhi, and Acinetobacter baumanii. In addition, extracts from both plants showed remarkable antihyperglycemic activity with no acute toxicity. In conclusion, the extracts studied could be a good source of bioactive molecules with antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic activity for pharmaceutical applications.

Comprehensive Analysis of the Chemical and Bioactivity Profiles of Endemic Crataegus turcicus Dönmez in Comparison with Other Crataegus Species

Crataegus turcicus is a plant endemic to Türkiye. For the first time, this study aimed to comparatively assess its flower-bearing branches, leaves, and fruits with other well-known Crataegus species (C. monogyna, C. pentagyna, and C. orientalis) in terms of chemical composition and bioactivity studies to evaluate its potential use as a food supplement. Firstly, the contents of total phenolics (TPC), flavonoids (TFC), proanthocyanidin (TPAC), and anthocyanin (TAC) in different plant parts of Crataegus species were evaluated. The highest TPAC was found in the hydroalcoholic extract of C. turcicus flower-bearing branches. Moreover, all plant parts had comparatively higher amounts of TPC, TFC, and TAC compared to other Crataegus species. The chemical screening by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) resulted that C. turcicus parts were rich with chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, quercetin and vitexin derivatives, epicatechin, procyanidin, etc., and their quantities were evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In terms of several in vitro antioxidant activity outcomes, the flower-bearing branches of C. turcicus showed the highest antioxidant activity by a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test among the assessed antioxidant assays. Additionally, hydroalcoholic extracts of C. turcicus significantly decreased LPS-induced nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin-6 production more potently than indomethacin (positive control). In addition to its remarkable anti-inflammatory activity, C. turcicus showed analgesic activity by reducing prostaglandin E2 levels.

Advances in the study of the vascular protective effects and molecular mechanisms of hawthorn (Crataegus anamesa Sarg.) extracts in cardiovascular diseases

Hawthorn belongs to the rose family and is a type of functional food. It contains various chemicals, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and organic acid compounds. This study aimed to review the vascular protective effects and molecular mechanisms of hawthorn and its extracts on cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Hawthorn has a wide range of biological functions. Evidence suggests that the active components of HE reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, regulate lipid levels to prevent lipid accumulation, and inhibit free cholesterol accumulation in macrophages and foam cell formation. Additionally, hawthorn extract (HE) can protect vascular endothelial function, regulate endothelial dysfunction, and promote vascular endothelial relaxation. It has also been reported that the effective components of hawthorn can prevent age-related endothelial dysfunction, increase cellular calcium levels, cause antiplatelet aggregation, and promote antithrombosis. In clinical trials, HE has been proved to reduce the adverse effects of CVDs on blood lipids, blood pressure, left ventricular ejection fraction, heart rate, and exercise tolerance. Previous studies have pointed to the benefits of hawthorn and its extracts in treating atherosclerosis and other vascular diseases. Therefore, as both medicine and food, hawthorn can be used as a new drug source for treating cardiovascular diseases.

Hawthorn fruit extract protect against MC-LR-induced hepatotoxicity by attenuating oxidative stress and apoptosis

Microcystins (MCs) is a class of cyclic heptapeptide compounds with biological activity. There is no effective treatment for liver injury caused by MCs. Hawthorn is a medicinal and edible plant traditional Chinese medicine with hypolipidemic, reducing inflammation and oxidative stress in the liver. This study discussed the protective effect of hawthorn fruit extract (HFE) on liver damage caused by MC-LR and the underlying molecular mechanism. After MC-LR exposure, pathological changes were observed and hepatic activity of ALT, AST and ALP were increased obviously, but they were remarkably restored with HFE administration. In addition, MC-LR could significantly reduce SOD activity and increase MDA content. Importantly, MC-LR treatment resulted in mitochondrial membrane potential decreased, and Cytochrome C release, eventually leading to cell apoptosis rate increase. HFE pretreatment could significantly alleviate the above abnormal phenomena. To examine the mechanism of protection, the expression of critical molecules in the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway was examined. The levels of Bcl-2 was inhibited, and the levels of Bax, Caspase-9, Cleaved Caspase-9, and Cleaved caspase-3 were upregulated after MC-LR treatment. HFE reduced MC-LR-induced apoptosis via reversing the expression of key proteins and genes in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Hence, HFE could alleviate MC-LR induced hepatotoxicity by reducing oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Crataegus pinnatifida: A botanical, ethnopharmacological, phytochemical, and pharmacological overview

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Crataegus pinnatifida belongs to the Rosaceae family and extensively distribute in North China, Europe, and North America. Its usage was first described in "Xinxiu Ben Cao." The dried fruits of Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge or Crataegus pinnatifida var. major N. E. Br., also known as "Shanzha," is a famous medicine and food homology herb with a long history of medicinal usage in China. C. pinnatifida has the functions for digestive promotion, cardiovascular protection, and lipid reduction. It was traditionally used to treat indigestion, cardiodynia, thoracalgia, hernia, postpartum blood stagnation, and hemafecia. In recent years, C. pinnatifida has attracted worldwide attention as an important medicinal and economical crop due to its multiple and excellent health-promoting effects on cardiovascular, nervous, digestive, endocrine systems, and morbigenous microorganisms of the human body due to its medicinal and nutritional values.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The current review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the geographical distribution, traditional usage, phytochemical components, pharmacological actions, clinical settings, and toxicities of C. pinnatifida. Moreover, the connection between the claimed biological activities and the traditional usage, along with the future perspectives for ongoing research on this plant, were also critically summarized.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We collected the published literature on C. pinnatifida using a variety of scientific databases, including Web of Science, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Wiley, Springer, Taylor & Francis, ACS Publications, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, CNKI, The Plant List Database, and other literature sources (Ph.D. and MSc dissertations) from 2012 to 2022.

RESULTS

In the last decade, over 250 phytochemical compounds containing lignans, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, and their glycosides, as well as other compounds, have been isolated and characterized from different parts, including the fruit, leaves, and seeds of C. pinnatifida. Among these compounds, flavonoids and triterpenoids were major bioactive components of C. pinnatifida. They exhibited a broad spectrum of pharmacological actions with low toxicity in vitro and in vivo, such as cardiovascular protection, neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-diabetes, anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic, anti-osteoporosis, anti-aging, anti-obesity, and hepatoprotection and other actions.

CONCLUSION

A long history of traditional uses and abundant pharmacochemical and pharmacological investigations have demonstrated that C. pinnatifida is an important medicine and food homology herb, which displays outstanding therapeutic potential, especially in the digestive system and cardiovascular disease. Nevertheless, the current studies on the active ingredients or crude extracts of C. pinnatifida and the possible mechanism of action are unclear. More evidence-based scientific studies are required to verify the traditional uses of C. pinnatifida. Furthermore, more efforts must be paid to selecting index components for quality control research and toxicity and safety studies of C. pinnatifida.

Phytochemical Profiles and Biological Studies of Selected Botanical Dietary Supplements Used in the United States

Based on their current wide bioavailability, botanical dietary supplements have become an important component of the United States healthcare system, although most of these products have limited scientific evidence for their use. The most recent American Botanical Council Market Report estimated for 2020 a 17.3% increase in sales of these products when compared to 2019, for a total sales volume of $11,261 billion. The use of botanical dietary supplements products in the United States is guided by the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) from 1994, enacted by the U.S. Congress with the aim of providing more information to consumers and to facilitate access to a larger number of botanical dietary supplements available on the market than previously. Botanical dietary supplements may be formulated for and use only using crude plant samples (e.g., plant parts such as the bark, leaves, or roots) that can be processed by grinding into a dried powder. Plant parts can also be extracted with hot water to form an "herbal tea." Other preparations of botanical dietary supplements include capsules, essential oils, gummies, powders, tablets, and tinctures. Overall, botanical dietary supplements contain bioactive secondary metabolites with diverse chemotypes that typically are found at low concentration levels. These bioactive constituents usually occur in combination with inactive molecules that may induce synergy and potentiation of the effects observed when botanical dietary supplements are taken in their different forms. Most of the botanical dietary supplements available on the U.S. market have been used previously as herbal remedies or as part of traditional medicine systems from around the world. Their prior use in these systems also provides a certain level of assurance in regard to lower toxicity levels. This chapter will focus on the importance and diversity of the chemical features of bioactive secondary metabolites found in botanical dietary supplements that are responsible for their applications. Many of the active principles of botanical dietary substances are phenolics and isoprenoids, but glycosides and some alkaloids are also present. Biological studies on the active constituents of selected botanical dietary supplements will be discussed. Thus, the present chapter should be of interest for both members of the natural products scientific community, who may be performing development studies of the products available, as well as for healthcare professionals who are directly involved in the analysis of botanical interactions and evaluation of the suitability of botanical dietary supplements for human consumption.

Diplocarpon mespilicola sp. nov. Associated with Entomosporium Leaf Spot on Hawthorn in China

Entomosporium leaf spot (ELS) is a serious hawthorn disease that mainly causes premature leaf senescence in various hawthorn growing areas worldwide. Diplocarpon mespili is the most commonly reported pathogen causing hawthorn ELS. From 2016 to 2018, hawthorn ELS disease surveys and samplings were carried out in five regions in three provinces of China. The disease incidence was about 20 to 95%. A total of 186 single-spored Diplocarpon isolates were obtained and identified using morphological and molecular phylogenetic analysis. The results showed that all isolates clustered, suggesting a distinct species that is here proposed as D. mespilicola sp. nov. This is the first report of the pathogen causing ELS on hawthorn in China, and it is similar to the species D. mespili. To explore the influence of temperature on the epidemiology of D. mespilicola, we studied the continuous influence of temperature and time on the germination of conidia by using nine time points and eight temperature gradient observations. This study indicated that the optimum temperature for conidial germination was 20.4°C, and the minimum germination time was 4.9 h. Using this information to develop a predictive model may provide a basis for disease management in hawthorn production in the future.

Quality analysis of hawthorn leaves (the leaves of Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. var major N.E.Br) in different harvest time

INTRODUCTION

Harvest time plays an important role on the quality of medicinal plants. The leaves of Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. var major N.E.Br (hawthorn leaves) could be harvested in summer and autumn according to the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (Pharmacopoeia). However, little is known about the difference of the chemical constituents in hawthorn leaves with the harvest seasonal variations.

OBJECTIVE

The chemical constituents of hawthorn leaves in different months were comprehensively analysed to determine the best harvest time.

METHODS

Initially, the chemical information of the hawthorn leaves were obtained by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS). Subsequently, principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to compare the chemical compositions of hawthorn leaves harvested in different months. Then, an absolute quantitation method was established using high-performance liquid chromatography-charged aerosol detector (HPLC-CAD) to determine the contents of five compounds and clarify the changes of these components with the harvest seasonal variations. Meanwhile, a semi-quantitative method by integrating HPLC-CAD with inverse gradient compensation was also established and verified.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight compounds were identified through UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS. PCA revealed that the harvest season of hawthorn leaves had a significant effect on the chemical compositions. The contents of five components were relatively high in autumn. Other four main components without reference standards were further analysed through the semi-quantitative method, which also showed a high content in autumn.

CONCLUSIONS

This work emphasised the effect of harvest time on the chemical constituents of hawthorn leaves and autumn is recommended to ensure the quality.

Food Applications and Potential Health Benefits of Hawthorn

Hawthorn (Crataegus) is a plant of the Rosaceae family and is widely grown throughout the world as one of the medicinal and edible plants, known as the “nutritious fruit” due to its richness in bioactive substances. Preparations derived from it are used in the formulation of dietary supplements, functional foods, and pharmaceutical products. Rich in amino acids, minerals, pectin, vitamin C, chlorogenic acid, epicatechol, and choline, hawthorn has a high therapeutic and health value. Many studies have shown that hawthorn has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-cardiovascular disease, and digestive enhancing properties. This is related to its bioactive components such as polyphenols (chlorogenic acid, proanthocyanidin B2, epicatechin), flavonoids (proanthocyanidins, mucoxanthin, quercetin, rutin), and pentacyclic triterpenoids (ursolic acid, hawthornic acid, oleanolic acid), which are also its main chemical constituents. This paper briefly reviews the chemical composition, nutritional value, food applications, and the important biological and pharmacological activities of hawthorn. This will contribute to the development of functional foods or nutraceuticals from hawthorn.

Cultivated hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida var. major) genome sheds light on the evolution of Maleae (apple tribe)

Cultivated hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida var. major) is an important medicinal and edible plant with a long history of use for health protection in China. Herein, we provide a de novo chromosome-level genome sequence of the hawthorn cultivar "Qiu Jinxing." We assembled an 823.41 Mb genome encoding 40 571 genes and further anchored the 779.24 Mb sequence into 17 pseudo-chromosomes, which account for 94.64% of the assembled genome. Phylogenomic analyses revealed that cultivated hawthorn diverged from other species within the Maleae (apple tribe) at approximately 35.4 Mya. Notably, genes involved in the flavonoid and triterpenoid biosynthetic pathways have been significantly amplified in the hawthorn genome. In addition, our results indicated that the Maleae share a unique ancient tetraploidization event; however, no recent independent whole-genome duplication event was specifically detected in hawthorn. The amplification of non-specific long terminal repeat retrotransposons contributed the most to the expansion of the hawthorn genome. Furthermore, we identified two paleo-sub-genomes in extant species of Maleae and found that these two sub-genomes showed different rearrangement mechanisms. We also reconstructed the ancestral chromosomes of Rosaceae and discussed two possible paleo-polyploid origin patterns (autopolyploidization or allopolyploidization) of Maleae. Overall, our study provides an improved context for understanding the evolution of Maleae species, and this new high-quality reference genome provides a useful resource for the horticultural improvement of hawthorn.

High-pressure and thermal processing of cloudy hawthorn berry (Crataegus pinnatifida) juice: Impact on microbial shelf-life, enzyme activity and quality-related attributes

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of high-pressure (HPP, 300/600 MPa for 2 and 6 min) and thermal processing (TP, 65 °C/30 min) on microbial shelf-life, enzyme-activity and quality-attributes of cloudy hawthorn berry juice (CHBJ) after processing and during storage (4 °C). The CHBJ shelf-life was at least 150 days when processed by HPP. No significant difference was observed in pH and titratable acidity (p > 0.05), while HPP significantly increased soluble sugar (p < 0.05) and simulated some fruity aroma compounds which improved the taste and flavor of CHBJ. However, HPP inhabited ineffectively enzyme-activity in comparison to TP, causing significant color changes (ΔE = 4.98 ± 0.03-5.10 ± 0.07) during 30-day storage (p < 0.05). Although particle size increased after HPP treatment, significant increases (68.76%-926.95%) were observed in viscosity (p < 0.05), due to enhanced extractability or modification of pectin induced by HPP, resulting in higher consistency of CHBJ. HPP is promising to extend shelf-life and improve quality-attributes of CHBJ.

Potential Roles and Key Mechanisms of Hawthorn Extract against Various Liver Diseases

The genus Crataegus (hawthorn), a flowering shrub or tree, is a member of the Rosaceae family and consists of approximately 280 species that have been primarily cultivated in East Asia, North America, and Europe. Consumption of hawthorn preparations has been chiefly associated with pharmacological benefits for cardiovascular diseases, including congestive heart failure and angina pectoris. Treatment with hawthorn extracts can be related to improvements in the complex pathogenesis of various hepatic and cardiovascular disorders. In this regard, the present review described that the presence of hawthorn extracts ameliorated hepatic injury, lipid accumulation, inflammation, fibrosis, and cancer in an abundance of experimental models. Hawthorn extracts might have these promising activities, largely by enhancing the hepatic antioxidant system. In addition, several mechanisms, including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling and apoptosis, are responsible for the role of hawthorn extracts in repairing the dysfunction of injured hepatocytes. Specifically, hawthorn possesses a wide range of biological actions relevant to the treatment of toxic hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Accordingly, hawthorn extracts can be developed as a major source of therapeutic agents for liver diseases.

Chemoprevention with a tea from hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) leaves and flowers attenuates colitis in rats by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress

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A tea from the leaves and flowers of hawthorn is rich in flavonoids, especially vitexin-2-O-rhamnoside.

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Mesalamine and hawthorn tea have positive healing effects in rats with colitis.

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Hawthorn tea reduces the length and area of the brownish necrotic lesions.

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Hawthorn tea diminishes the levels of the inflammatory markers MPO and IL-1β.

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Hawthorn tea regulates the activity of the oxidative stress enzymes CAT and GR.

The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of a tea from the leaves and flowers of Crataegus oxyacantha in rats with colitis. Colitis was induced by administration of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid. Hawthorn tea (HT) (100 mg/kg) was given via gavage for 21 days and the mesalamine drug (100 mg/kg) was administrated during the period of disease onset. HT was rich in total phenolic compounds (16.5%), flavonoids (1.8%), and proanthocyanidins (1.5%); vitexin-2-O-rhamnoside was the main compound detected. Mesalamine and the HT diminished the length of the lesions formed in the colon, in addition to reducing the levels of myeloperoxidase and interleukin-1β. Mesalamine was able to significantly reverse the body weight loss, while HT improved the activity of glutathione reductase and catalase. Histological scoring was not changed by the interventions, but it was highly correlated with the necrotic area. HT given at 100 mg/kg can be effective against colitis.

Botanical, Phytochemical, Anti-Microbial and Pharmaceutical Characteristics of Hawthorn (Crataegusmonogyna Jacq.), Rosaceae

Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.) is a wild edible fruit tree of the genus Crataegus, one of the most interesting genera of the Rosaceae family. This review is the first to consider, all together, the pharmaceutical, phytochemical, functional and therapeutic properties of C. monogyna based on numerous valuable secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, vitamin C, glycoside, anthocyanin, saponin, tannin and antioxidants. Previous reviews dealt with the properties of all species of the entire genera. We highlight the multi-therapeutic role that C. monogyna extracts could have in the treatment of different chronic and degenerative diseases, mainly focusing on flavonoids. In the first part of this comprehensive review, we describe the main botanical characteristics and summarize the studies which have been performed on the morphological and genetic characterization of the C. monogyna germplasm. In the second part, the key metabolites and their nutritional and pharmaceutical properties are described. This work could be an essential resource for promoting future therapeutic formulations based on this natural and potent bioactive plant extract.

Development of a quantified herbal extract of hawthorn Crataegus mexicana leaves with vasodilator effect

Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) has been used for the treatment of several heart diseases and hypertension. The studies carried out on several hawthorn species have led to the development of standardized extracts useful in the cure of mild chronic cardiac diseases.

In Mexico, the most common Crataegus species are C. mexicana and C. gracilior. Decoctions prepared from the fruits and leaves of these species have been employed to the treat respiratory diseases, tachycardia and to improve coronary blood flow. Considering that to date there are no reports of the use of Mexican Crataegus species to treat cardiovascular diseases, we propose an analytical method to obtain a quantified extract of Crataegus mexicana leaves for the development of a standardized extract with therapeutic value in cardiovascular diseases as an alternative source to the extracts obtained from Crataegus species of European and Asian origin.

Therefore, the aim of this study was to obtain an extract prepared from C. mexicana leaves with the highest vasodilator activity to select the optimal chemical marker to stablish and validate a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RPHPLC-DAD) analytical method for obtaining a quantified extract with vasodilator effect.

The results obtained from the analytical method validation, which was carried out according to the guidelines stablished in the Eurachem Guide and the ICH guidelines proved that the RPHPLC-DAD method we developed was specific, precise, accurate, and showed good linearity over the concentration range of 3 – 21 µg/ml for (-)-epicatechin and rutin, which were selected as chemical markers.

UPLC-Q-TOF-MS based metabolomics study of hawthorn leaves in different geographical regions

The quality evaluation of hawthorn leaves in different geographical regions derived from the dried leaves of Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. Var. Major N.E.Br. or Crataegus pinnatifida Bge., a common blood-activating and stasis-eliminating traditional Chinese medicine, has hardly been reported. In this study, the chemical comparison of 40 batches of hawthorn leaf samples collected from Hebei, Liaoning, Shandong and Shanxi Provinces was performed using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry-based metabolic profile and pattern recognition analysis approach. A total of 233 compounds were determined. Among them, 40 compounds were selected as potential metabolites responsible for the differential clustering, and the differential metabolite-based evaluation model was applied to well distinguish the origin of seven batches of hawthorn leaves sold on the market. Further analysis of the KEGG pathway showed that five core metabolites containing flavonoids and lignins were mainly involved in flavonoid biosynthesis, flavone and flavonol biosynthesis, and stilbenoid, diarylheptanoid and gingerol biosynthesis. Taking the content of flavonoids, core markers, as the evaluation basis, it was found that the quality of hawthorn leaves in Hebei and Liaoning was better. The study provides a reference for the rational utilization of hawthorn leaves, and highlights that the metabolomics-driven analysis method is more suitable for the quality evaluation of traditional Chinese medicine.

Digestion-Promoting Effects and Mechanisms of Dashanzha Pill Based on Raw and Charred Crataegi Fructus

Emerging evidence suggests that a high-fat diet (HFD) can influence endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and gut microbiota. Crataegi Fructus is a traditional Chinese herb widely used in formulas for dyspepsia, with Dashanzha Pill composed of raw Crataegi Fructus (DR) being a representative drug. Processing products of Crataegi Fructus, however, have a stronger pro-digestive effect, and we hypothesized that Dashanzha Pill composed of charred Crataegi Fructus (DC) is more effective. We found that the contents of glucose 1-phosphate and luteolin in DR and DC were substantially different via ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-hybrid quadrupole-Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry. DC outperformed DR in improving histopathological changes, increasing gastrin and motilin, and decreasing vasoactive intestinal peptides in rats with HFD induced dyspepsia. Fecal microbiota analysis revealed that DC could restore the disturbed intestinal microbiota composition, including that of Bacteroides, Akkermansia, and Intestinimonas to normal levels. Furthermore, DC significantly reduced the mRNA and protein levels of glucose-regulated protein 78, protein kinase R-like ER kinase, and eukaryotic initiation factor 2α. Taken together, DC outperformed DR in relieving dyspepsia by regulating gut microbiota and alleviating ER stress.

Medlar—A Comprehensive and Integrative Review

Among fruit plants belonging to the Rosaceae family, medlar (Mespilus) can be classified as neglected or underutilized. It is a genus of two species of flowering plants: Mespilus germanica (common medlar) and Mespilus canescens. Appreciated for its specific taste and flavor, medlar also possesses biological properties (antioxidant and antimicrobial). Despite the special properties of medlar, there are few research papers on this subject. This review paper includes data not only on medlar fruits but also its leaves, bark, and bud flowers. The main identified components are presented, as well as several biological properties, morphological properties, ethnopharmacological uses, and molecular biology analyses emerging from the scientific papers published in this area.

Development of an Optimized Drying Process for the Recovery of Bioactive Compounds from the Autumn Fruits of Berberis vulgaris L. and Crataegus monogyna Jacq

Hot air drying has proven to be an efficient method to preserve specific edible plant materials with medicinal properties. This is a process involving chemical, physical, and biological changes in plant matrices. Understanding these processes will lead to an improvement in the yields of bioactive compounds. This study aims to optimize the drying process of two species’ fruits used in folk medicine, Berberis vulgaris and Crataegus monogyna. The optimized extracts’ antioxidant capacity was assessed using various assays, with the barberry extract showing very good activity (50.85, 30.98, and 302.45 mg TE/g dw for DPPH, TEAC, and FRAP assays, respectively). Both species exerted good fungal α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 0.34 and 0.56 mg/mL, respectively) but no activity on mammalian α-glucosidase. Additionally, this study identified and quantified the main bioactive compounds. The results presented herein are a breakthrough in industrializing this drying process. Additional studies are necessary to mechanistically understand the drying process involved in these plant materials.

New Insight into the Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Cultivated and Related Species of Crataegus in China, Based on Complete Chloroplast Genome Sequencing

Hawthorns (Crataegus L.) are one of the most important processing and table fruits in China, due to their medicinal properties and health benefits. However, the interspecific relationships and evolution history of cultivated Crataegus in China remain unclear. Our previously published data showed C. bretschneideri may be derived from the hybridization of C. pinnatifida with C. maximowiczii, and that introgression occurs between C. hupehensis, C. pinnatifida, and C. pinnatifida var. major. In the present study, chloroplast sequences were used to further elucidate the phylogenetic relationships of cultivated Crataegus native to China. The chloroplast genomes of three cultivated species and one related species of Crataegus were sequenced for comparative and phylogenetic analyses. The four chloroplast genomes of Crataegus exhibited typical quadripartite structures and ranged from 159,607 bp (C. bretschneideri) to 159,875 bp (C. maximowiczii) in length. The plastomes of the four species contained 113 genes consisting of 79 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and 4 rRNA genes. Six hypervariable regions (ndhC-trnV(UAC)-trnM(CAU), ndhA, atpH-atpI, ndhF, trnR(UCU)-atpA, and ndhF-rpl32), 196 repeats, and a total of 386 simple sequence repeats were detected as potential variability makers for species identification and population genetic studies. In the phylogenomic analyses, we also compared the entire chloroplast genomes of three published Crataegus species: C. hupehensis (MW201730.1), C. pinnatifida (MN102356.1), and C. marshallii (MK920293.1). Our phylogenetic analyses grouped the seven Crataegus taxa into two main clusters. One cluster included C. bretschneideri, C. maximowiczii, and C. marshallii, whereas the other included C. hupehensis, C. pinnatifida, and C. pinnatifida var. major. Taken together, our findings indicate that C. maximowiczii is the maternal origin of C. bretschneideri. This work provides further evidence of introgression between C. hupehensis, C. pinnatifida, and C. pinnatifida var. major, and suggests that C. pinnatifida var. major might have been artificially selected and domesticated from hybrid populations, rather than evolved from C. pinnatifida.

Improving the Berry Quality and Antioxidant Potential of Flame Seedless Grapes by Foliar Application of Chitosan-Phenylalanine Nanocomposites (CS-Phe NCs)

The production and sustainability of grape berries with high quality and health-promoting properties is a major goal. In this regard, nano-engineered materials are being used for improving the quality and marketability of berries. In this study, we investigated the potential role of chitosan–phenylalanine nanocomposites (CS–Phe NCs) in improving the quality of Flame Seedless (Vitis vinifera L.) grape berries, such as titratable acidity (TA), pH, total soluble solids (TSS), ascorbic acid, total phenolics, total flavonoids, anthocyanin, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity. In this context, grape berries collected in two growing seasons (2018–2019) were screened. Regarding the experimental design, the treatments included chitosan at a 0.5% concentration (CS 0.5%), phenylalanine at 5 mM and 10 mM concentrations (Phe 5 mM and Phe 10 mM), and chitosan–phenylalanine nanocomposites (CS–Phe NCs) at 5 mM and 10 mM concentrations. The lowest TA was recorded in grape berries treated with CS–Phe NCs with a 10 mM concentration. However, treatments enhanced with TSS, which reached the highest value with 10 mM of CS–Phe NCs, were reflected as the highest ratio of TSS/TA with 10 mM of CS–Phe NC treatment. Nanocomposites (NCs) also increased pH values in both study years compared to the control. Similarly, the ascorbic acid and total phenolic content increased in response to NP treatment, reaching the highest value with 5 mM and 10 mM of CS–Phe NCs in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The highest flavonoid content was observed with 5 mM of CS–Phe NCs in both study years. In addition, the anthocyanin content increased with 5 and 10 mM of CS–Phe NCs. PAL activity was found to be the highest with 5 mM of CS–Phe NCs in both study years. In addition, in accordance with the increase in PAL activity, increased total phenolics and anthocyanin, and higher DPPH radical scavenging activity of the grapes were recorded with the treatments compared to the control. As deduced from the findings, the coating substantially influenced the metabolic pathway, and the subsequent alterations induced by the treatments were notably appreciated due to there being no adverse impacts perceived.

Hawthorn polyphenols, D-chiro-inositol, and epigallocatechin gallate exert a synergistic hypoglycemic effect

Hawthorn berry has been proved hypoglycemic effect due to the presence of some α-glucosidase inhibitors. Herein, screening and identifying of α-glucosidase inhibitors from hawthorn berry were conducted, and the results showed polyphenols mainly containing quercetin (74.58%) and hyperioside (9.58%) were responsible for its bioactivity. In order to enhance the hypoglycemic effect, the combined glucose-lowering complex (DEH) consisting of hawthorn polyphenols, D-chiro-inositol (DCI), and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) was prepared, where three ingredients exerted the synergistic hypoglycemic effect to enhance glucose consumption and glycogen levels and inhibit hepatic gluconeogenesis in IR-HepG2 cells. In STZ/HFD-induced mice, DEH effectively improved insulin resistance, reduced fasting blood glucose (FBG) and hepatic gluconeogenesis, and increased hepatic glycogen synthesis and storage via down-regulation of PI3K/Akt/FOXO1-mediated PEPCK and G6Pase and up-regulation of PI3K/Akt/GSK3-mediated GS activation in the liver. In summary, these findings indicate that DEH is a potential novel strategy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Glucose-lowering complex (DEH) with superior hypoglycemic effect, can effectively improve the insulin resistance, reduce the fasting blood glucose, hepatic gluconeogenesis and increase the hepatic glycogen synthesis and storage in mice, which represents a potential novel strategy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Screening for pancreatic lipase natural modulators by capillary electrophoresis hyphenated to spectrophotometric and conductometric dual detection

The search for novel pancreatic lipase (PL) inhibitors has gained increasing attention in recent years. For the first time, a dual detection capillary electrophoresis (CE)-based homogeneous lipase assay was developed employing both the offline and online reaction modes. The hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl butyrate (4-NPB) catalyzed by PL into 4-nitrophenol and butyrate was monitored by spectrophotometric and conductimetric detection, respectively. The assays presented several advantages such as economy in consumption (few tens of nanoliters for online assays to few tens of microliters for offline assays), no modification of lipase, rapidity (<10 min) and versatility. Tris/MOPS (10 mM, pH 6.6) was used as the background electrolyte and the incubation buffer for enzymatic reactions. We confirmed that in the conditions of the study (small substrate 4-NPB, 37 °C, pH 6.6), the PL was active even in the absence of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) vesicles, generally used to mimic the lipid-water interface. This was confirmed by the maximum velocity (Vmax) and the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) values that were the same order of magnitude in the absence and presence of DPPC. The developed method was used to screen crude aqueous plant extracts and purified compounds. We were able to identify the promising PL inhibition of hawthorn leaf herbal infusions at 1 mg mL-1 (37%) and PL activation by fresh and dry hawthorn flowers (∼24%). Additionally, two triterpenoids purified from extracts of oakwood were identified for the first time as potent PL inhibitors demonstrating 51 and 58% inhibition at 1 mg mL-1, respectively.

Polyphenolic Compounds of Crataegus Berry, Leaf, and Flower Extracts Affect Viability and Invasive Potential of Human Glioblastoma Cells

Crataegus contains numerous health-promoting compounds that are also proposed to have anti-cancer properties. Herein, we aimed at a contemporaneous evaluation of the effects of polyphenol-rich extracts of berries, leaves, and flowers of six Crataegus species on the viability and invasive potential on the highly aggressive human glioblastoma U87MG cell line. The treatment with the extracts evoked cytotoxic effects, with the strongest in the berry extracts. All extracts not only promoted the apoptosis-related cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) but also substantially inhibited the activity of pro-survival kinases, focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and protein kinase B (PKB; also known as Akt), thus indicating the suppression of proliferative and invasive potentials of the examined glioblastoma cells. The qualitative and quantitative characterization of the extracts’ content was also performed and revealed that amongst 37 polyphenolic compounds identified in the examined Crataegus extracts, the majority (29) was detected in berries; the leaf and flower extracts, exerting milder cytotoxic effects, contained only 14 and 13 compounds, respectively. The highest polyphenol content was found in the berries of C. laevigata x rhipidophylla x monogyna, in which flavan-3-ols and phenolic acids predominated. Our results demonstrated that a high content of polyphenolic compounds correlated with the extract cytotoxicity, and especially berries were a valuable source of compounds with anti-cancer potential. This might be a promising option for the development of an effective therapeutic strategy against highly malignant glioblastomas in the future.

Rapid Profiling and Identification of Vitexin Metabolites in Rat Urine, Plasma and Faeces after Oral Administration Using a UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap Mass Spectrometer Coupled with Multiple Data-mining Methods

BACKGROUND

Vitexin is a natural flavonoid compound with multiple pharmacological activities and is extracted from the leaves and seeds of Vitex negundo L. var. cannabifolia (Sieb. et Zucc.) Hand.-Mazz. However, the metabolite characterization of this component remains insufficient.

OBJECTIVE

To establish a rapid profiling and identification method for vitexin metabolites in rat urine, plasma and faeces after oral administration using a UHPLC-Q-Exactive orbitrap mass spectrometer were coupled with multiple data-mining methods.

METHODS

In this study a simple and rapid systematic strategy for the detection and identification of constituents was proposed based on UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry in parallel reaction monitoring mode combining diagnostic fragment ion filtering techniques.

RESULTS

A total of 49 metabolites were fully or partially characterized based on their accurate mass, characteristic fragment ions, retention times, corresponding ClogP values, and so on. It is obvious that C-glycosyl flavonoids often display an [M+H-120]⁺ ion that represents the loss of C₄H₈O₄. As a result, these metabolites were presumed to be generated through glucuronidation, sulfation, deglucosylation, dehydrogenation, methylation, hydrogenation, hydroxylation, ring cleavage and their composite reactions. Moreover, the characteristic fragmentation pathways of flavonoids, chalcones and dihydrochalcones were summarized for the subsequent metabolite identification.

CONCLUSION

The current study provided an overall metabolic profile of vitexin which will be of great help in predicting the in vivo pharmacokinetic profiles and understanding the action mechanism of this active ingredient.

Effect of Chitosan Nanoemulsion on Enhancing the Phytochemical Contents, Health-Promoting Components, and Shelf Life of Raspberry (Rubus sanctus Schreber)

Due to high water content and perishability, the raspberry fruit is sensitive to postharvest fungal contamination and postharvest losses. In this study, chitosan was used as an edible coating to increase the storage of raspberries, and nanotechnology was used to increase chitosan efficiency. The fruit was treated with an emulsion containing nanoparticles of chitosan (ECNPC) at 0, 2.5, and 5 g L−1, and stored for 9 d. Decay extension rate, fruit phytochemical contents, including total phenolics, flavonoids, and anthocyanin content, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), and guaiacol-peroxidase enzymes and antioxidant activity, and other qualitative properties were evaluated during and at the end of storage. After 9 d of storage, the highest amounts of phenolics compounds, PAL enzyme activity, and antioxidant activity were observed in fruit treated with ECNPC at 5 g L−1. The highest levels of total phenol, PAL enzyme activity, and antioxidant activity were 57.53 g L−1, 118.88 μmol/min trans-cinnamic acid, and 85.16%, respectively. ECNPC can be considered as an effective, safe, and environmentally friendly method for enhancing fruit phytochemical contents, postharvest life, and health-promoting capacity.

A Review of Medicinal Plants in Cardiovascular Disorders: Benefits and Risks

Many cultivated and wild plants are used for the management of various diseases, specifically renal and hepatic diseases and those of the immune and cardiovascular systems. In China, medicinal plants from ancient to modern history have been used in patients with angina pectoris, congestive heart failure (CHF), systolic hypertension, arrhythmia, and venous insufficiency for centuries. The latest increase in the fame of natural products and alternative medicine has revived interest in conventional remedies that have been consumed in the management of CVD. The cardio-protective properties of the various herbs are possibly due to their anti-oxidative, antihypercholesterolemic, anti-ischemic activities, and inhibition of platelet aggregation that reduce the risk of CVD. Ethno-pharmacological and biological properties of these plants are explored, based upon published scientific literature. Although a majority of medicinal plants having a biological mechanism that linked with CVD management, to date, published literature pertaining to their promising scientific properties are still poorly understood. Compared with synthetic medicines, alternative medicines do not need scientific studies before their formal approval from the government sector and due to this purpose; their safety, as well as efficacy, still remain elusive. Taken together, we addressed all accessible evidence on alternative medicines commonly consumed in CVD management. Our comprehensive analysis of the scientific literature indicated that many TCMs are available and valuable herbal medication would be the best alternative for the management of CVD as a complementary therapy. Furthermore, practitioners should always discuss possible benefits-risks of alternative medicines with patients so that they are aware of the consumption of alternative medications.

The complete chloroplast genome of the Crataegus kansuensis (Rosaceae): characterization and phylogeny

Crataegus kansuensis Wils. is an important wild eco economical species of the family Rosaceae. The complete chloroplast genome reported here is 159,865 bp in length, including two inverted repeats (IRs) of 26,384 bp, which are separated by a large single-copy (LSC) and a small single-copy (SSC) of 87,815 bp and 19,282 bp, respectively. The whole chloroplast genome of C. kansuensis contains 113 genes, including 79 protein-coding genes, 30 transfer RNA, and 4 ribosome RNA. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that C. kansuensis is closely related to that of C. chungtienensis and C. marshallii, and the genus Crataegus L. was sister to the genus Amelanchier Medik.

Caracterización e identificación de compuestos bioactivos con actividad antioxidante de la cáscara, pulpa y semilla del fruto de tejocote (Crataegus mexicana)

El tejocote (Crataegus mexicana) es una planta nativa de México. Su fruto no sólo es utilizado como alimento para el consumo humano, sino también como ornamento en celebraciones y en la medicina tradicional. A pesar de esto, se le considera un cultivo subutilizado y su aporte de compuestos con actividad antioxidante ha sido poco estudiado. El objetivo de este trabajo fue caracterizar e identificar metabolitos secundarios extraídos de las fracciones del fruto para determinar su potencial antioxidante: (1) cáscara, (2) pulpa y (3) semilla. Se cuantificó el contenido de fenoles y flavonoides totales, flavan-3-ol y proantocianidinas. Además, la actividad antioxidante de las tres fracciones fue cuantificada mediante dos métodos: (1) reducción del hierro (FRAP) e (2) inhibición del radical libre 2,2-difenil-1-picrilhidracilo (DPPH). Se identificaron los principales compuestos presentes en cada una de las fracciones a través de cromatografía de líquidos de alta resolución (HPLC). Los resultados indicaron que fue en el extracto de la semilla donde se presentó el mayor contenido de fenoles y flavonoides totales, así como el mejor potencial  antioxidante, el cual estuvo directamente relacionado con el contenido de compuestos extraídos. En las tres fracciones del fruto se registró la presencia de epicatequina, quercetina 3-D-galactósido y ácido ascórbico. Además, en semilla se identificó la catequina y vitexina, mientras que en cáscara y pulpa se observó la presencia de ácido clorogénico y procianidina B2.

Chemical composition, antibacterial activity and action mechanism of different extracts from hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida Bge.)

Present study was designed to compared the total flavonoids and polyphenols contents and antibacterial activity of hawthorn extracts with different polarities as well as the underlying antibacterial mechanisms. The results showed that among all hawthorn extracts, methanol and ethanol extracts (ME and EE) exhibited high levels of total flavonoids and polyphenols contents, followed by acetone, ethyl acetate, trichloromethane and petroleum ether extracts. ME exhibited the strongest antibacterial activity against tested bacteria, especially Staphylococcus aureus with a 1.25 μg/mL of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericide concentration (MBC). Further analysis revealed that the main phenolic compounds from ME were epicatechin (281.6 mg/100 g DW), procyanidin B2 (243.5 mg/100 g DW), chlorogenic acid (84.2 mg/100 g DW) and quercetin (78.4 mg/100 g DW). The action mechanism of ME against S. aureus could be ascribed to ME damaging cell wall and cell membrane integrity, inhibiting intracellular enzyme activity, increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS), also changing expression of associated genes and then inducing apoptosis of S. aureus. In addition, the antimicrobial activity of ME against S. aureus has also been demonstrated to be efficient in the food matrix (whole milk).

Characterization of Polysaccharides Extracted from Pulps and Seeds of Crataegus azarolus L. var. aronia: Preliminary Structure, Antioxidant, Antibacterial, α-Amylase, and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition Properties

Polysaccharides from the pulps (CAP) and seeds (CAS) of Crataegus azarolus L. var. aronia were extracted by hot water method. Both polysaccharides were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Congo red test, FT-IR spectroscopy, and their antioxidant, α-amylase, antiacetylcholinesterase, and antibacterial activities were evaluated. CAP showed the highest total carbohydrate (82.35%) and uronic acid (29.39%) contents. The Congo red test revealed the lack of triple-helical conformation for both polysaccharides. The comparison of both infrared spectra indicated similar patterns with the presence of typical bands of polysaccharides. However, the microstructure of both samples indicated differences when analyzed by SEM. CAP displayed higher antioxidant, α-amylase, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities. Besides, CAP showed the strongest antimicrobial effects against seven microorganisms and, notably, the Gram-positive bacteria. Overall, the results suggest that polysaccharides from C. azarolus L. var. aronia may be considered as novel sources of antioxidants and recommended as enzyme inhibitory agents in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity of hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha L.) flowers and fruits grown in Algeria

Background To the best of our knowledge, up to now, there are no reports on the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds of Crataegus oxyacantha flowers and fruits. Such detailed information is essential to advance the existing knowledge and to promote the use of this species growing in Africa. Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to analyze the content of phenolic compounds as well as the antioxidant activities of flowers and fruits of C. oxyacantha from Bejaia (Northeastern Algeria) by different analytical methods, and to determine the relationship between them. Methods Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of Algerian hawthorn flowers and fruits (C. oxyacantha L.) were studied. Total phenolics, flavonoids and flavonols were determined using colorimetric methods. The phenolic profile was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection, and the in vitro antioxidant activity was measured using scavenging assay (FRAP) and Fremy's salt, using electronic paramagnetic resonance. Results Different classes of phenolic compounds were identified and quantified. Hawthorn flowers contained higher levels of hydroxycinnamic acids, vitexin derivatives and flavonols compared to fruits, while anthocyanins were present only in fruits. Significant correlations were found between phenolic content and antioxidant activity. The results also showed that although the phenolic content of the two parts was different, their antioxidant capacity was not statistically different. Conclusions The results of this study indicate that hawthorn flowers and fruits of C. oxyacantha may be considered as a natural source of bioactive compounds.